hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     1 2 ڡ / page 1 (2)

bre - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2022-09-29 Thu

#4903. ѸŪƽαĹˤ [world_englishes][dialectology][bre][ame][variety][map][ewave]

򺣡Ѹ (World Englishes) ˤĤƹͻꤹ뵡¿ʤäƤϱѸˤΩ줫顤Ѹ츽ݤŪƽαĹˤΤȤƤȤ館Ƥ롥ʿСѸϱѸȤơޤ1ĤǤꡤǤϱѸ˾Υꥹ䥢ꥫȰۤʤʤȤΩñŸ椬Ȥ֤Ȥ֤˳礷ǼŪʰ㤤ϤʤȤߤƤ롥
󤳤ϸǤ뤷٤ƤǤ롥Ѹ¿ȡ㤨ХꥹѸ¿٤Ȥ󤷤ƤȤϤ䤹

1. ѸˤäƤϡŸΤǤꡤ֥ƥΤߤȤϤ櫓㤦
2. ѸˤäƤϡˤȯãƤˡϩ餫¿ͤǤ롥
3. ѸˤäƤϡܿβ̤䤬ʰ㤤礭
4. ѸˤäƤϡΤߤʤ餺θɬפ롥
5. Ѹ20Ⱦ21ˤƤθŪǤ롥

5Τߵ󤲤¾ˤ⤤ȻŦ뤳ȤǤ嵭5Ϥ줾춽̣ǤϤ뤬۵Ĥ򾧤ʤ뤤ϾʤȤκƹͤ¥ˤȤƱ餤ưפǤ롥

1'. ꥹѸˤäƤϡŸϥ֥ƥΤǤꡤ󥰥ɤΤߤȤϤ櫓㤦
2'. ꥹˤäƤϡˤȯãƤˡϩ餫¿ͤǤ롥ʸűѸ줫鸽Ѹ˻ޤǥ󥰥ɽȯãä̤꤬ѤƤ롥ȯãˡϩϽʬʣ¿ͤǤ롥
3'. ꥹѸˤäƤϡܿβ̤䤬礭Ѹˤܿβ̤䤬ˡʰ㤤ˡ礭ɤϿŤʵפ롥ȤΤϡ⤽ѸˤϸܿˤȤäƤ褤ۤɤ
4'. ꥹѸˤäƤϡΤߤʤ餺θɬפ롥ʥ륺䥢ɤαѸϡȤƻϤޤȯŸƤ
5'. ꥹѸ20Ⱦ21ˤƤθŪǡ֤פ롥ʤ󡤤Ǥ⤢ä

2ĤڤʬɬפʤȼĥƤ櫓ǤϤʤѤڤʬ˵뤳ȤǤȤȤ򡤱ѸˤΩ줫Ҥ٤Ƥ补

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-09-01 Thu

#4875. īֺ¤3ֱѸˤѸ --- ƤαѸפΤ [asacul][notice][world_englishes][link][voicy][heldio][variety][ame][bre][me_dialect][dialectology]

礦1ΤȤˤʤޤ2022ǯ101ڡ15:30--18:45ˡī㡼󥿡ɶˤ4Υ꡼ֱѸˤѸפ3ֺ¡ֱƤαѸפ򳫹֤ޤ̡饤Υϥ֥åɹֺ¤ȤƳ֤ͽǤؿΤϡһä򤴸Ƥ꡼ֺ¤ǤϤޤΩֺ¤ȤʤäƤޤΤǡ12˻äƤʤ⤴¿ܺ٤Ȥߤθڡɤ3ֺ¤γפϰʲ̤Ǥ

ΡѸפ뤵ޤޤѼϡѸνȤߤ뤳ȤǤޤºݡѸˤˤϾ¿ͤʷ¸ߤ³ƤƤꡤ褷ƸͭθݤǤϤޤ󡥥ꥫѸˤ¿ꥹѸˤϤ¿ޤ⤢ޤĤޤѸפϡŪʱѸαĹˤ븽ݤʤΤǤӽжˤˤɸˤܤޤ


21Ѹ (World Englishes) ⡤Ѹˤ̤¸ߤ³ƤѸ⡤͡ʱѸνΤȤǤѤꤢޤ¿Ÿ椳֥ƥ礫鹭ϵؤȳȤäƤޤܼŪ˿ȤƤ櫓ǤϤޤ󡥸DZѸƤϡŪˤɬ̤ʤΤǤϤʤΤǤ
ȤϤ󤹤٤ƤƱ櫓Ǥ⤢ޤ󡥤Τ褦ʰƱͤ뤳ȤǡѸ츽ݤü⤭ĦˤƤȻפޤĤƤαѸ¿򿶤֤äơ2ѸǤƤν˾Ƥޤ
3ֺ¤ˤĤƤ⤦ܤΤꤿϡͽԤȤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פ̤#454. īֺ¤3ֱѸˤѸ --- ƤαѸסۿƤޤΤǡİ



꡼ֺ¤12ˤĤƤϡʲ hellog heldio Ǥ夲Ƥޤ⻲ͤޤǤˤɤ

hellog #4775. ֺ¡ֱѸˤѸ --- ѸפΥ꡼Ϥޤޤ ([2022-05-24-1])
heldio #356. Ѹ --- ī뿷ɶǡֱѸˤѸפΥ꡼Ϥޤޤ (2022/05/22)
heldio #378. īǡѸפ򳫹֤ޤ (2022/06/13)

hellog #4813. īֺ¤2ֱѸˤѸ --- ˤƱѸϳ礷ΤפΤ ([2022-07-01-1])
heldio #393. īֺ¤2ֱѸˤѸ --- ˤƱѸϳ礷Τס (2022/06/28)

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-06-12 Fri

#4064. ʤ were ϤΥڥ󥰤ǡ֥פ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ [sobokunagimon][spelling][pronunciation][be][bre][spelling_pronunciation_gap][vowel][gvs]

ε#4063. ʤ are ϤΥڥ󥰤ǡ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ ([2020-06-11-1]) ˰³Ǥwere ϡѸˡ§§äȯ here, mere, sphere ʤɤȵӱƧ [wɪə] Ȥʤ뤫뤤 ere, there, where ʤɤȵӱƧ [wɛə] դˤʤꤽǤºݤˤ [wəː] ʤɤȯޤϤʤǤ礦
ϡ are Ʊͤ were ޤĶ٤εǽȤƼ岽ȶ򷫤֤Ƥ̤ȤޤбűѸη֤ϡɸŪȤ West-Saxon wǣre wǣron Ǥcf. #2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])ˡ줬Ѹˤ [wæːrə] [wɛːrə] [wɛːr] ȵ§ŪȯãޤޤǤ there where ʤɤƱϩ򤿤ɤäƤޤ
θ were ֤ʬޤĶ٤εǽȤƤʤˤǡ岽첻û [wɛr] Ȥʤޤ -er ¿θ­¤ߤ·첻§Ūȯã[wə] Ȥʤޤߡ夯ȯȤȯ [wə] ǤȤ˿˶Ĺˤȯޤ졤ߤ̾ȯ [wəː] 夷Ȥ櫓Ǥ (Jespersen (130; 4.432))
ˤΤʳ were there where ֤ʬäȽҤ٤ޤ¤ɬ⤽ä櫓ǤϤޤ֤ʬȯãȤܤthere where ȵӱƧ [wɛə] ȯ⡤ޥʡȤϤߤǤԤʤƤ뤫ǤLPD Preference poll ˤȡȯϡꥹѸǶȤƻѤ6%ȤǤϤޤΤ˹ԤʤƤ뤳Ȥ狼ޤʢ⥤ꥹںˤȯ褯İޤˡ

