ѸβˡǤϡƻʸߤȲˤľˡˤߤ褦ʿ;ѲߤޤˡߤǤϿ;Ρʤӿˤˤ餺ưϸΤΤǤˡǤ;Ρʤӿˤˤ餺ŵŪ -ed ǽľˡƱ֤Ѥޤ
äȤ⡤ͤƤߤľˡǤ3;ñߤ -(e)s ٤ǤΤǡѸǤϿ;ѲŪ˵Ȥޤbe ưϿ;ѲʣǤľˡˤƤϿ;Ρʤӿˤ˱ƸǤ is, am, are ̤졤Ǥ were, were ̤뤫ǤˡˤƤϸǤѤ be Ѥ졤ȤʤѤ were ѤޤʸǤϲˡ If I were you . . . ʤ If I was you . . . Τ褦ǽǤʸˡǤ were Ѥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤˡbe ưᤰüˤĤƤϡ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1])#3284. be ưü ([2018-04-24-1])#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1])ˤȤ
ѸˤδҤȤƤΤϡʤˡˤϾ嵭̤;ѲڤߤʤΤȤǤˡŪˤ³ˡ (subjunctive) ȸƤФΤǡϸԤѸȤäƤޤѸ to love ʱɽˤϢʤűѸư lufian ο;ѲɽʺɽˤįƤߤޤ礦
| űѸ lufian | ľˡ | ³ˡ | Ѹ love | ľˡ | ³ˡ | |||||||
| ?????? | ???? | ?????? | ???? | ?????? | ???? | ?????? | ???? | |||||
| | 1; | lufie | lufiaþ | lufie | lufien | | 1; | love | love | love | ||
| 2人称 | lufast | 2人称 | ||||||||||
| 3人称 | lufaþ | 3人称 | loves | |||||||||
| 1; | lufode | lufoden | lufode | lufoden | 1; | loved | loved | |||||
| 2人称 | lufodest | 2人称 | ||||||||||
| 3人称 | lufode | 3人称 | ||||||||||
Ѹˤ be ư줬ŪˤüưǤ뤳ȤˤĤơŪʴ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Dz⤷üŪˤС4Ĥΰۤʤ캬ʤӤȤȤ
be ưζΤʤǤܤȡw- ǻϤޤ֤Ƥ롥ľˡˤƤϿ;Ρˤä was were ̤졤³ˡʸߤβˡˤˤƤѤ were Ȥʤ롥űѸǤϡΤߤʤ餺߷ wes, wesað wesanʬ wesende ʤɤѤ줿ϸ˿षƤޤä̿βФȤƤϡ#3275. ա wassail ([2018-04-15-1]) ȡˡ
ơwas were 2ĤζϡűѸ줫鸽Ѹ˻ޤǡ;ΡˡˤäƻȤʬʤƤȤˤʤ뤬ʤ s r ǻҲۤʤäƤΤ¤ϡϱѸˤǤϤ褯ΤƤ Verner's Law (verners_law) rhotacism ΤޤΤǤ롥/s/ ϡͭ˰Ϥޤ줿ĶǤͭ /z/ Ȥʤꡤľ˶ʤĶǤ /r/ ؤѲΤǤʳפϡ#36. rhotacism ([2009-06-03-1]) ȡˡ
was, were ǤȤʤ wesan (to live, remain) ȤưϡŪ˶Ѳ5ưȤʬव뤬ϡָפ̣űѸιٸ cweðan Ʊ롥Ԥ4 cweðan -- cwæþ 1-- cwǣdon 2 -- cweden ʲʬˤȤʤ褦ˡԤ wesan -- wæs 1-- wǣron 2ˤȤʤʲʬϷ»Hogg and Fulk 246)
ݥȤϡűѸľˡޤˤƤϿ;Ρˤä wæs, wǣre, wǣron Ȥʬ졤s r ¸Ƥ³ˡޤˤƤϿ;ΤǤꡤñʤ wæreʣʤ wæren Ȥ褦 r ʤäǤ롥ľˡ³ˡ̯ʺۤߤˤޤǶƤꡤʤ *If I WAS a bird ǤϤʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤȤȤˤʤʡ#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1]) ȡˡ
ߤСۤܤ٤ƤưǤϷŪʶ̤Ƥޤäľˡ³ˡޤˡָˡ̤ƤΤϡbe ưˤΤĤƤ was were λҲΰ㤤椨ʤΤǤ롥űѸ Verner's Law rhotacism ȤäȤѲΤΤʤ뵻Ȥ櫓
ʤ嵭狼Ȥꡤbe ưϤĤƤ12ζ̤ĤͣưǤ롥䡤sing βȤơեޥˤ sang ȸʤ饤եޥˤ sung ȸѸüԤΤäƤ뤬Ϥ̣Ǥ12ʸűѸȤ̤ΤǤϤ뤬˶̤ƤȤʤʤʡ#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1]) ȡˡ
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
20ǯۤɤδ֤ˡ֥ȸ첾 ("the Celtic hypothesis") ˴ؤ븦椬ƤѸϸðʳˤƤ⡤ͤƤʾˡ֥ƥδظǤ륱Ƚ줫鶯ƶƤȤ1δظƶȤäƤ褤cf. #1342. ظƶؤȽ ([2012-12-29-1])ˡŪˤʤäƤŪˤɤΤ褦ʹ¤Ūʸबȸ줫αƶȤߤʤƤΤƤߤ褦ʲDurkin (87--90) ˤڤˤ뤬Durkin Ȥ⥱ȸ첾ФƤϤȲŪ٤Ƥ뤳ȤҤ٤Ƥ
űѸˤ be ư bēon ̤ȿꡤ³Ѥˡ륺 be ư줬¸ߤ롥
-self κƵ̾ȯãcf. #1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1])
be + -ing οʹԷ¤ȯã