Pronunciation of

εΥʬ were ˴ؤƷ֤Ȼפޤwere ϡĶ٤εǽǤ뤬椨ˡˤ̤Ƽ岽ȶβˤ餵Ƥޤ͡ʷ֤ƤϾäȤץ򷫤֤̤ȤơΤʤΤ줫η֤ɸѸˤޤӤƤȤȤˤʤޤˤäƤϡ¤ˡ֥פä⤷ʤΤǤʡ֥פϼºݤ6%θȯˡߤǤɸȯõƤߤС͡ʷ֤ĤäƤϤǤ

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-06-13-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-05-26 Tue

#4047. ֱѸαƺפΤޤȤ --- hellog 󥯽 [ame_bre][link][hel_education][ame][bre][webster]

ǯѸˤΥݡȤ´򸫤ƤޤѸαƺ˴ؤϾ˿͵ΤơޤǤѸˤμȤǤ⡤ƺȤʤȳȿ餫˰ۤʤޤ¿αѸؽԤˤȤäơѸαƺϤ줯餤ȶǶ̣ȥԥåʤΤȻפޤ
ܥ֥ǤѸαƺܤ¿ε񤤤Ƥޤʲ˥֥ơޤȤ˵򥰥롼ײޤΤǡɤǤбѸαƺ͡ʻηŪ˳ؽ뤳ȤǤޤ顤ұѸαƺˤĤƤο󵯤ĴƤäƤ館ФȻפޤʤɮ԰첡εϡѸϢܴΰĤȤƼɮ֥ꥹѸ autumn ȥꥫѸ fall --- ʣŪ׹ͤΤǤ
¾ꥫѸ䥤ꥹѸθ̤ˤĤơame bre ¿ε⤴Ȥ

ΤޤѸαƺӻ

#357. American English or British English?
#359. American English or British English? β

αѸαƺγ

#1343. ѸαƺʼȤȯȸáˡ
#3948. رѸ춵٤Ϣ12֤ʤꥫѸϥꥹѸȰۤʤäƤΤס
#3472. ֱͧ (1) --- ˾ȱѸס

ȯαƺ

#211. spelling pronunciation
#406. Labov New York City /r/
#419. A Mid-Atlantic variety of English
#945. either 2Ĥȯ
#964. z ʸȯ (1)
#965. z ʸȯ (2)
#3573. accomplish one ζ첻Ѱۡ

Υڥ󥰡ɽαƺ

#240. ֻαƺ礭
#244. ֻαƺΥꥹȡ
#305. -ise -ize
#1097. quotation marks
#2093. <gauge> vs <gage>
#2437. 3ʸ§˶ꥹѸ <axe>
#3182. ARCHER colour color ̻ŪƺĴ
#3247. ֺ¡֥ڥ󥰤ǤɤѸˡפ5color colour --- ꥫΥڥ󥰡ס
#3934. ꥹ er ȥꥫ uh

ʸˡαƺ

#312. ʸˡαƺ
#325. mandative subjunctive should
#3351. ꥫѸǤ "mandative subjunctive" λѤ "colonial lag" ǤϤʤפ

θáˡαƺ

#510. ꥫѸˤ whilst ξü
#880. ˤ⥤ꥹѸ졤ˤ⥢ꥫѸñ
#1754. queue
#2916. Ϣ4֥ꥹѸ autumn ȥꥫѸ fall --- ʣŪ׹ͤΤס
#2925. autumn vs fall, zed vs zee
#3448. autumn vs fall --- Johnson Pickering
#982. ꥫѸθѽФ flat adverb
#1346. ղõϤɤΤ餤褯Ȥ뤫
#4036. stay at home stay home --- ѥĴ

αѸαƺ෿

#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ෿
#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ෿ (2)
#1331. äαƺ뤿νѸ
#2268. ֤ʤޤפΰۤʤ˴ؤ붦Ū෿

αѸαƺ˴ؤŪطʡ

#3087. Noah Webster
#468. ꥫȤ Webster
#3086. ꥫΩȥꥫѸؤλפ
#851. ꥹѸФ륢ꥫѸαƶ2狼
#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s
#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1)
#2262. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (2)
#2270. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (3)
#3089. ֥ꥫΩȱѸפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ
#3953. ꥫѸ non-rhotic Ѽε

αѸαƺҲؤȥǥ

#315. ꥹѸϥꥫѸ٤ݼŪ
#1266. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (1)
#1267. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (2)
#1268. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (3)
#1304. ꥫѸΡݼס
#1318. ˤݼŪȤϲ
#2926. ꥫȥꥫѸΡݼס
#3201. ꥫѸΡݼפˤĤ --- Algeo and Pyles θ
#2672. ꥹѸȯˡꥫѸʸˡ˼ҲŪʲ֤ͤ
#3280. ꥫˤ̱²ŪԴƤŪطʡ
#1010. ѸαƺˤĤ Martinet ΰ

αѸαƺĴ뤿Υġ䤽¾ξ

#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա
#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer
#1305. 쥿ΤĤ Google Books Ngram Corpus
#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer
#1739. AmE-BrE Diachronic Frequency Comparer
#2186. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡס
#2216. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡס
#1321. BNC Frequency Extractor
#1322. ANC Frequency Extractor
#773. PPCMBE COHA ӡ

αѸαƺĶѼ֤ӡ

#2388. μפʱѸѼβŪʬ
#2668. αѸѼ򤹤뤿αѸˤȱѸӼҲء
#1743. ICE Frequency Comparer

Referrer (Inside): [2021-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-01-08 Mon

#3178. ȳ̿ԻѼ [lmode][industrial_revolution][history][sociolinguistics][dialect][dialectology][variety][koine][dialect_levelling][bre]

18--19 Industrial Revolution ʻȳ̿ˤϡѹҲι¤礭ѤμҲŪʵϡüŪˤ (traditional dialects) ԻѼ (urban varieties) ؤΰܹԤȤäƤ褤̡͢ʤȯãˤꡤ͡ιưͼҲŪͥåȥѤꤷϰˤŪʿʹִطλޤꡤοʿ (dialect_levelling) ȶ̸첽 (koinéization) ʹԤǡϤ˸줿巿ԻԤϰҲεῴϤȤʤꡤʤԻѼ郎ޤƤԻѼϰ°Ҳ񳬵궯ȿǤ뷹ǡȤϰۤʤ¸ߤǤ롥
Gramley (181) դλʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