do ѤŪ¤ (do-periphrasis) ȯã
ŪͭԹ¤ŪͭԹ¤ؤΰܹ (ex. he as a pimple on the nose he has a pimple on his nose)
"Northern Subject Rule" ȯãcf. #689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])
ط줢뤤ܿ٤
it Ѥʬʸ (cleft sentence) ȯã (ex. It was a bike that he bought (not a car).) ʤեбʬʸ⥱ȸαƶȤȤ (Durkin 87)
/f/ /v/, /θ/ /ð/ βŪΩȯãݻcf. #3386. Ѹ˾μפʻҲѲ ([2018-08-04-1]) 2ܡ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
Ѹ ago ϡŵŪ˴֤ɽ魯ɽθˤơ?ˡפɽ魯a moment ago, a little while ago, some time ago, many years ago, long ago ʤɤѤ롥
ago ϸ츻Ūˤϡư go Ƭ a- դư ago ʡԻղ롤в᤹ˤβʬ agone ҲäΤǤ롥פˡmany years ago Ȥ many years (are) (a)gone ΤȤǤꡤbe Ȥưβʬ agone ʸ agoˤȤ߹蘆äơֲǯ⤬вᤷȤפȴλäƤΤȹͤФ褤
OED ago, v. 3ˤϡ"intransitive. Of time: to pass, elapse. Chiefly (now only) in past participle, originally and usually with to be." ȤꡤϽűѸȤᤤʳʸڤƤ롥2ĵƤ
eOE Anglo-Saxon Chron. (Parker) Introd. Þy geare þe wæs agan fram Cristes acennesse cccc wintra & xciiii uuintra.
OE West Saxon Gospels: Mark (Corpus Cambr.) xvi. 1 Sæternes dæg wæs agan [L. transisset].
Τ褦 be λʸȯãɽȤ³뤦 be άǡ?ˡפ̣Ȥƺʬ (reanalysis) 졤ˤĤʤˡȯãƤΤȻפ롥̤θСΩʬ칽ʸ many years (being) ago(ne) ȤȯãƤȤȤ館Ƥ褤ˡνФϡOED ago, adj. and adv. ˤС14ȾΤȤǤ롥Ĥǽ褦
c1330 (?c1300) Guy of Warwick (Auch.) l. 1695 (MED) It was ago fif ȝer Þat he was last þer.
c1415 (c1395) Chaucer Wife of Bath's Tale (Lansd.) (1872) l. 863 I speke of mony a .C. ȝere a-go.
?c1450 tr. Bk. Knight of La Tour Landry (1906) 158 (MED) It is not yet longe tyme agoo that suche custume was vsed.
MED Ǥ agōn v. 5, 6 㤬˭٤˵ƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
ֹԤפ go Ǥꡤ?ȤפȤиΰ̣ϸߴλhave + ʬפɽ魯ȤȤǤС?˹ԤäȤפ̤˹ͤ have gone to . . . ȤʤꤽŪˤ have been to . . . ǤȽϻ⤺äԻĤ˻פäƤե졼ȤơʸȤƤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤȸʹƤΤǡʾμϤƤʤäƹͤƤߤơϤǤ롥
have gone to . . . ϡֹԤäȤפȤиǤϤʤֹԤäƤޤäʤη̡ˤϤʤˡפȤ̤ΰ̣ˤʤȡФи롥顤ߴληиˡȷˡηХåƥʤ褦Ԥˤ϶̤줿 have been to . . . ѤΤȤΩǤ롥Ϥ٤ޤǼǤ롥ʸ "blocking" ȤǤƤ֤٤Τ褦ʶŪĵǽŪϡɥۥåΤ餤褦˻פ롥1ĤεǽФ1Ĥηб褦ȤΰŪظˤĤƤǤȤƤ⡤ηʤȤ櫓 have been to . . . ǤʤФʤʤäΤȤ̤ˤĤƤϡҥȤͿƤʤޤꥫѸˤ¤Ȥơhave gone to . . . иΰ̣ɽ魯⤢롥ȤС (568) I took a scuba course in college and I've gone a few times to the Caribbean. ʤʸƤ
ŪˤҤȤе䤬ä뤫ȤСȤϤñǤϤʤ褦ΤȤʾʤȤˤϡ餷ΤϸФƤʤˤλ¤ͿСߤ餫ѤäƤ롥ȤΤϡ⤽?˹ԤäȤפ̣ have been to . . . ȤŪ18λʪǤꡤˤѤƤʤä褦ʤ18˸줿ΤƤʤȤ櫓ηФ뤳ȤˤʤäΤ϶ŪѸؤǤϤʤ̻Ū˱ѸؤǤ롥
OED be, v. 8c ˡˡ夲Ƥ롥
c. With to and a noun: to have been present (in a place, esp. for some purpose, or at an event or special occasion); to have gone to visit (and returned from) a place.