[The Industrial Revolution and the transportation revolution] were among the most significant social changes of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Partly as a prerequisite for and partly as an effect of industrialization there were fundamental changes in transportation. First, in the period after 1750 there was the establishment of turnpikes, then canals, and finally railroads. Among their consequences was the development of regional and supra-regional markets and, concomitant with this, greater labor force mobility in a money rather than barter economy with the potential for consumption. It hardly seems necessary to point out that this led to a weakening of the rural traditional dialects and an upsurge of new urban varieties in the process of dialect leveling or koinéization.
   As industrialization continued, new centers in the Northeast (mining) and in the Western Midlands (textiles in Manchester and Birmingham and commerce in Liverpool) began to emerge. Immigration of labor from "abroad" also ensured further language and dialect contact as Irish workers found jobs in the major projects of canal building in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and then in the building of the railways. Enclaves of Irish came into being, especially in Liverpool. Despite linguistic leveling the general distinctions were retained between the North (now divided more clearly than ever between the English North and Scotland), the East Midlands and the now industrializing West Midlands, and the South. The emergence of a new, mostly working-class, urban population in the North in the nineteenth century was accompanied by a literature of its own. Pamphlets, broadsides, and almanacs showed local consciousness and pride in vernacular culture and language. As the novels of Elizabeth Gaskel demonstrate, language --- be it traditional dialect or working-class koiné --- was a marker of class solidarity.


Τ褦ˡѹζḽŪʼҲŪѼΤϡȤƻȳ̿λʪȤäƤ褤
ϢȤơ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])#2028. ܤȥ󥰥ɤˤξ ([2014-11-15-1])#2023. England θѸʬ (3) --- Modern Dialects ([2014-11-10-1]) ⻲ȡ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-12-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2017-06-16 Fri

#2972. ꥹˤ뿦̤̾ΰˡ [gender][political_correctness][bre]

ѸǤϡȾ̤Ѥ뷹ޤäƤƤ롥ŪѤδȤʤäƤƤ뤬٤ˡŪʴפ⤢롥ꥹǤ̤ˡȤˡΧ1975ǯꤵƤSex Discrimination Act 1975 򻲾ȡˡˡΧϡθѻߤ졤2010ǯ Equality Act 2010 ˼ѤƤ롥
Crystal (314--15) ˤС

Legal changes, such as the Sex discrimination Act in Britain (1975), have caused job titles and much of the associated language to be altered. The written language has been most affected, but there have been signs of change in speech behaviour too. Plainly, the last quarter of the 20th century saw a general raising of consciousness about the issue of linguistic sexism, and this is likely to have a permanent effect upon the language.


Τ褦ʸѻߤηϡΤ褦ˡΧưƤȤϡǤˤҲŪʥȥɤƱˡΧ岡ƤȤߤʤۤŬڤȤΤϡˡΧ䤹ΤϽ񤭸դˤɽѤŰȻפ뤬ˡΧäդˤޤDZƶڤܤ뤫ϼǤϤʤˤ⤫餺ºݤˤäդˤƤ̤ǤΡִԤѲפǧ뤫ϡ٤κϤ졤򺣤ܸδĶˤƤ⸫Ĭή
ϢơѤˤ̤βäˤĤơʲε⻲ȡ

#2655. PCפμԤ ([2016-08-03-1])
#1709. ױǯɽ ([2013-12-31-1])ä The New Revised Standard Version (1990) ɽδŰŪ
#1048. ե󥹸θʸ mademoiselle ԻѤء ([2012-03-10-1])

Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2016-12-26 Mon

#2800. ؤ֤٤ѸѼϲ [elt][variety][ame][bre][americanisation][wsse][world_englishes][model_of_englishses]

ܤαѸ춵ǤϡꥫѸ줬ήȤʤäƤ롥20ȾϥꥫιϤطʤˡŪˤ⥢ꥫѸαƶϤꥫѸ첽 (americanisation) ʹԤƤȤϵʤʡ#851. ꥹѸФ륢ꥫѸαƶ2狼 ([2011-08-26-1]) 򻲾ȡˡŪݤƤˤ륤ꥹѸ⺬#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ ([2010-05-08-1]) ϿޤǤߤ褦ˡθ̤ϤޤϤˤƸߤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡƱ2ѼϤФΩƼ뤬ȯŸƤꤵѸɸࡤ "World Standard (Spoken) English" (wsse) Ʊ2ѼΤ줫˰פȤȤϤʤΤ륢ꥫѸ줬濴ȤʤäƤȤͽۤ뤬ޤǤδפȤʤȤȤǤꡤξ͡ΩѼ濫뤤ϺѼǤä졤ΤȤƺ¤ѼؤȯŸƤͽۤʴϢơ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1])#1010. ѸαƺˤĤ Martinet ΰ ([2012-02-01-1]) ʤɤε򻲾ȡˡ
Τ褦ʾͤȡǤ⥢ꥫѸޥȤ뤤ϥꥹѸˤȤѸؽˤϤɬפϤʤʤäƤƤȸİɤȤưŪʱѸǽϤδ餤СͭϤѼͭɽʤɤˤĤơ褯ؽƤ˱ۤȤϤʤä񤯤ȤǽưŪǽϤ˴ؤƤϡۤɡ֡ѸǤθפˤɬפϤʤʤȤ⤽ɬƤƤΤǤϤʤ
ƤȽǤΤˡˤѸѤŸ˾󤷤 Baugh and Cable (394) ʸϤͤˤʤ롥

The global context of English . . . makes the traditional categories [= American English and British English] more problematic and the choices more complex than they were previously perceived to be. American English may be the most prominent source of emerging global English, and yet it will be American English derancinated and adapted in a utilitarian way to the needs of speakers whose geography and culture are quite different. To the extent that Americans think about the global use of English at all, it is often as a possession that is lent on sufferance to foreigners, who often fail to get it right. Such a parochial attitude will change as more Americans become involved in the global economy and as they become more familiar with the high quality of literature being produced in post colonial settings. Many earlier attacks on American English were prompted by the slang, colloquialisms, and linguistic novelties of popular fiction and journalism, just as recent criticism has been directed at jargon in the speech and writings of American government officials, journalists, and social scientists. Along with the good use of English there is always much that is indifferent or frankly bad, but the language of a whole country should not be judged by its least graceful examples. Generalizations about the use of English throughout a region or a culture are more likely to mislead than to inform, and questions that lead to such generalizations are among the least helpful to ask. In the United States, as in Britain, India, Ghana, and the Philippines, in Australia and Jamaica, one can find plentiful samples of English that deserve a low estimate, but one will find a language that has adapted to the local conditions, usually without looking over its shoulder to the standards of a far-away country, and in so adapting has become the rich medium for writers and speakers of great talent and some of genius.


󡤤ƽѼΤݤؤ֤Ȥ򿴤ȤΤ̯ʤΤʤΤǡˤ䤫˳ؽΥåȤȤʤѼƤǡ¾Ѽ狼κ⼫ͳ˼Ȥ٤ɤʤΤ⤷ʤơΤ褦ʱѸؽη̤ȤơŪdzĴ⤤ѸѼλȤˤʤ뤳Ȥ˾ޤȹͤ롥

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-10 Tue

#2388. μפʱѸѼβŪʬ [world_englishes][model_of_englishes][ame_bre][ame][bre][irish_english][australian_english][new_zealand_english][scottish_english][scots][map]

μפʱѸѼʬहߤϡȤƼҲŪʻ͡ˤʤƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤model_of_englishes εǼ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥ŪʴʬȤƤϡTrudgill and Hannah ˤ벻˴ŤΤΤƤ롥ŪˤС礭 'English' type 'American' type 2ʬˡǤꡤľŪǿͤˤ򤷤䤹ξQŪ˸ʬबȤƤϡŪʸϤٻȤȤǤ롥 'American' type 'English' type 2ʬˡϡѶŪŪʻС绨Ĥˤäƥ󥰥 'northern' type 'southern' type 2ʬˡ뤳Ȥդ
Trudgill and Hannah (10) ϡŪܤ٤Ȥưʲ10󤲤ơѸѼ޼

Key
1. /ɑː/ rather than /æ/ in path etc.
2. absence of non-prevocalic /r/
3. close vowels for /æ/ and /ɛ/, monophthongization of /ai/ and /ɑu/
4. front [aː] for /ɑː/ in part etc.
5. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɔː/ as in cot and caught
6. /æ/ rather than /ɑː/ in can't etc.
7. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɑː/ as in bother and father
8. consistent voicing of intervocalic /t/
9. unrounded [ɑ] in pot
10. syllabic /r/ in bird
11. absence of contrast of /ʊ/ and /uː/ as in pull and pool

10  9   8   7   6   5        6   7   8   9   11         10         11  5   1   2

|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   |          |          |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   | Northern |          |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   | Canada |   |   |   |   | Ireland  | Scotland |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   `----------+----------'   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |              |              |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   `--------+---+---+---+--------------+--------------'   |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   |              |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   `----------,   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |   USA      |   |   |   ,----------+---+------------------'   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   | Republic |   |                      |
|   |   |   |   `------------'   |   |   |   of     |   |   ,------------------'
|   |   |   |                    |   |   | Ireland  |   |   |
|   |   |   `--------------------'   |   |          |   |   |  England  ,--------------------------------- 3
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |           | 
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |  Wales    |         ,----------------------- 4
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |           | South   | Australia   New
|   |   `----------------------------'   |          |   |   |           | Africa  |             Zealand
|   |                                    |          |   |   |           |         `----------------------- 4
|   |                                    |          |   |   |           |
|   `------------------------------------+----------'   |   |           `--------------------------------- 3
|                                        |              |   |
`----------------------------------------+--------------'   `--------------------------------------------- 2
                                         |
                                         `---------------------------------------------------------------- 1

οޤȤơTrudgill and Hannah (10)

We have attempted to portray the relationships between the pronunciations of the major non-Caribbean varieties in [this] Figure 1.1. This diagram is somewhat arbitrary and slightly misleading (there are, for example, accents of USEng which are close to RP than to mid-western US English), but it does show the two main types of pronunciation: an 'English' type (EngEng, WEng, SAfEng, AusEng, NZEng) and an 'American' type (USEng, CanEng), with IrEng falling somewhere between the two and ScotEng being somewhat by itself.


Ǹ˿Ƥ褦ˡIrish English 2ʬˤޤ뤳ȡŤˤ Scots English ȼϩԤäƤ뤳Ȥ϶̣

Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-07-15 Wed

#2270. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (3) [history][ame][bre][ame_bre][geography][map][demography][rhotic]

#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1) ([2015-07-06-1])#2262. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (2) ([2015-07-07-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ[2015-07-07-1]ǤϡFisher 򻲾Ȥ Gramley ˤŪʿ⼨ʤ顤̱ο͸פñ˳ǧ Fisher Ȥ David Hackett Fischer ˤ Albion's Seed (1989ǯ) ˵äƤ褦ˡ D. H. Fischer ȤؼԤϡꥫѸ˸ԤãǤ Hans Kurath, George Philip Krapp, Allen Walker Read, Albert Marckwardt, Raven McDavid, Cleanth Brooks ˰͵򤷤ĤġŪʿ͸פο󼨤ʤ顤ꥹѸȥꥫѸϢ³ĥƤΤǤ롥
Fischer εҤꤷ Fisher ޤȤ᤿ʢ֤꤬̾Ƥƺ𤹤Τա˽̱ˤˤĤơʲ˰Ѥ褦 (Fisher 60) ̱Ϥؤΰ̱95%ʾ夬ꥹǤꡤ4Ȥˤ狼ƹԤ줿Ȥ

1. 20,000 Puritans largely from East Anglia to to New England, 1629--41, to escape the tyranny of the crown and the established church that led to the Puritan revolution;
2. 40,000 Cavaliers and their servants largely from the southwestern counties of England to the Chesapeake Bay area and Virginia, 1642--75, to escape the Long Parliament and Puritan rule;
3. 23,000 Quakers from the North Midlands and many like-minded evangelicals from Wales, Germany, Holland, and France, to the Delaware Valley and Pennsylvania, 1675--1725, to escape the Act of Uniformity in England and the Thirty Years War in Europe;
4. 275,000 from the North Border regions of England, Scotland, and Ulster to the backcountry of New England, western Pennsylvania, and the Appalachians, 1717--75, to escape the endemic conflict and poverty of the Border regions, and especially the 1706--7 Act of Union between England and Scotland, which brought about the "pacification" of the border, transforming it from a combative society in need of many warriors to a commercial and industrial society in need of no warriors, with the consequent large-scale displacement of the rural population.