Apparently rare before the second half of the 18th cent. (when it occurs frequently in the usage of Fanny Burney).
1712 R. Laurence Bishop of Oxford's Charge Consider'd §xlviii. 73 Publickly Baptiz'd a Child in the Meeting-house; which was carried thither in as great Form and Order, as if it had been to Church.
1763 F. Brooke Hist. Lady Julia Mandeville I. 178 We have been to the parish church, to hear Dr. H. preach.
1773 F. Burney Early Diary (1889) I. 186 She had been to these rehearsals.
1778 F. Burney Evelina I. xvii. 115 Miss will think us very vulgar..to live in London, and never have been to an Opera.
1802 C. Wilmot Irish Peer on Continent (1920) 39 We have been to the Opera Buffa or the Italian Opera.
1829 R. Sharp Diary 21 June (1997) 209 This understrapping Parson of ours has been to Cambridge the last week to vote for who? why for Mr. Bankes.
1892 E. Reeves Homeward Bound 205 Hadji is his title, and means that he has been to Mecca.
1902 Westm. Gaz. 25 Aug. 2 His Majesty has been to Westminster Abbey, and the Crystal Palace,..and Madame Tussaud's.
1915 T. S. Eliot Let. 3 Jan. (1988) I. 77 I have just been to a cubist tea.
1977 J. Lees-Milne Diary 27 Sept. in Through Wood & Dale (2001) 195 I have not been to the lav since I left Salonika on Friday.
2007 S. Worboyes Lipstick & Powder iii. 91 This wasn't the first time she had been to the flat so she knew where everything was kept.
ˤȤꡤ18Ⱦ Fanny Burney (1752--1840) ˤѤȤˡμ¼ŪȤʤä褦ϺɤƤɬפꤽˤ衤Ū be ȡưӤŪϤްդưŪ to ȤľܷӤĤȤ´Ϥ̤ʤ̤βȤơ߲Ƥʤ go ˴ꤻʤΤǤϤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ
ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ
ε#3576. ͱѸ (= AAVE) θŪħ --- ȯ ([2019-02-10-1]) ˰³McArthur ˰͵ AAVE θŪħˤĤơʸˡܤ롥
(1) ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬¿̤Ѥ롥No way no girl can't wear no platform shoes to no amusement park.
(2) ¸߹ʸ there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It ain't no food here.
(3) ʣͭʷ3ñ -s -ed ʤɤά뤳Ȥ롥He got three cent. / That's my brother book. / She like new clothes. / They talk all night.
(4) ʸ֤ʤʤȤ롥What it is? / How you are?
(5) be ư do Ѥ뤳Ȥ롥It don't all be her fault.
(6) be νˡThey be fightin. / He be laughing.
(7) Τ been ˤνŪʹ٤ɽ魯I béen see dat movie. / She béen had dat hat.
(8) ˾ a ˤջ֤ɽ魯I'm a shoot you. (= I'm going to shoot you.)
(9) steady ʹԷ֤䡤ʸΰ֤ˤƶȼäŪʰ̣ɽ魯We be steady rappin. / We steady be rappin. / We be rappin stéady. (= We are always talking.) / They steady be high. / They be stady high. / They be high stéady.. (= They are always intoxicated.)
(10) Come ˽ưȤѤ롥He come tellin me some story. (= He told me a lie.) / They come comin in here like they own de place. (= They came in here like they owned the place.)
(11) like ֤ۤȤɡפΰ̣ŪѤ롥I like to die(d). (= I almost died.) / He like to hit his head on that branch. (= He almost hit his head on that branch.)
ΤˤΤ褦ʱѸäС狼ϤʸʹʤȻפ롥ۤʤȤۤɤεΥǤϤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥AAVE ΰ֤ŤǮӤӤ櫓
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ε ([2019-02-05-1]) ³ain't ˤĤơϤε˴ؤ뤤ĤҲ𤷤褦
Ҥ٤褦 ain't ϡam not, isn't, aren't ΤѤȤƤѤ뤳Ȥ顤Τ줫˵ĤȹͤΤɸŪ3ĤΤ줫ȯãȲꤹ硤n Ҳξü˴ؤȡ1첻 /eɪ/ ˴ؤ褷ʤФʤʤ줬ʤʤ
1;ñ I б ain't ˴ؤƤϡCrystal (35) ϡŪ amn't, amna, amnae, ammot, am't ʤɤλҲæˤΤȤߤƤ롥
. . . from the sixteenth century on, we see forms dropping the m appear---first an't, then ain't, again with many regional variants such as een't in Suffolk, yunt in Worcestershire, yent in Berkshire, ant in New England, and ent in African-American usage.
ˡOED be, v. Ƥߤȡ츻2.1˾ܤҤ롥ˤȡain't ϡamn't ȯãȤǽ⤢뤬aren't ⡤ isn't ƱͤȯãȤƤ롥
The forms an't and ain't, when functioning as 1st singular, perhaps represent a contraction of am with the negative particle rather than levelling from the 2nd singular and plural (i.e. corresponding to aren't with simplification of final consonant group; compare discussion of ain't below and see discussions in E. J. Dobson Eng. Pronunc. 1500-1700 (ed. 2, 1968) II. §238, W. N. Francis in Focus on: Eng. & Wales (1985) 141-151; a third possible source (for ain't) is by compensatory lengthening after loss of s from isn't; compare discussion of en't at Forms 2c(iv)ζ). However, if so, an't and ain't were subsequently reanalysed as equivalent to are not, and the spelling aren't superseded an't in standard English, leading to avoidance not only of I aren't but also of aren't I by some speakers of current English. A similar problem arises with the early modern English form wan't, which when used for the singular, may represent either a contraction of was with not or show levelling of a variant of weren't. Compare also the concurrent development of similar contracted forms shan't (contracted form of SHALL v.) and han't, hain't, ain't (contracted forms of HAVE v.).
;ΤȤ˾ʬȯãõȤȤɬפ⤷ʤޤҲϡξˤæפդ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ첻ˤĤƤѶŪʥȤϤʤǤȤñ˰۷ǤȤΤ褦ǺѤޤƤ礬¿褦Ϥꡤain't ŪǤ롥
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
be ư1֤Ȥ ain't 롥ɸŪȤߤʤ뤬ǤϤФѤ롥am not, aren't, isn't Τˤ뤿ᡤȿθʤ̣ǡ̴Τ褦ʡ be ưη֤Ǥ롥 be ưˤȤɤޤ餺have not, has not ɸŪʰ۷ȤƤѤ졤¤˼ϰϤͱѸ졤 AAVE Ǥϡdon't, doesn't, didn't ѤȤʤꡤǽ be ưȤƤ ain't äʤ롥
ain't ɸŪȤƤꡤλѤϵŪΩ줫뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ϶ܤ͡δ֤ǤѤ졤Ȥ櫓1;ñε am I not? ȤƤ ain't I ϵƤٹ礤⤤ (ex. I'm going too, ain't I?) ޤ100ǯۤˤϡήǤ̤ѤƤݤ Crystal (35) ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Today, ain't is considered non-standard, but it's widespread throughout the English-speaking world---probably used far more often than the standard equivalent---and a century ago it was actually acceptable upper-class speech, turning up frequently in the novels of the period. Here's the lawyer Mr Wharton arguing with his sister-in-law over his daughter's future, in Anthony Trollope's The Prime Minister (1875): 'I ain't thinking of her marrying'. And towards the end of the novel the Duke of Omnium himself asks someone: 'I hope you ain't cold'.
ain't 18Ⱦ깭ѤƤ뤬εˤĤƤϽ⤢롥Ūˡ˴ؤƤ⡤̻Ūȯã˴ؤƤ¿̥ŪʥȥԥåǤ롥Ϣ American Heritage Dictionary Notes ꡤain't ȡ
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
1549ǯThomas Crammer Ի The Book of Common Prayer ʵˤ˽Ф1552ǯˤϡβǤФƤ롥εΰѸȤʤäƤΤ1539ǯ the Great Bible Ǥ롥褽1塤Ŵ1662ǯˡǤεǤ줿ߤ̤ѤƤ뤳οǤϡ1611ǯ the King James Bible ˴ŤƤꡤŪˤϤषݼŪǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ1552ǯǤ1662ǯǤε٤ƤߤȡԤΤۤǯȤƤ100ǯ;٤ˤ⤫餺ŪˤԤŤħȤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤԤͽ̤ꡤ꿷ħƤ⤢ʣ
Gramley (144) ϡNevalainen (1998) θȤʤ顤5ʸˡܤӤƤ롥
| feature | 1552 | 1662 |
|---|---|---|
| 3rd person singular ending | mixed {-th} and {-s} | reversion to {-th} |
| 2nd person singular personal | thou/thee but some ye/you | largely a return to thou/thee |
| nominative ye/you | both ye and you | largely a return to ye |
| nominative which/who | 56 who vs. 129 which | 172 who vs. 13 which |
| present tense plural be/are | 52 are vs. 105 be | 125 are vs. 32 be |
be ư줬üưǤ뤳ȤϡƸޤǤʤ褦˻פ롥¾ưˤʤ褦ʣʶޤŪˤϼ¤ˤؤƤưºݤˡ#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 ([2018-04-19-1]) 3ܤˤ褦ˡbe ư¿αѸؽԤ˷㤷֤ʤפ
be ư˼ٹˤä Crystal The Story of Be ν (p. xi--xii) Ǥϡbe ưüƤ롥
(1) be ưϡѸ¾Τư¿ͤѲġwalk ʤ walk, walks, walked, walked 4ΰۤʤgo ʤ go, goes, going, gone, went 5ΰۤʤbe Ǥ be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been 8ब̤롥ŪˤСbe ¿ܤΤۤɤǤ롥
(2) ٤Ƥ¾ưǤϡ߷ˤͭɸη֤ĤΤ3;ñ -s Τߤbe ưǤϾ嵭Τ褦123;ΤΤ줾ˤưۤʤ֤
(3) be ǤϡΤȯ (be, been) ȶΤʤȯ (bi, bin, bn) ̤롥
(4) ܸŪ̾³ơtwas (< it was), wast (< was it) Τ褦ͻ礹롥ޤyou're, I'm, aren't, weren't ʤɤνƱͤνΤϡۤ have do ΤߤǤ (ex. hasn't, don't)
(5) be ư3Ĥ˰ۤʤʸˡǽġ1ܤˡ¸ߤפ̣ưȤơ2ܤ˿ʹԷư֤ưȤơ3ܤϢ (copula) ȤƤǤ롥¾ưǤޤ¿̤ʵǽͭΤϤʤ
Crystal ϡǡ
It is thus hardly surprising to find that, over the past 1,500 years, be has developed a wide range of meanings and uses, and a wider range of variant forms than any other English verb. It is the second most frequent word in English, after the. If any verb deserves its own story, it is this one.