Fischer Ūʥꥫؤν̱ˤεҤ͸פˤä䶯ȤȤϱѸѼϢ³ͤǤ˽פʾǤ롥
ꥹѼ狼饢ꥫѼؤϢ³ݤɬˤʤΤϡnon-prevocalic /r/ Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡ#452. 󥰥ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ȡ#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1]) ǹ碌Ƴ#1267. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (2) ([2012-10-15-1]) ʣ˸ڤȤFisher (75--77) ⿵ŤΩ줫餳ФƤ롥Τˡ250ǯۤ non-prevocalic /r/ ξüɥդǻϤޤäȤȤȡꥫؤΰ̱17Ⱦ˻ϤޤäȤȤϡʥʴطǤϤΤǤ⡤˸ŪϢ³˴ؤڡʼĥϿ٤ǤΤΡDZѸ˸ˤϢ³βǽդʧäƤȤϾɬפȤⴶƤ롥

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Fisher, J. H. "British and American, Continuity and Divergence." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. English in North America. Ed. J. Algeo. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 59--85.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-07-07 Tue

#2262. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (2) [history][ame][bre][ame_bre][geography][map][demography]

ε#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1) ([2015-07-06-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ#1301. Gramley αѸ˳Υѥ˥󥵥ȡ ([2012-11-18-1]) ȡ#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Gramley αѸ˽ϡϿޤɽ¿ؽ仲ȤǤ롥ꥹ饢ꥫؤνΰ̱ΥѥˤĤƤ⡤"Major sources and goals of immigration" (248) ꤹͭѤʥꥫ쳤ߤϿޤǺܤƤ롥Gramley ϿޤǤϡ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱Υ롼ȤΤۤɥġֽ硤ɥĤΰ̱ήηϩʤɤ⼨Ƥ롥

Map of Major Sources and Goals of Immigration from Britain to America (Gramley 248)

ΰ̱⥢ꥫѸ˲餫ι׸򤷤Ƥȹͤ뤬ε ([2015-07-06-1]) ӡ#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) 򻲾ȤƤ狼Ȥꡤ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱Ȥ櫓פ̤ȤϤޤǤʤ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱ˤĤơ͸פޤ᤿ŪʸϤ Gramley (246) ˤΤǡѤ褦

The English language which the settlers carried along with them was, of course, that of England. The colonists surely brought various regional forms, but it is generally accepted that the largest number of those who arrived came from southern England. Baugh (1957) concludes --- on the limited evidence of 1281 settlers in New England and 637 in Virginia for whom records exist for the time before 1700 --- that New England was predominantly settled from the southeastern and southern counties of England (about 60%) as was Virginia (over 50%). Fisher's figures indicate that 20,000 Puritans came between 1629 and 1641, the largest part from Essex, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and East Anglia with fewer than 10% from London, and that 40,000 "Cavaliers" fled especially from London and Bristol during the Civil War and went to the Chesapeake area and Virginia (Fisher 2001: 60). The Middle Colonies of Pennsylvania, new Jersey, and Delaware probably had a much larger proportion from northern England, including 23,000 Quakers and Evangelicals from England, Wales, Germany, Holland, and France. Over 250,000 from northern England, the Scottish Lowlands, and especially Ulster settled in the back country . . . . In each of the areas settled the nature of the language was set by speech patterns established by the first several generations.


ꥫ New England ؤΰ̱ˤϡ󥰥νпȼԤ¿ͿꥫƤ˱Ϥؤϡ󥰥륺åȥɡɤΰ̱¿äȤƳǧǤ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Baugh, A. C. A History of the English Language. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.
Fisher, J. H. "British and American, Continuity and Divergence." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. English in North America. Ed. J. Algeo. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 59--85.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-07-15-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-07-06 Mon

#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1) [history][ame][bre][ame_bre][rhotic][geography][map][demography]

ɸϡ#1701. ꥫؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-23-1]) Ǽ夲Ͽޤ򼨤ĤIJ⤹롥
ꥫѸ򤹤ˤϡ17˻Ϥޤ륤ꥹ礫νΰ̱ȡθΥꥫǤΰܽˤ礭ؤäƤ롥ꥹͤˤ륢ꥫؤο̱ϡ1607ǯ Jamestown ηߤ˻Ϥޤ뤬ο̱˷ȤäΤϼȤƥ󥰥пȼԤäǽԤȤθŪ礭󥰥 Jamestown ˤ⤿餵졤˥ꥫ˳Ȥ줿
1620ǯ Plymouth ˤɤ夤 "Pilgrim fathers" ˤ⡤󥰥ʤ˽пȼԤ¿äϡԤƱͤˡ褽󥰥ħȤƿΦϤäΤǤꡤNew England 濴Ȥϰˤħ夵
1680ǯ夫ϥ󥰥䥦륺Υ (Quakers) 󤷤 Pennsylvania Pennsylvania ʤɤؤϡ18ȾФ˥åȥɷϥɿ (Scots-Irish) ¿ήθưϤȤʤäޤ19ȾФˤ¿Υɿͤ󤻤ꡤؤŸ饤󥰥ʳϰ褫äƤ̱ϡɸŪȤ륤ꥹȤƿΦˤäƤΤνΥꥫˤ礿Ȥʤ (Midland dialect) μäΤǤ롥
ꥹ礫ΰ̱νпϤǰƬˡ嵭ޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥ɸŪʥ󥰥Ȥ󥰥пȼԤϡɸѼ򥢥ꥫ New England ؤɸŪʥ󥰥륺åȥɡɤνȤпȼԤϡɸѼ򥢥ꥫ Pennsylvania ؤȹ绨Ĥ˿޼ȡʲϿޤ̤Ǥ롥

Map of Major Sources and Goals of Immigration from Britain to America

Τ褦ʥꥫѸ (1607--1790) ˤ̱θ̤ϡ奢ꥫѸ non-prevocalic /r/ ʬۤˤ褯ȿǤƤȸ롥#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1]) Ͽޤ˼̤ꡤ绨ĤˤäƥꥫιϰǤ car, four ʤɤθ /r/ ȯ롤ʤ rhotic Ǥ롥ϡ#452. 󥰥ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡΥ󥰥ɼϰ non-rhotic Ǥ뤳Ȥб롥ꥫ New England Ǥϡ褽 non-rhotic Ǥ롥ϡ󥰥ɤ濴褽 rhotic Ǥ뤳Ȥ礹롥[2010-07-24-1]ǿ줿Ȥꡤʬۤ϶ȤȤǤϤʤŪϢ³򵿤٤
̱ηʬۤˤäƤϡ̱νпϤȷȤƤܤ뤳ȤפǤ롥Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ

#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1])
#1699. ꥫȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-21-1])
#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1])
#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1])
#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1])

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-11-14 Fri

#2027. 󥰥ɤdzȤ miuk ȯ [bre][dialect][phonetics][assimilation][map][rhotic][vowel][l]

ε#2026. intrusive r (2) ([2014-11-13-1]) Ǹ奤󥰥ɤʬۤ礵Ƥ븽ݤ1Ĥܤ⤦1Ĥε®ʬۤȤƤ벻ѲǤ [l] 첻Ҳ𤷤褦벻Ķˤ [l] 첻βӤӤ뷹󥰥ǸȤʤäƤƤꡤ礷Ƥ (Trudgill 63--66; Ͽޤ Trudgill 64 Ȥ˺)

Map of 'Miuk' for 'Milk'