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
ǯ٤ؤDZѸ˳ιֵϤޤäĤˤϱѸΡѤʵפƤ뤬Ф¿γʣ䤬롥褽ܥ֥ΤɤDzäꤷƤΤǡȤ櫓ܤդ3ĤΡѤʵפˤĤơñʥȤդϢ֥ؤΥĥäƤ
ΡѤʵ1ϡѸΥե٥åȤϤʤ A, B, C . . . Z Ȥ¤ӽˤʤäƤΤ
ǤСѸ줬ƥ줫饢ե٥åȤڤꤿȤˡ褽¤ӽä顥ơΥƥϥꥷ줫饢ե٥åȤڤꤿȤˡ褽¤ӽä顥ˡΥꥷϡ³ƤȡǽŪˤϵ1700ǯ̥ɽΥե٥åȤ褽¤ӽä顤ȤȤˤʤ롥ǤϡθΥե٥åȤˤ¤ӽϤȤСʤʤդʲεȡ
#2105. Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤ ([2015-01-31-1])
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1])
#1833. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (2) ([2014-05-04-1]
ΡѤʵ2ϡʤ eleven, twelve ϡ*oneteen, *twoteen ʤɤǤϤʤΤ
Ѹ°륲ޥɤˤ12ˡäȤͿ롥12ˡηϤȡ˥ꥹȶȤȤˤ⤿餵줿ȹͤ10ˡηϤͤ緿οηϤǤäȤΤ˴ؤƤŪʻǤϤ뤬ʲεȡ
#2286. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. ([2015-07-31-1])
#2304. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. (2) ([2015-08-18-1])
#2473. եˤߤ20ˡλ ([2016-02-03-1])
#2477. Ѹˤߤ20ˡλ ([2016-02-07-1])
#2491. եˤߤ20ˡε ([2016-02-21-1])
#2474. ˤθס ([2016-02-04-1])
ΡѤʵ3ϡʤ be ư is, am, are ۤ͡ʷȤʬʤФʤʤΤ
űѸǤ be ư˸¤餺̤ư줬ʸˡỤ̄Ū˱ưۤʤ˳ѤʤФʤʤäˤˤƤΤ褦ʳѤ˼졤ߤ˻롥ĶٸǤ be ư˸¤äƤϡŤѤʤ褯ݤƤ롥äơѤʵѸŪʴѥե졼ȡ֤ʤ be ưʳǤ͡ʷüƤޤäΤפȤʤ롥ʲȡ
#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])
#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1])
碌ơرѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡΡ4.2ᡡʤ If I were a bird ȤʤΤפ⻲
4ϿεȤȤǡꡥwassail /ˈwɒseɪl, ˈwɑːsl/ Ȥϡ̾Ȥơ֡ʼ˥ꥹޥΡ˽ˤμפưȤơּ롨ǽˤפ̣롥ˤϡϤʤ be ư̿ŪޤƤCrystal 21 ȡˡ
űѸǤδդΰϡ꤬ñξˤ wes hal "(you (sg.)) be in good health"꤬ʣξˤ wesað hale "(you (pl.)) be in good health" ȸäwes wesað ϡߤǤϻȤƤʤ be ưΰ wesan 2;̿ʤ줾ñʣˤǤcf. #2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])ˡhal(e) ϡѸǡַʡʡפɽ魯 whole hale θűѸǤꡤСפȤƤӤб hail ȤƱǤcf. #1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1])ˡűѸΥȥʡǤϡLuke 1.28 ŷȤޥꥢФ Hal wes ðu Ȱս꤬롥
ѸǤ wesan be ư̿ϾüƤäδդɽ wassail ȤƸ경֤Ĥäʤwassail Ф֤ΰϡdrinkhail Ǥ롥
ťΥɸˤƱɽ ves heill ꡤѸɽθ츻ȤƤϤषθťΥɸαƶ礭Ȥ뤬ߤ wassail ϤˤŪʥꥹδդλȤΤƤ롥
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
ʸˡΡֲˡפˤƤϡ if ΤʤưβѤΤ§Ǥ롥βȤϡŪˤľˡβƱΤΤѤФ褤1Ĥ㳰롥ɸΤ褦˼줬1;ñξ硤뤤3;ñξˤϡľˡ was ѤȤˡˡǤ were ѤʤФʤʤʸѸθˤƤ was Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ʸˡǤ were §ǤˡϤʤ
äȤñΤǤС줬űѸˤ³ˡ13;ñζäǤʸΡֲˡפΤűѸǤϡ³ˡ (subjunctive) ȸƤ֡ˡ
ε#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) ǷǤűѸ bēon ζɽǡSubjunctive Preterite ƤߤȡñǤϿ;Τˤ餺 wǣre ѤƤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸ ġif ic wǣre . . . ʤɤȸäƤ餳ѸǤ if I were . . . ʤΤǤ롥
ѸǤϡۤȤɤξ硤ˡη֤ȤơҤΤ褦ľˡη֤ΤޤѤФ褤ˡä˰ռƲˡζɽľˡȶ̤ƳФɬפʤŪˤľˡʲˤȲˡʲˤϵǽŪˤŪˤΤ˶̤٤ۤʤηϤǤꡤơư˴ؤˡ˱ۤʤȶɽѰդƤȤˤΤʤǶοʿŪ䤬Ѥbe ưʳΤ٤Ƥư˴ؤ³ˡľˡƱȤʤäͣ줫ĤƤηŪʶ̤ݻӤƤΤ be äȤȤǤ롥¸μ礿ͳϡbe ޤ˹٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ
ɸΡ֤ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤפȤ䤤ϡѸζŪʴϼѤʵȤ롥Ѹˤδ䤤ΩľΤǤС֤ʤˤ be ưʳΤ٤Ƥưˤ³ˡľˡƱȤʤäΤפ٤Ǥ롥
ѸǺǤʣʶޤưȤСbe ưǤ롥ޤ˿षƤ븽ѸˤäơޤʣݤäƤͣưޤ٤⤹ơԵ§ʤΥѥबĤäƤޤäΤ
űѸˤƤ⡤ζޤοθȤƤ⡤be ưζޤϤϤʣäʲˡűѸ bēon ȸѸ be ζɽǤ褦 (Hogg and Fulk 309)

餫˰ۤʤ캬ͳ褹η֤ޤäơɽƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Сbe ưζɽ佼ˡ (suppletion) κǤǤ롥be ϡӸŪˤ "athematic verb" ȸƤФư1ĤǤꡤΤʤǤǤʣˤɤäƤHogg and Fulk (309--10) ˤСűѸ bēon ν֤Ϥ餯4Ĥθ캬̤롥
1ܤϡPIE *Hes- ͳ褹ΤǡűѸ첻뤤 s ǻϤޤ֤ȿǤƤs ǻϤޤΤϡ *Hs- ͳ褹롨 cf. ƥ sumˡ
2ܤϡPIE *bhew(H)- ͳ褷űѸǤ b ǻϤޤ֤ȿǤcf. ƥ fuī 'I have been'ˡűѸǤϡηϽŪ뤤̤δްդȼȤ¿ä
3ܤϡPIE *wes- ̤ꡤűѸʤƸѸ˻ޤǡˤǤϤäѤη֤ȤѤ롥϶Ѳ5ưǤꡤ߷äƤűѸޤǤ˲˸ꤵ줿
4ܤϡűѸľˡ2;ñ eart ٤Ȥ PIE *er- ꤵƤcf. ƥ orior 'I rise' Ʊ캬ˡ
be ưΥѥϡűѸ褢٤ϴάƤΤΡʤĹˤΤʤݤ줿ʣϷߤǤ롥
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ȡ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) Ǽ夲AAVE (African American Vernacular English) ȤϥꥫѸ1ѼȤƤΤͱѸ (Black English) ؤ"Black" "African-American" θƾΤդ路ΤȩοŪʵ˾ƤۤŬڤǤ뤫顤"Vernacular English" θƾΤդ路ΤϡɸѸ (Standard English) ФɸѸ (Non-Standard English or Substandard English) ȸƤ֤ΤϤͥްդƤޤǤ롥Ūˤ AAVE Ȥ̾Τ夷Ƥ롥
AAVE ˤϡʸˡܤ˸¤äƤ⡤ɸѸ˸ʤħ¿ǧ롥ΤȤƤϡʼȤͤˤää˥ꥫ䡤ֳߤαѸȤ륯쥪ȶᤤħȤ롥ꥹ˵ĤȹͤΤʸˡܤ⤢롥Ūˤϰʲ˼ͤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤AAVE ʸˡŪħȤεä2Ĥ⤬ΩƤ롥ߡꥫѸѼ˴ؤȤƤϡܤƤ1ĤȤäƤ褤
1ܤβ Creolist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥ѸեꥫνȤ̤Ȥޤ줿쥪졤뤤ϤѸѼ郎AAVE εǤȤ줬ɸѸȤܿݤĤʤǡɸѸؤȶŤƤĤޤæ쥪벽 (decreolization) ƤȹͤƤ롥ˤȡꥫ AAVE ƤΤϡԤԤ˱ƶͿ롥AAVE ħŪʸùܤΤʤˤϡvoodoo ʥ֡ɥ, pinto ʴ, goober ʥԡʥåġˤʤեꥫͳ褹Τ¿βؤɤȤʤäƤ롥
2ܤβ Anglicist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥AAVE ħεϥꥹ礫⤿餵줿ѸѼˤȤǤ롥ꥫǹѼѼ郎ۤʤΤϡ300ǯˤ錄ˤΤʤǤ줾줬ȼθѲ뤲ǤꡤξѼߤܿŪʤäǤ롥ѻ߸ιͤذ̱ȡԻԤǤϹѼѼȤκۤݤäưռ졤줾̱²ѼȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤä
Τ褦2ĤβϱԤΩƤ뤬ܤӤƤ AAVE μ礿ʸˡŪħ7褦
(1) 3ñ -s ηǡAAVE üԤ¿ϡhe go, it come, she like ʤ -s Τʤ֤Ѥ롥ѸȤԥ䥯쥪ƱݤߤȤǤ Creolist Hypothesis ͭǥɤ East Anglia ǤƱħߤȤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ˤ⸫ߤ롥Ϣơ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ⻲ȡ
(2) ߷ˤϢ (copula) be ηǡShe real nice. They out there. He not American. If you good, you going to heaven. Τ褦ʹʸϢξάϡ¿θǤߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ֳΥ쥪ŵŪǤȤ Creolist Hypothesis μĥǤ롥ꥹˤϰڤߤʤħǤꡤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ϻٻʤ
(3) Ѥ beɸѼΤ褦ˡis, am, are ʤɤȿ;Ѳ be Ȥ롥He usually be around. Sometime she be fighting. Sometime when they do it, most of the problems always be wrong. She be nice and happy. They sometimes be incomplete. ʤɡ(2) Ϣ be ηǡ̷⤹褦ˤߤ뤬be ѤΤϽ (habitual aspect) ɽ魯ȤǤꡤbe ǡȤΩ롥Ѥ be Τ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬줬ôäƤȤΤ AAVE ͭǤ롥He busy right now. Sometime he be busy. ˴ؤʸˡŪΩƤꡤΩɸѸɽʤСHe's busy right now. Sometimes he's busy. Τ褦ʶˤѤʤ쥪Ǥϻ (tense) (aspect) ʸˡƥȤͥ褵뤳Ȥ¿ᡤѤ be Creolist Hypothesis ˤȤäͭʺȤ롥ˤĤƤСAAVE ǤϡۤˤɸѸŪ I have talked. I had talked. Ȥä˲äλ I done talked. I been talked. Τ褦ߤ롥
(4) 2ܤι¤ˤƽưΤߤά뷹ɸѸǤ We were eating --- and drinking too. Τ褦2ܤǤ we are ޤ뤴ȾάΤ̤AAVE Ǥ¿Υ쥪Ʊͤ are άWe was eatin' --- an' we drinkin', too. ȤΤ̤Ǥ롥
(5) ܵʸˤư֡I asked Mary where did she go. I want to know did he come last night. ʤɡ
(6) ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It's a boy in my class name Joey. It ain't no heaven for you to go to. ʤɡ
(7) ư֡ʿʸȤʿʸΥȥ͡ǡDoesn't nobody know that it's a God. Cant't nobody do nothing about it. Wasn't nothing wrong with that. ʤɡ
1980ǯޤǤγسˤƤ Creolist Hypothesis ͥäʻ¤Τ褦ˤʤˤĤ졤٤Ƥ Creolist Hypothesis DzǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤʤäƤ㤨С AAVE ȤƥꥫذܽĤ㤬 Nova Scotia (Canada) Samaná (Dominican Republic) ǸߤäƤѼϡν AAVE ħ¿¸Ƥ뤳Ȥͽۤ뤬Ѥ be ʤɤηŪħ礤Ƥ롥ϡ AAVE ŪħAAVE νäƤΤǤϤʤŪ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ߽Ф
ޤdo otherwise ȤѤˡ AAVE ˤ뤬ɤ East Anglia ˤƱˡꡤ줬ǤȹͤʤAAVE Dat's a thing dat's got to be handled just so, do it'll kill you. East Anglia You lot must have moved it, do I wouldn't have fell in. Ӥ줿
ʳȻפͤϡCreolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ŪΩ벾ǤϤʤȤ߹碌ƤȤ館٤ȤȤǤ롥줾βˤäƤŪʤħ⤢СξԤȤȤʤꤦ褦ħ⤢롥ޤºݤˤϴͿƤʤ褦ħ⤢뤫⤷ʤñ˵ƤޤȤϡष
ʾ塤Trudgill (51--60) ȤƼɮ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1]) ǡѰư (mutative verb) ϡ18ޤǡ̾ be + ʬȤǴλäƤȤѸˤǤϡ be λ18դ˿ΰӤɤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤƤ롥#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 CLMET3.0 ϡ1710--1920ǯС3,400줫ʤ緿ХѥǤꡤμθѲɤˤϺŬʥȻפΤǡѤ be λοǧƤߤ
ϡεǤ夲7ĤѰư (arrive, become, come, fall, flee, grow; go) ˸ꤷCLMET3.0 3Ĥλʬ (1710--1780, 1780--1850, 1850--1920) 6ĤΥʬ (Narrative fiction, Narrative non-fiction, Drama, Letters, Treatise, Other) ˤäơѥä3ĤλΥ֥ѥεϤϤ褽Ʊ٤̤Υ֥ѥϡ[2013-10-20-1]ɽǼ褦ˡNarrative fiction 礭ФäƤΤǡβˤդפ롥ʲ(1)--(7) ˳ư˴ؤܤѤ߾夲ա(8), (9) 7ưҤä̡ư̤ΥѤ߾夲դ(1)--(6) ˤĤƤϡӤΤYκͤ·Ƥ롥ǡեɽϥHTMLȤ줿

ưˤäƿΥԡɤ˼㴳ΰ㤤ߤ뤬ΤȤƵ˿षȤϡŪ䤫ˡ¤˿षƤäȤݤ롥(7) go ϡʸѸǤ be gone ǥಽƻĤäƤ뤳Ȥʬ褦ˡ˸ѸˤϤۤǤ餺¾ư礭äƤ뤿ˡ(8) (9) ˼褦 be λο¿ʤȤĤƤ뤳Ȥˤդɬפ롥
Ѹǡbe + ưβʬפŵŪ˼ư֤빽¤Ѱư (mutative verb) Ǥϴλɽ魯
The cookies are all gone.
All my lectures are finished.
The sun is set.
How he is grown up!
Babylon is fallen.
Everything is changed.
ŪˤϤʸ gone finished ʤɤϷƻȹͤƤꡤλɽ魯칽¤ΰȤϤȤ館Ƥʤbe have Ѥ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤbe λǤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤˼Ūʹ¤Ȥ虜ʤbe have Ωˤϡbe λϾ֤ɽ路have λϹ٤ɽ魯Ȥ롥be λϤΤ褦λξ֤ǤϤ뤬#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1])#1347. a lawyer turned teacher ([2013-01-03-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬƻˡΤʤˤ̮̿ݤäƤ롥ʲbe λˤرѸIIIA (432--33) ˵äƳ⤷褦
Ѹˤ be λϸűѸ鹭롥űѸǤϡư졤Ȥ櫓ѰưˤĤ wē sindon ȝecumene Τ褦ʹ¤ϰŪäűѸˤʤȡ褯褦ˡhave + Ū + ʬעhave + ʬ + ŪפθѲФ have λʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ¾ư̤˹äǤᤤλ have λϤޤ˼ưˤĥƤΤǡbe λƤ椯ˤϤǤ˻ϤޤäƤȤ⤤롥Ѱư be λϡθ18Ⱦ˻ޤͥݤäƤ18ˤʤäƤ褦䤯be have ̤ͥϤȤȤʤäˤ be λ֤ɽ路Ƥ褦ˡŪˤ֤ɽ魯ˡäǹ٤ɽ魯ˡ⾯ʤʤäŪʾ֤ˡϡѸˤƳΩΤǤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤλΥʥåץåȤƤߤ褦ʲϡFridén ˤ롤Spenser ʡMarlowe 5ʡShakespeare ʤоݤˤ7Ĥμư (come, go, arrive, fall, flee; become, grow) ˤĤơbe λ have λʬۤĴΤǤ롥ʤɽʤ 's ϡhas 뤤 is Τ줫ܷ (enclitic) ؤɽϡG. Fridén. Studies on the tenses of the English Verb from Chaucer to Shakespeare: With Special Reference to the Late Sixteenth Century. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri Ab., 1948. Rpr. Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1973. ˴ŤرѸIIIA١p. 432 ꡥ
| ư | come | go | arrive | fall | flee | become | grow | ||||||||||||||
| Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | |
| be | 92 | 88 | 78 | 91 | 95 | 79 | 92 | 89 | 83 | 67 | 67 | 65 | 65 | 67 | 82 | 86 | 50 | 90 | 100 | 89 | 90 |
| have | 8 | 6 | 13 | 9 | 0 | 9 | 8 | 11 | 11 | 33 | 33 | 27 | 35 | 0 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 11 | 3 |
| 's | 0 | 6 | 9 | 0 | 5 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 33 | 11 | 7 | 50 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 7 |
ѸǺǤԵ§ʶޤưϲϡbe ưǤ롥Τ˸ѸΤ٤ƤưϿ;Ρˡˤޤ뤬ʬϵ§Ū˶ޤ뤷Ե§ʶޤΤǤ顤ۤʤˤμϺǤ4ĤǤ ( ex. have, has, had ) Ȥbe ˴ؤƤϡ˸¤äƤ is, am, are, was, were 5̤롥ˤ3;ñʳθ߷ȰۤʤĤΤ⡤be ưΤߤǤ롥Ǥ٤ι⤤ưǤꡤϢ (copula) ȤüʵǽôưʤĽưˤǤ⤢Τǡbe Ūˤ㳰ŪԵ§Ǥ뤳ȤԻĤǤϤʤ
Ѹ̤Сbe ưζޤˤѰۤʲϡBurrow and Turville-Petre (36--37) ˵ƤѸ2 be ζɽǤ롥줾 (Ancrene Wisse) (Gawain) ΥѥǤ롥
| Acnrene Wisse | Gawain | |
|---|---|---|
| infinitive | beon | be, bene |
| present indicative | ||
| sg. 1 | am, beo | am |
| sg. 2 | art, bist | art |
| sg. 3 | is, bið | is, betz |
| pl. | beoð | ar(n), ben |
| present subjunctive | ||
| sg. | beo | be |
| pl. | beon | be(n) |
| past indicative | ||
| sg.1 | wes | watz, was |
| sg. 2 | were | watz, were |
| sg. 3 | wes | watz, was |
| pl. | weren | wer(en) |
| past subjunctive | ||
| sg. | were | wer(e) |
| pl. | weren | wer(e), wern |
| past participle | ibeon | ben(e) |
OALD8: (often ironic) the people who control an organization, a country, etc
COBUILD English Dictionary: You can refer to people in authority as the powers that be, especially when you want to say that you disagree with them or do not understand what they say or do.
Burrow, J. A. and Thorlac Turville-Petre, eds. A Book of Middle English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.
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