ɽȤƵ󤲤Τmilk ȯǤ롥 [mɪlk] ȯ[mɪʊlk] Ф [mɪʊk] ؤѲƤƤ롥[l] (ä dark l; cf. #1817. Ѹ /l/ /r/ (2) ([2014-04-18-1])) Τĸľ첻˱ƶͿơ[ɪ] [ɪʊ] Ѥ [l] ϾäƹԤȤǤ롥첻θ [l] ³ĶǹäƤꡤhill, roll, ball ʤɤǤƱݤǧ롥ŪˤƱ (assimilation) 1ǤꡤۤȤǤʤɥä˸˵äƤꡤ쥤󥰥ɤ濴˱ƶϤϤƤȤ̣Ǥϡfill feel Ȥ [fɪʊ ? fɪʊl] ˹줷Ƥꡤdoll dole [dʌʊ] ؼ̤pull Paul [pʌʊ] ͻ礷ƤޤäƤ롥
250ǯۤ non-prevocalic /r/ æɥդǵꡤϤ礷ƤȤͤȡ non-prevocalic /l/ æɥ濴˻ϤޤäƤȤȤϼŪǤ롥塤󥰥ɤΤ깭ϰس礷󥰥ɸˤɸܤ褦ˤʤǽ롥

Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2026-04-11-1] [2020-02-16-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-11-10 Mon

#2023. England θѸʬ (3) --- Modern Dialects [dialect][bre][flash][family_tree][map]

#1029. England θѸʬ (1) ([2012-02-20-1]) ڤӡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) Ǹ奤󥰥ɤαѸʬ򼨤ǼΤϤ (Traditional Dialects) Ǥ롥20ȾФˤϤǤ˸षƤꡤ21θߤǤϤθब³ǤäƤȤäƤǤϤʤǡפ븽 (Modern Dialects) ääƼ㤤˱ƶϤڤܤƤꡤȤƤϼήΥפȤʤäƤ롥Υ󥰥ɤ Modern Dialects ϡܸؼԤΰͺִܸĤĤΤȤ󵯤ֿפˡĤӤ졤̣
Trudgill (5--6) ϡTraditional Dialects ֤ΤȤƤ Modern Dialects 뤤 Mainstream Dialects Ȥܤζ̤򼡤Τ褦ɽƤˤĤƤϡ[2012-02-20-1]εΰѤ򻲾ȡˡ

Mainstream Dialects, on the other hand, include both the Standard English Dialect and the Modern Nonstandard Dialects. Most native English speakers speak some variety of Mainstream Dialect. These dialects are associated with native speakers outside the British Isles, especially in recently settled areas which speak mixed colonial dialects, such as Australia and most of America and Canada. In Britain, they are particularly associated with those areas of the country from which Standard English originally came --- the southeast of England; with most urban areas; with places which have become English-speaking only relatively recently, such as the Scottish Highlands, much of Wales, and western Cornwall; with the speech of most younger people; and with middle- and upper-class speakers everywhere. The mainstream Modern Nonstandard Dialects differ much less from Standard English and from each other, and are often distinguished much more by the pronunciation --- their accent --- than by their grammar.


ʲ˼ΤϡTrudgill (66--67) ˤ Modern Dialects ζʬǤ롥ΡɤγĤǤ Flash ǤߤΤɤ

Modern Dialects in England  *  

Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Blackwell: Malden, MA: 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-01-08-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-04-13 Sun

#1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ [me_dialect][spelling][map][isogloss][dialect][bre]

ܥ֥ǤϡѸ˴ؤơθ졤ǡǤʬۤܤȤơϿޤȤȤˡ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1])#1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1]) ʤɤ񤤤Ƥʤۤˤ⡤me_dialect ε򻲾ȡˡޤŪѸʬޤ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) Ǽ
Ѹ˸¤ʤ֤̤벻б (isogloss) ʣϤ褯ΤƤ롥ѸǤ LALME LAEME Ȥܺ٤ʸϿޤǤƤΤǡζŪϿޤƤߤаǤ롥ǡ绨ĤˤǤ礿Ѱۤ䲻бʵڤӤȿǤƤȹֻͤбˤ򤷤ƤΤ褦Ūǡ#1341. Ѹʬ8ĤŪʷ֡ ([2012-12-28-1]) ΩĤLerer (92) μƤʰޤΩLerer ϡ⤤6 ("stone", "man", "heart", "father", "them", "hill") ǡѸ5ʰŪ˿޼ʲϡLerer ΤΤ򻲾ȤƺäޤǤ롥

ME Dialects with Six Words

äįƤȡͶäƤΤ Ƥhill -- hell -- hull ˸첻ѰۤˤĤƤϡϢơ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ʤ顤Ѹʬϡ奤󥰥ɱѸʬȤ̵ǤϤʤ8Ĥθˤ븽ζʬϡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Lerer, Seth. Inventing English. New York: Columbia UP, 2007.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-02-14 Fri

#1754. queue [bre][ame_bre][etymology][semantic_change][french][loan_word]

ꥹͤνȤơˤȤȤФи롥㤨СNTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings ˤȡGeorge Mikes How to Be an Alien (1946) Τʤǡ"Queueing is the national pastime of an otherwise dispassionate race. The English are rather shy about it, and deny that they adore it" ɾƤ롥
ꥹͤΤνȿǤˤ⥤ꥹѸŪȸ٤줬ˤФֹʤˡפ̣ queue Ǥ롥ꥫѸǤϤΰ̣Ǥ line ѤΤ̤Ǥ롥ȥꥢ˽ФƤǤͽ̤ꥤꥹŪ queue ѤƤ롥queue ꥹѸŪǤ뤳ȤŪ˳ǧ٤#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-21-1]) #1739. AmE-BrE Diachronic Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-30-1]) ˡ^queu(e[sd]?|ing)$ ƸƤߤȡŪ˸ꤹޤǤʤ餫ʬۤϥꥹѸؤФ򼨤AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ˤ븡̤ʲ˷ǤƤ

IDWORDFREQTEXTSRANK
AME_2006BRE_2006AME_2006BRE_2006AME_2006BRE_2006
1queue219212263485149
2queued0101039987
3queues090908971
4queuing090908972


츫ȤꥹѸŪ queue ΤۤŤͳֹפǤꡤline ϥꥫѸǤλʸŪʳ׿ǤϤʤȵ뤫⤷ʤ¤ϵդǤ롥line ϸűѸ֤Ҥפΰ̣ʸڤŤǡޥĸ *līnjōn ̤롥ƱΥƥ līnea ȯŸťե󥹸 ligne ѸꡤξԤ line Ȥƹήline Ρפΰ̣ a1500 ȯƤꡤʤѸΥꥹǤ̤ѤƤλѤΤޤޥꥫѸ˻ۤ줿Ȥˤʤ롥
Ȥθ塤ꥹ¦dz׿1837ǯ Carlyle, French Revolution Ȥơqueue ʤ줬פθ line åäƤäΤǤ롥 queue Ѹˡְ٤Ҥפۤɤΰ̣ǽФƤꡤťե󥹸 co(u)e μѸǤ롥켫Τϥƥ cauda (tail) ̤롥äơѸǤΰ̣ϡֽäפǤꡤcaudal Ρ, cue ͤȱˤƱǤ롥ѸǤϡ18ˡȱפθϤä塤19˥ե󥹸ƤӻȤơפθCarlyle ޤ᤿ѸνǤϥե󥹡ʸŪʸ̮Ǹ뤳Ȥ¿ѸθäƱˤϤФ餯֤ä褦Ǥ롥ηаޤͤȡ19ΤϤषե󥹤ħäȤȤˤʤꤽ
֥ꥹ͡򰦤͡פȤƥ쥪פθȤƤ queue ϡƳȿΤäȤˤʤ롥ǤϡAre you in the queue?, How long were you in the queue? ʤɤϡꥹˤɬܤɽȤäƤ
ꥹѸȥꥫѸݼȳ׿ȤˤĤƤϡ#315. ꥹѸϥꥫѸ٤ݼŪ ([2010-03-08-1])#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ෿ ([2011-01-14-1])#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ෿ (2) ([2011-01-15-1])#1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) ۤ colonial_lag γƵ򻲾ȡޤϢơ#880. ˤ⥤ꥹѸ졤ˤ⥢ꥫѸñ ([2011-09-24-1]) ⻲ȡ

Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-05-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-12-22 Sun

#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ [bre][geography][geolinguistics][history][timeline][caribbean]

ε#1699. ꥫȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-21-1]) ơϥꥹǤ򡥺Ʊ͡Gramley αѸˤѥ˥󥵥ꡤ7ϤΤ­ p. 6 žܤ롥ꥹΤɤϰ褫顤Τɤϰؿ͡ȱѸ줬ư˼ΤǤ롥

FROMTO
Southwest EnglandSoutheastern Ireland (from 1556 to well into the 17th century)
Scotland + EnglandUlster (from 1606 to the 1690's)
England + ScotlandNorth America (from 1607)
Britain + Irelandthe Caribbean (esp. Barbados) (from 1627)
Britain + IrelandAustralia (from 1788)
EnglandSouth Africa (from 1820)
Britain + AustraliaNew Zealand (from 1820)
Britain (exploration, trade, colonial administration)West Africa: Gambia (1661, 1816); Sierra Leone (1787); Ghana (1824; 1850); Nigeria (1851, 1861); Camero on (1914)
East Africa: Uganda (1860's); Malawi (1878); Kenya (1886); Tanzania (1880's)
Southern Africa: South Africa (1795); Botswana (19th century); Namibia (1878); Zambia (1888); Zimbabwe (1890); Swaziland (1894)
South Asia: India (1600); Bangla Desh (1690); Sri Lanka (1796); Pakistan (1857)
Southeast Asia: Malaysia (1786); Singapore (1819); Hong Kong (1841)


ɽ򤸤äįС˥ꥹ16ȾФ19ȾФޤǤ300ǯ֤ˤ錄äơäȳμ¤˱Ѹμ˼Ƥʬ19Ⱦаʹߤ⥤ꥹˤϤ³ߤǤ⤽ΰ仺ϡ#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]) ȤƤΤạ̇̄ǤΥꥹѸγȻͥ450ǯĶˤͭƤȤ褦
ϢǯɽϰꥹȤˤĤƤϡ#1368. Fennell ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-01-24-1])#1377. Gelderen ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-02-02-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ⻲ȡ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-07-31 Wed

#1556. U or non-U [sociolinguistics][bre][variation]

Ҳ񳬵ˤäƸѤ˺뤳ȤϡҲؤդȤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥޤ˿Ƽ夲ƤĤεؤΥ󥯤#1504. ܸγغ ([2013-06-09-1]) ƬĥäΤǡȤ줿
奤ꥹѸˤҲ񳬵κ˴ؤǡȤ櫓ŪˤʤäΤϡꥹθؼ Ross ˤ U(pper) vs non-U(pper) Ȥ̤Ǥ롥Ǥ褯ΤƤΤϡѥʥץؼ table-napkin serviette ήԤѤήϸԤѤȸ롥ä򤬡ޤˤʤ䡤˴ؤäƤȤΤ顤͡δؿоݤȤʤΤ̵̤Ȥä
Ross (3) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ١򴬤

Today, in 1956, the English class-system is essentially tripartite---there exist an upper, a middle, and a lower class. It is solely by its language that the upper class is clearly marked off from the others. In times past (e.g. in the Victorian and Edwardian periods) this was not the case. But, today, a member of the upper class is, for instance, not necessarily better educated, cleaner, or richer than someone not of this class. Nor, in general, is he likely to play a greater part in public affairs, be supported by other trades or professions, or engage in other pursuits or pastimes than his fellow of another class.


ĤޤꡤߤΥꥹǤϡ麹ϡ¾塤ѤˤäƤΤɸȤҲؤǤϼҲŪʶʬȸŪʺۤбĴξԤȤߴطͻ褦忴ƤΤRoss ϸԤԤꤷƤΤʿǤ櫓Ǥ롥ñǤϤʤϤ͡ζ̣ĤˤϽʬä
Ross Ͻ񤭸դäդˤ U vs non-U ̤ԤǤȯȸáɽˤ U vs non-U 򤵤˶̤Ƥ뤬ʲǤϸáɽˤˤ U non-U Ω򼨤󤷤褦 (20--24) ʤ줫Ѽбɽʤ¿롥

Unon-U
jerry, potarticle
have one's bathtake a bath
civil 
buscoach
stayscorsets
counterpanecoverlet
salt-cellars, pepper-potscruet
 crust, crumb
civilizedcultivated, cultured
Have some more tea?How is your cup?
bike, bicyclecycle
dinnerevening meal
dinner jacket, short coat, etc.dress-suit
 excuse my glove
greatcoat, topcoat 
vegetablesgreens
They've a very nice houseThey've a lovely home
ridinghorse-riding
I was very sick on the boatI was very ill on the boat
knavejack
 la-di-da
hall, dining-roomlounge
madmental
 a matter of business
 If you don't mind my mentioning it
looking-glassmirror
writing-papernote-paper
What?, Sorry!Pardon!
 pass a (nasty) remark
 Pleased to meet you.
 posh
jampreserve
wirelessradio
 rude
table-napkinserviette
work for an examstudy for an exam
master, mistressteacher
lavatory-papertoilet-paper
richwealthy


21θߤȤʤäƤϡɽѼɽ魯ΤȤǧޤäƤƤ麹Ȥϡʸκƺ庹ȤäڤؤäƤƤ褦ˤפ롥
Crystal (364) ˤȡRoss ʸޤ᤿ Nancy Mitford Noblesse Oblige ϡǸ13ꤷȤ顤äۤɤȿäȤˤʤ롥¤˥ꥹ餷Ǥ롥

Ross, Alan. "U and non-U." Noblesse Oblige. Ed. Nancy Mitford. Oxford: OUP, 1956. 3--28.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-12 Sat

#1356. 20ꥹѸǤ government οΰ [bre][number][agreement][noun][syntax][corpus]

ε#1355. 20ꥹѸǽ̾ñפä ([2013-01-11-1]) Ǽ夲Bauer ν̾οΰפ˴ؤĴˤĤơҲ³롥The Times μΥѥˤ̻ŪĴ̤ơBauer ϷȴƺѤν̾Ǥ government 20δ֤ˡΰפ˴ؤƶ̣ʬۤ򼨤Ȥȯ (Bauer 64--65)
20ˤϡgovernment ʣפ¿ΤΡ褫ŦƤȤꡤȤ館˱ñʣΤѰۤ򼨤ƤȤˤʤȡñʣפΰ㤤ؼоݤΰ㤤б褦ˤʤäʣȤѤȤˤϱѹܤؤñȤѤȤˤ¾ܤؤȤƤȤΤʸˡȤ⡤̣ʻؼоݡˤؤȰܹԤΤ褦ʲˡBauer (64) "Concord with government by meaning from The Times corpus, 1930--65" ΥǡƷǤ褦

YearBritish governmentNon-British government
SingularPluralSingularPlural
1930315123
1935213112
194021442
19452722
1950126260
19552280
196002380
196511341
Total131136518


1965ǯޤǤˤηΩθ塤θˤơ٤ϻؼоݤˤ餺ñפƤ롥government ˴ؤ¤ꡤ notional variation semantic distinction grammatical preference for the singular ȿ񤤤ѲƤȤȤˤʤ롥
䤦٤ϡ嵭20λȤʬηϼʳΥƥȥפǤƱͤ˸ΤȤ government ٤Ǹ뤳Ȥͽۤ줿Ȥ˼θˤüˡȯãȵȤǤ뤫⤷ʤѥ򹭤Ƴǧɬפ

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-25-1] [2021-05-20-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-01-11 Fri

#1355. 20ꥹѸǽ̾ñפä [bre][number][agreement][noun][syntax][corpus][americanisation]

ưοΰפˤĤƤϡ#930. a large number of people οΰס ([2011-11-13-1]) #1144. Ѹˤ԰פ ([2012-06-14-1]) #1334. Ѹˤ̾ưο԰ס ([2012-12-21-1]) εǰäƤ̤ˡѸˤ government team ʤɤν̾οΰפϡꥫѸǤϤäѤñǰפ뤬ꥹѸǤϤȤ館˱ñǤʣǤפȤ롥ΰ̲ϳͭΰפ˴ؤѰۤ򼨤ꥹѸˤĤƤߤȡ20̤ñפηޤäƤƤΤǤϤʤȤŦ롥Bauer (61--66) The Times μоݤȤѥҲ𤷤褦
Bauer ϡ1900--1985ǯ The Times corpus μ⤫ʤ륳ѥоݤˡ̾줬ñǰפΨ᤿Bauer ϡĴ The Times μȤ˷ĥäʸΤˤĴǤꡤ줬ɬ⥤ꥹѸΤɽƤȤϤʤǤäạ̇̄դͿƤ롥ʲϡBauer (63) ΥդܸƤǿͤɤ߽ФƺΤǤ롥

Singular Concord of Collective Nouns

ľȤƤʤ餻Сǯ0.3178%γǤȤʤäƤ롥ͤꤷʤȤ䥳ѥФʤɤͳˤꤳη̤ɤޤǿǤΤȤʤ뤬Bauer Ϻ٤ͿƤ餺ȽǤǤʤΤǤ롥
Bauer ϤˡѥǺǤ٤ι⤤̾ government üʿ񤤤򤹤뤳Ȥܤθ̾ˤĤơñפγƷ׻ΥդƱΤǡBauer (66) Υդ˴ŤƲΥդƺʤ餹ǯ0.1877%γǤǤ롥

Singular Concord of Collective Nouns Excluding 'government'

η̤¿Dzη̤ˤȤɤޤ餶ʤ褦˻פ뤬ʤȤ⤵ĴʤƤ椯ΥˤϤʤ
ʤBauer 1930ǯˤη֤äȤ¤򺬵ˡꥫѸ줬ƶͿȹͤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤƤ[2011-08-26-1]ε#851. ꥹѸФ륢ꥫѸαƶ2狼פ򻲾ȡˡ
government οΰפ˴ؤ뤪⤷񤤤ˤĤƤϡεǾҲ𤹤롥

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2012-02-21 Tue

#1030. England θѸʬ (2) [dialect][bre][link][isogloss]

ε#1029. England θѸʬ (1) ([2012-02-20-1]) ǥ󥰥ɤˤ븽Ѹʬ򼨤ʬϡʤ٤Ϥι⤤ӽФ (isogloss) νŤʤƤ椯ΤŪʼˡɤθӽФˤĤƤεҴŪʴߤ뤳Ȥ񤷤¿쾯ʤؼԤμѤΤ
Ǥϡ Trudgill ʬϲ˴ŤƤ뤫Trudgill ϡʲ8ĤñӽФˤä13ζʬߤʣȤǤ뤳ȤϡʲʬɽưפΤ (Trudgill 33)

  LongNightBlindLandArmHillSevenBat
older form lang /læŋ/neet /niːt/blinnd /blɪnd/land /lænd/arrm /aːrm/hill /hɪl/seven /sevn/băt [bat]
newer form long /lɒŋ/nite /naɪt/blined /blaɪnd/lond /lɒnd/ahm /aːm/ill /ɪl/zeven /zevn/bæt [bæt]
1Northumberlandlangneetblinndlandarrmhillsevenbat
2Lower Northlangneetblinndlandahmillsevenbat
3Lancashirelongneetblinedlondarrmillsevenbat
4Staffordshirelongniteblinedlondahmillsevenbat
5South Yorkshirelongneetblinndlandahmillsevenbat
6Lincolnshirelongniteblinndlandahmillsevenbat
7Leicestershirelongniteblinedlandahmillsevenbat
8Western Southwestlongniteblinedlandarrmillzevenbat
9Northern Southwestlongniteblinedlondarrmillsevenbat
10Eastern Southwestlongniteblinedlandarrmillsevenbat
11Southeastlongniteblinedlændarrmillsevenbæt
12Central Eastlongniteblinedlændahmillsevenbæt
13Eastern Countieslongniteblinedlændahmhillsevenbæt


ʲˡޤܥ֥ǰäƤˤʬ˴ؤ뵭ڤӳڡؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤ礷Ƹʤ ##1029,130,457,458,376

#1029. England θѸʬ (1): [2012-02-20-1]
#130. Ѹʬ: [2009-09-04-1]
ѸϿ: The distribution of Middle English dialects
űѸϿ: The distribution of Old English dialects
#457. ꥫѸʬ Kurath ǡˡ: [2010-07-28-1]
#458. ꥫѸʬ Baugh and Cable ǡˡ: [2010-07-29-1]
#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ: [2010-05-08-1]

Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Blackwell: Malden, MA: 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow