Ѳ (language_change) δŪʸưϤ1ĤǤ (analogy) ˴ؤܳŪʸFertig Analogy and Morphological Change ˤĤƤεǼ夲Ƥ
Fertig Ȥcontamination ʺˤȸƤФ륿פѤˤĤƹͤƤߤֺפȤμդθݤΤʬ뤫ɤˤĤƤϵꡤ#5419. blending contamination ([2024-02-27-1]) ǤϢ夲ҤȤޤ contamination ̤ǤΤΤʤ2ĤΥפȤƳsyntagmatic contamination paradigmatic contamination Ǥ롥ȤȤ Fertig δϢսѤ (64)
Paul's initial conception of contamination (1886) involved influence attributable exclusively to paradigmatic (semantic) relations between forms, but he later (1920) recognized that lexical contamination often involves items that are not only semantically related but also frequently occur in close proximity in utterances. The importance of these syntagmatic relationships is emphasized in almost all modern accounts of contamination (Campbell 2004: 118--20 being the only exception that I am aware of). The most frequently cited examples involve adjacent numerals, which often influence each other's phonetic make-up: English eleven < Proto-Gmc. *ainlif under the influence of ten; Latin novem 'nine' instead of expected *noven under the influence of decem 'ten'; Greek dialectal hoktō 'eight' under the influence of hepta 'seven' (Osthoff 1878b; Trask 1996: 111--12; Hock and Joseph 2009: 163). Similar effects are attested in a number of languages among days of the week and months of the year, e.g. post-classical Latin Octember < Octōber under the influence of November and December.
Such contamination attributable to syntagmatic proximity of the affecting and affected items is often characterized as distant assimilation. Some scholars characterize contamination as a kind of assimilation even when it is purely paradigmatically motivated. Anttila calls it 'assimilation . . . toward another word in the semantic field' (1989: 76). Andersen (1980: 16--17) explicitly distinguishes such 'paradigmatic assimilation' from the more familiar 'syntagmatic assimilation'. As an unambiguous example of the latter, he mentions the influence of one word on another within a formulaic expression, such as French au fur et à mesure 'as, in due course' < Old French au feur et mesure (Wackernagel 1926: 49--50). Contamination involving antonyms, such as Late Latin sinexter < sinister 'left' under the influence of dexter 'right' or Vulgar Latin grevis < gravis 'heavy' under the influence of levis 'light', could be both paradigmatically and syntagmatically motivated since antonyms frequently co-occur in close proximity within an utterance, especially in questions: Is that thing heavy or light? Should I turn right or left? Wundt's view of paradigm leveling as a type of assimilation should also be mentioned in this context (Paul 1920: 116n 1).
syntagmatic contamination paradigmatic contamination 2̤ƤȤϡŪˤϽפºŪˤξԤϸߤ˾Ƥꡤʬ̤ΤǤϤʤȻפ롥paradigmatic ʴطˤ2Ԥ syntagmatic ˤ and ʤɤ³ǷФ뤳Ȥ¿դ syntagmatic ˶䤹2Ԥ paradigmatic ˤ̣Ū˶Ǥ˷ӤĤƤΤ̤
ġλ㤬줫Υפ contamination Ǥ뤳ȤǤΤɤ뤤ϤǤȤƤ⡤ȽǤƤ褤ϲȤ꤬ĤäƤ褦˻פ롥
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
ϧޡפ̣ kiln 䡤ꥹλ͡ȡƸúȤ Milne (1882--1956) ˴ޤޤ ln ȤҲϢϡήȯǤϤΤޤ /ln/ ȯ롥n ʤ /l/ Τߤȯ⤢ˤϤ롥
Ūˤϡ/ln/ λҲϢϡѸ˼ /n/ 졤/l/ ؤȴάp. 419ˡ㤨СűѸ eln, cyln, myln ϡ줾츽Ѹ ell, kiln, mill бp. 319ˡ kiln, Milne μȯ /ln/ λҲϢޤबϡ#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ˤΤǤ롥
ơѸȤ /ln/ > /l/ βѲϡλŦ̤ /n/ κªƤΤؤǤϤ뤬Ѳμ֤ȤƤϽƱ (progressive assimilation or "carry over") Ȥ³åŻҲ (degemination) η̤äȤǽ⤢롥ȤΤ⡤Bybee (24) mill ʾʤȤƱʬ˴ؤơˤΤ褦1ĤȤƵƤ뤫Ǥ롥̸Ūʴ顤褯ѻ벻ѲȤƼ夲Ƥ롥
One type of carry over that occurs in Indo-European languages involves cases where an /n/ assimilates to a preceding liquid, as in the case of Proto-Germanic (PGmc) *wulna > *wullō > OE wull 'wool', PGmc *fulnaz > *fullaz > OE full 'full', and PGmc *hulnis > OE hyll 'hill' . . . . Similar examples are Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *kolnis > Latin collis, 'hill' and OE myln > PDE mill. L. Cambell 1999 also supplies a similar example from alternations in Finnish: kuul-nut > kuullut 'heard', pur-nut > purrut 'bitten', and nous-nut > noussut 'risen'. A similar assimilation is found in Kanakuru, a Chadic language of Nigeria . . . and in Kanuri, a Nilo-Saharan language . . . . In these examples, both consonants are coronal, and a notable feature is that nasality is lost. From a gestural perspective, a nasal assimilating to a non-nasal must be viewed as the loss of the gesture that opens the velum. Thus two things are going on in these examples: the two coronal gestures blend, with the [l], [r], and [s], none of which involve complete closure, affecting the closure of the nasal and the loss of velum opening, perhaps in response to the loss of closure.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Bybee, Joan. Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2015.
֥ҡפ coffee /ˈkɒfi/ ɤ⡤ΰ˴ޤޤ붽ʳޤΡ֥եפ caffeine /ˈkæfiːn/ Ȥʤ롥ǽ첻ʻˤۤʤΤϤʤѤʵ䤬줿ΤˤʤȻפäĴ٤Ƥߤ
ҡӡʤɤ¤ǹѤʸ1ĤǤ롥ѤȤƤΥҡʸƸΤϡ10ΥΰؽˤƤǤ롥11˥ǰѤϤᡤ13ȾФˤϼؤƤ륤ඵ̤δ֤ǼΤȤư褦ˤʤäκΰ̾äƥӥ qahwa ȸƤФ褦ˤʤä16˥ȥ륳Υץȱˡΰϥȥ륳 kahve Ȥꡤ1554ǯ˥֡˲ʥҡŹ Kahve Khāne 줿
衼åؤΥҡƳϡ16Ⱦ˥ȥ륳ͳƤʤ줿17ˤʤȥͥѥʤɳϤ˹ޤꡤꥹǤ1650ǯ˥åեɤǡ1652ǯ˥ɥǺǽΥҡŹץ̵ξȤƤѤʸݤȤƤΥҡϥ (coffee house) Ǥ롥
ơȤƤΥҡϤΤ褦ˤƥꥹäƤ櫓ɽ魯̾ˤĤƤϤɤäΤOED ˤȡӥ qahwah ȥ륳 kahveh Ȥä塤ꥢ caffè Фƥ衼åѽ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ
˥ꥢȤȡ첻ʻa ݤ줿Τե caféڥ caféݥȥ caféɥĸ Kaffeeǥޡ졦ǥ kaffe ȤȤˤʤ롥첻ʻˤİ۷Ȥ夷ΤѸ coffee koffieŤɥĸ coffee/koffee kophe/kopheĭ Ǥ롥Ԥ o ˤĤƤϡӥȥ륳 ahw/ahv w/v ĴƱ (assimilation) Τȿ¬롥Barnhart θ츻εҤȤ褦
coffee n. 1598 chaoua, 1601 coffe, 1603-30 coffa, borrowed from Turkish kahveh, or directly from Arabic qahwah coffee, originally, wine. Two forms of this word (with a and with o) came into most modern languages about 1600: the first is represented by French, Spanish, and Portuguese café, Italian caffè, German Kaffee, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish kaffe. The second form is represented by English coffee, Dutch koffie, Russian kofe. The forms with o may have had earlier au (see the earliest English form chaoua), from Turkish -ahv-- or Arabic -ahw-.
OED ˤȱѸǤν1598ǯ Chaoua Ǥꡤ17ˤ a ĸ롥Ѹ絬ϥѥ EEBO ǸƤ cahave, kauhi ʤɤ鷺ǤϤ뤬Ĥä17ᤤʳ o ĸˤۤڤؤä褦ǤϤ롥17Ⱦˤ coffa 17Ⱦˤ coffee Ȥ夷
ơեǤ café ֥ҡפΤߤʤ餺֥ҡŹեפ̣뤬ΥեȤƤñ줬Ԥθ1763ǯˡԤθ1802ǯ˱ѸäƤѸ cafe /ˈkæfeɪ/ ̾ϸԤθ˸ꤷƻȤƤꡤܸǤƱͤǤ롥
Ǹ caffeine 1830ǯ˥ե caféine ѸäƤa äƤΤϡեǤθȤȤˤʤ롥
Barnhart, Robert K. and Sol Steimetz, eds. The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology. Bronxville, NY: The H. W. Wilson, 1988.
Ѹ̾ʣ˴ؤѤʵȤСfoot -- feet, child -- children ʤԵ§ʣˤޤĤ꤬ޤǽ˻פ⤫Ӥޤfoot -- feet ˤĤƤС伫Ȥܥ֥ǤǤ⤫Ȥۤɷ֤夲Ƥޤεåȡˡ
Ȥ1ǯ˱Ѹ붵鸽ճʾäƤޤʣ˴ؤ̤μǺǤ¿äΤϡ֤ʤ -o, -s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh ǽȤ -es ĤΤפäȤΤǤʤ -s ǤϤʤ -es ʤΤȤǤ͡ξƤ줿ΤϱѸ춵ƤΥ´ʤΤǤֱѸƳ2021Τʣ -s ĤʤɤΤˡƤޤζ鸽줫ռȱѸˡѸظΥܤȤäƤ褤ƥĤǤ
̾θ (sibilant) ξ硤Ūˤ [s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ] ǤˤϡʣθȤ -es [-ɪz] դΤ§ǤŪطʤ嵭ƥƤ̤ǤȤȤʣ -s ǤϤʤ -es äΤǤäơ֤ʤ̾θξˤϡȤȤ -es -s ˤʤäƤޤäΤפȤ䤤ΩƤۤŬڤȤȤˤʤޤο䤤ФƤϡҤȤޤ֤Τ褦ʲѲפƤޤǤϡʤΤ褦ʲѲθ֤ǤʤäΤǤ礦ФơƥĤǤϼΤ褦˲ͿƤޤ
ؤβȤƹͤΤϡȯˤפȤΤǤ롥 -s-x-ch-sh ǽȯ [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], [ʤ] Ǥꡤ[s] [z] ƱǤ롥ޤ[s] [z] ϻԲǤ[ʃ] [ʒ] ϸԲǡĴ֤˶ᤤΤ褯ҲϢ³ȯ⡤첻ȯ䤹ᡤ֤ e Ĥäȹͤ롥
ȯءǤ͡伫ȤŪˤϤޤǤΤ褦ƤޤΤ˱Ѹˤ̤ƲƤҲϢǤꡤȤʬ䤹ǤƤͤ뵡ΤǡŤ˹ͻƤߤޤ
1. [s, z] ϢȯˤפȤäƤ⡤ƱϢϲޤĶǤ̤¸ߤޤ (ex. this style, these zoos, dish soap, garagesale, watchstrap, page zero) äơĴŪʴŪˡȯˤפȤȤϼĥˤ褦˻פޤ塤Ʊ첻ƱϢ뤳Ȥϻ¤ʤΤǡĶˤŪˡȯˤפȤȤϡޤĥǤ뤫⤷ޤǤΤǤСѸȤơȯƤʤפɽۤŬڤΤ褦˻פޤ
2. षʹΩΩλҲϢİˤפȹͤɤǤ礦ʣϡѸˤ̤̾ο (number) ˴ؤôפʷǤǤƱ̾ΥƥΤʤǤ⡤ (gender) (case) ϷŪ˿षޤ˴ؤƤϸߤޤǴ趯ӤƤޤѸˤƿϲ餫ΰ̣ǡֽספΤ褦Ǥ
äΩ줫餹СפȰռƤƤ⡤λҲϢäƤĴƱ (assimilation) γʹȤʤꡤ[s, z] Ԥݤ߹ޤƾäƤΤϼԤǤ̤Ȥơƥ¸³δΩǤ礦ʹΩ줫餹Сʣޡ [s, z] ˴ؤƤϤäİǤ褦äˤϤäȯƤ餤ȤȤˤʤޤ
ä꤬ƱظΤФơʹϰ۲ (dissimilation) ظ롤ƸηϤѲξԤι˰ξΩäƤ롤ȤȤǤεǤСΥǤϡʹΰ۲θΤۤŪ˶äȤȤˤʤޤʹŻ뤷Ѳ¸ߴƤ뤳ȤŦƤȻפޤεå⤴
ơΡʣ -es פΤʤǡɤҤä֤äƤȯءŬѤǤʤΤϡ嵭ƥǤܤƤ̤ꡤ-o ǽ̾ΥǤ̾˱ -s ä -es äꡤξԤδ֤ɤ͡ǤˤȤơѸؤƱ٤δ顤ƱʤǤФۤ -es 롤ȤŦʤƤϤȤܤͤޤϢܥ֥Ǥ#3588. -o ǽ̾ʣ --- pianos potatoes ([2019-02-22-1]) ˤưäƤޤΤǡɤ
ˤ衤¤˱οǤ͡٤
ư say /seɪ/ Ķ٤θǡؼԤ⤹˳Ф뤳ȤˤʤܸǤưβ said ⤭ƹ٤ʤ櫓ǤֻȤԵ§ǤФ꤫¤ȯˤƤԵ§Ǥͽۤ2첻 /seɪd/ ȤϤʤ餺û첻 /sɛd/ ȤʤΤǤƱ褦Ե§3ñ -s դˤĤƤ⤤ޤֻ says ȵ§Ū˸ޤȯϤϤ2첻 /seɪz/ ȤϤʤ餺û첻 /sɛz/ ȤʤäƤޤޤʤ said, says ϤΤ褦ȯʤΤǤ礦ˤŪʷаޤޤɤ
¤ϡѸüԤȯĴƤߤޤȡ˥ФϤΤΡͽ̤ۤ2첻ȯ /seɪd/, /seɪz/ ԤʤƤΤǤޤɸŪǥޥʡȯȤƤǤΤǡ䤿ȤƤԵ§ʤϤû첻 /sɛd/, /sɛz/ μ¤˽ƤΤ̵Ǥ礦
ŪʲѲηаޤмΤ褦ˤʤޤȤư say ϡѸޤǤϡֻ̤ /saɪ/ Ǥ˽äơ /saɪ(ə)d/3ñ /saɪ(ə)z/ ȵ§ŪȯƤޤȤ17ޤǤ2첻 /aɪ/ Ĺ첻 /ɛː/ ؤѲΤǤ礦ܸΡ֥Хפᤤȯǡ֥١פȤʤΤ˻ɤθˤ褯벻ѲǤ̤Ѳ餺褽ʳˤȤɤޤäޤ˻äƤΤǤСǤ§Ū say /seɪ/, said /seɪd/, says /seɪz/ ȤʤäƤǤ礦ʼ¤ΤȤ2ĤޥʡȯȤƤ뤳ȤϾҤޤˡ
Ȥ3ñˤĤƤϡθ⤦1̤βѲޤĹ첻 /ɛː/ ûû첻 /ɛ/ ȤʤäΤǤ say /seɪ/ ФԵ§ˤߤ /sɛd/, /sɛz/ ƤޤäΤǤƱѲ˴ޤ줿̤ñȤơagain against Ƥޤ礦û첻 /əˈgɛn(st)/ ͥǤ2첻 /əˈgeɪn(st)/ ¹ԤʹȤˤʤäƤޤ
ʤ3ñǤΤ첻ûΤȤΤϡɬƤʤǤsaid ˈhe, says ˈshe Τ褦Ѥ¿̾ФŪư줬夯ȯΤûȤƤƤޤ1Ĥβˤޤ
ϢȵˤĤơ##541,543,2130εå⤪ɤߤ
ɸθ input ϡ츻ŪˤϡƬ in- + ư putפΤ褦ˤߤΤǡ츫Ȳ꤬ʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ޤimpact, imperfect, imperil, impersonal, important ʤɤֻפ⤫٤ƤߤСƬ in- ³Τ p ǻϤޤΤǤС̾Ƭ im- η뤳Ȥʬޤȡʤ input ˤĤƤϡ*imput ֤ʤΤȤ䤬ͯƤޤ¤Ǥͤİ
Ƭ in- ϡ츻Ūˤ2̤ɬפäΤǤ͡1ĤϰŪ¿ɤƥͳ in- ꡤ뤤ϡפΰաˤǡ⤦1ĤϾɤȤΩʤѸ in- ʡפΰաˤǤȯ⸫ǤۤȤƱǤ̣פ˴ؤƤнŤʤäƤޤΤǡդƤʤ٤ƤޤޤۤʤʪǤԤϴΤƬ˽ä im-, il-, ir- ʤɤȲΤ§ǤԤϷ褷Ʋޤinput ϾɤθԤ°Τǡin- ʬϷ褷Ʋ<in> + <put> Ȥ¤ľֻȤʤäƤΤǤ
ʤֳפ̣еƬͤƤߤȡƥ in- ˤ ex- бѸ in- ˤ out- бޤǡimport/export ϥƥͳΥڥinput/output ϱѸΥڥȤʬޤ͡
ˤĤơ⤦ܤΤꤿϡ#3309. ʤ input *imput ֤ʤΤ ([2018-05-19-1]) ɤߤ
hellog 饸ǤǤϡ#4156. ʤѸˤ s ̯˰ۤʤ th Τ褦ȯˤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-09-12-1]) ȤѤʵ夲ޤ³ th-sound ˴ؤǤth ֻбȯˤϡ /θ/ ä /ð/ 2बޤʲؤǤϳơ̵ͭȸƤǤޤˡǤϡɤΤ褦ʤȤ̵ȤʤꡤͭȤʤΤǤ礦ñ줴Ȥ1ĤҤȤİŵʤФʤʤΤǤ礦
ǰʤ顤̵ͭʬۤͽ¬ֵ§פȤΤ¸ߤޤʤͭʡַפϻŦǤޤŪʴ2ĤηҲ𤷤ȻפޤǤϡʲβɤ
ʾ塤2ĤηҲ𤷤ޤñ˸ th ̵ͭϡΰֻ̣顤٤Ͽ䤷̤뤳ȤǤȤȤʬäǤ礦ơơηˤϿɴǯǯʾˤȤȤפʥݥȤǤΤȯΡ֥פȯΤʤ˻ĤäƤȻפԻĤʴޤ͡
ѤʵȤμդˤĤơ##842,858,3713,1365,702,3298,4069εåɤߤ
#3507. NURSE Merger ([2018-12-03-1])#4068. Ѹ -ir, -er, -ur ͻβŪᥫ˥ ([2020-06-16-1]) εǡr ֤첻Ūͻ礷ƤܤѸβѲȤǤ Dobson (724) "No consonant exercises greater or more varied influence on the development of the words in ME and ModE than r." ȽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤѸ˾夭ƱƶϤ礭ʲѲǤ롥
βѲˤĤ Hickey ʸɤൡäޤȤƤͭפʤΤǡβսѤ褦 (99--100)
The BIRD-TERM-NURSE merger
For his discussion of short vowel centralisation before /r/ Dobson discusses /ɛ/, /ɪ/ and /ʌ/ separately and in that order. However, he sees the development of all three vowels as similar and as having taken place in the early seventeenth century, in "Standard English", though earlier "in the dialects" (Dobson 1968, 746). The centralisation took place "because of the influence of the following r to the central vowel [ə]". He continues to state that "[t]he reason for the retraction was to anticipate the pronunciation of the r, for [ə] is a vowel closely allied to the ModE [r]". Lass (2006, 91) sees the centralisation for all three ME vowels as having taken place somewhat later and mentions Nares (1794) as the first writer to say that "vergin, virgin and vurgin would be pronounced alike".
Dobson (1968, 746) states that the schwa vowel "must have been of approximately the same quality as PresE [ə] which later develops from it when the r is vocalized to [ə]". There is an important conclusion from these remarks, namely that centralisation presupposes the existence of a following /r/ so that the loss of rhoticity must be dated after the centralisation. Confirmation of this is found from prescriptive authors of the eighteenth century. For instance, John Walker in his Critical Pronouncing Dictionary of 1791 has 'bu2rd' for bird, his u2 represents schwa (in his principle 172 he states that the vowel value is the same as that in done, son). Walker also transcribes bird with "r" but we know that he favoured the retention of non-prevocalic /r/ even though he recognised that it was rapidly losing ground during his lifetime.
NURSE Merger ΥΥˤĤƲƥݥȤȴФȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) ͻ礬ϡ1718ޤǤȽ֤
(2) ɸѸǤɸѸ٤ä
(3) ޤ첻ɤ岽ͻ礷θ˸첻ͻ礷
(4) 첻ͻ /r/ ξü
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. 2 vols.
Hickey, Raymond. "Vowels before /r/ in the History of English." Contact, Variation, and Change in the History of English. Ed. Simone E. Pfenninger, Olga Timofeeva, Anne-Christine Gardner, Alpo Honkapohja, Marianne Hundt and Daniel Schreier. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins, 2014. 95--110.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 43--108.
Nares, Robert. Elements of Orthoepy. 1794. Reprint. Menston: Scolar P, 1968.
ɸβѲϡܥ֥Ǥ⤹Ǥ˰ä褦ˡ#3507. NURSE Merger ([2018-12-03-1]) ȸƤФƤ롥βŪᥫ˥ˤĤ Minkova (277--78) βʹƤߤ褦
A coda /-r/ is a neutralising environment. For the short vowels neutralisation of [ɪ], [ʊ], [ɛ] results in merger into the featurally neutral schwa outcome. The phonetic rationale behind this is the coarticulation of the short vowel + /-r/ which affects both segments: it lowers and centralises the vowel, while the adjacent sonorant coda becomes more schwa-like; its further weakening can eliminate the consonantal cues, leading to complete loss of the consonantal properties of /r/. The difficulty of perceiving the distinctive features of pre-/r/ vowels is attributed to the acoustic similarity of the first two formants of [ɹ], [ɻ], and [ə ? ɨ] . . . .
(coda) /r/ ϡľ첻岽ʤۣ첻ˤˤ /r/ ȤҲŪ첻˶Ť̤Ȥơ/r/ ϻҲ˼Ȥˤʤꡤľû첻ȹήбĹ첻Ȥʤ롤ȤſϸͭβŪݻƤ2ߤƱ (assimilation) Ĥˤдˤä [əː] ؤȽ뤷Ȥʤ褦ʡ餷ʤ褦ʷ̤줬ñθˤϰƤΤʤ
Ϣơ#2274. heart ֻȯ ([2015-07-19-1]) εɤ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
2֤ε ([2019-11-13-1], [2019-11-14-1]) ɸѤʵˤĤƹͤƤޤɽŪˤߤȡܸǤϡ֤夯ס֤ФפȤɽǡ֤פʬʤѸʤ뤤ϥإܥˤǤ Shinjuku Shimbashi ʬƤΤǤ顤Ѹɽȯΰ㤤˼¤Ҵȿ븷̩ɽʤΤʡȻפ뤫⤷ޤn m νʬΤߤ夲ơѸɽŪ˸̩ǤǸΤϾǤ¾ͻƤɬפޤ
n m ȤҲΰ㤤פǤΤϡξȤ˰ǤѸ nap map ΰ㤤פʤΤƱͤˡܸǡ֤ʡ̾ˡ na ȡ֤ޡʴ֡ˡ ma ΰ㤤ϽפǤǤ顤ܸñΥɽˤ na ma Τ褦˽ʬ뤳ȼΤԻĤǤⲿǤ⤢ޤɡҲ첻ʤĶĤޤñȤΩľˤܸǤɡҲΰ㤤¤ȤǤʤѸ٤礭ۤʤΤǤ
֤ʻˡפ̾ [saɴ] ȯޤĿͤˤäơ뤤Ͼˤä [san], [saɲ], [saŋ], [sam], [sã] ʤɤȼ¸뤳Ȥ⤢ޤȯǤ⡤ܸʸ̮ǤϽʬˡ֤פȤƲᤵޤȤѸǤ sun [sʌn], some [sʌm], sung [sʌŋ] Τ褦ˡĤɡҲñȤΩĴĶǤΤ˶̤ʤФʤޤѸϤΤ褦ܸ٤ɡҲζ̤Ū˸θˡˤȿǤƤ뤿ˡShinjuku Shimbashi νʬƤȹͤޤ
äϤǽޤ˵ sung [sʌŋ] Τ褦ˡng Ȥֻ [ŋ] ȯñͤƤߤޤ礦. sing, sang, song Ϥ king, long, ring, thing, young ʤɤޤ͡ѸǤ [ŋ] [n] [m] Τ˶̤ʤФʤʤΤǡΤ褦 ng Ȥ ȼʸ2ʸ1ȤֻˤѰդƤ櫓ǤȤСn m ˽ʬΤƱˡ ng ˽ʬƤ뤫ȤС㤤ޤ㤨 ink, monk, sync, thank ϳơ [ɪŋk], [mʌŋk], [sɪŋk], [θæŋk] ȯ졤ʶʤ [ŋ] ɡҲäƤޤʤΤˡ*ingk, *mongk, *syngc, *thangk Τ褦ˤ֤ޤn m ξȤϻ𤬰ۤʤΤǤ
Ѹ [n], [m], [ŋ] Τ˶̤٤ȯȤߤʤƤޤֻ夽ΰ㤤ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤޤn m ʬ뤳ȤˤĤƤϾҴǤ ng ΰ㤤˽ʬۤҴʤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤܸδ鸫ȡѸɽϤȤǤϳΤ˲Ūˤ긷̩Ȥޤ̤ΤȤǤɬ⸷̩ǤϤʤܸɽΡ֤פ˶ᤤȤޤ⤷٤Ƥξ˸̩äȤ顤ֿסʤ [ɕiŋkoiwa] αѸɽʤ뤤ϥإܥɽˤϡԤ Shinkoiwa ǤϤʤ *Shingkoiwa ȤʤϤǤ
ɸεޤ礦ʤֿסʤФˤΥɽ Shimbashi ˤ n ǤϤʤ m ѤΤǤ礦εФơֱѸܸⲻŪ˸̩ɽѤƤ뤫פñǤԽʬǤֿפΡ֤פǤξĤƤꡤ餳 m ɽΤǤĴؤǤޤϡ˴ְäƤȤϤޤShinkoiwa 褦ȤʤˤʤäþޤǤΤǡɸεФΤϡҤ٤褦ˡֱѸˡ᤹٤ˤΤ߸̩ʲɽɽ路Ρ줬 Shimbashi פȤʤޤäϪˤäƤޤСShimbashi ֤ΤϡѸǤϤ֤뤳ȤˤʤäƤ뤫פȤȤˤʤޤѤʵФȤƤϿȤդʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ޤŪʴ餤ȹͻ̡䤬äȰƤɤĤ̤ηǤ̻ŪʴϤޤ̤˵Ǥޤˡ
ε ([2019-11-13-1]) ǡܸΡ֤פĶ˱ƿΰۤʤȯǼ¸뤳Ȥ˿ޤλ¤ˤĤơ⤦Ū˹ͤƤߤޤ礦
ƣ (49) ˤȡ֤פ͡ʲŪ¸ˤĤơΤ褦ޤ
³ҲƱĴɡְФȤ벻Ǥ롥³ҲɡΤȤϡ[p] [b] [m] [m], [t] [ts] [d] [dz] [n] [n], [tɕ] [dʑ], [ɲ] [ɲ], [k] [ɡ] [ŋ] [ŋ] ˤʤ롥
ǤθꡤĤޤٻߤľǤϡɡ [paɴ] Ȥʤ롥ĿͤޤϾ̤ˤꡤ[m] [n] [ŋ]ޤɡ첻ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥֤ʿաˡס֤ʿˡפΤ褦ʡ첻ܶΥ⡤ɡ [paɴ] Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ뤬ºݤϤۤǫĴʤ¤ĺ[ɕiĩi] Τ褦 [i] ɡ첻 [ĩ] Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿
³ҲԤϹԤʤɤΤȤ⡤ƱǡƱĴͭɡΤȤʤ뤬첻αƶ뤿ᵭ沽άɽǤϳά[h] [s] [ɸ] [ɯ̃], [ɕ] [ç] [ĩ] Τ褦ɡ첻ȤʤȹͤƤФ褤
ܸΡ֤פϤʤʤʣʤ͡ȯƤ뤳ȤʬǤ礦̾٤вŪ˸̩ȤäƤ褤Ѹɽʤ뤤Ϥ˶ᤤإܥɽˤǤΡ֤פȤʤС1ν˼ޤʤΤƻǤ̤ȤơShinjuku Ǥʤ Shimbashi Τ褦ֻФƤ櫓Ǥ
̾ӤФ긷̩ʲɽȤȤˤѸʤɽˤˤƤ⡤ n m ʬ뤯餤ǡ¤ϡָ̩פʤɤǤϤޤѸˡ᤹٤ˤΤ߸̩ʲɽɽ路Ρ줬 Shimbashi ȹͤƤɬפޤ
ʤθɡ [ɴ] ˤĤơܸɴŵ (247) ȡ֤ѶŪɡҲǤȤϡꡤ㴳Ĥ뤳Ȥˤä벻פȤȤǤ
ƣ ˡŸ˾ܸ١ҡ1996ǯ
ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ
ʸ嵭2021/04/29(Thu)ܵϡѤʵפäΤʤǤȤ櫓¿ȤƤ褦Ǥ켫ΤϤȤƤȤǤܵϡֶʽŪʲפǤϤΤΡɮԤȤƤԽʬʲˤȤɤޤȹͤƤޤषβŦ³ԤܳŪ˵Ƥ椯ĤܵȤаޤޤǤΤǡ³Ԥ3碌ɤǤФȻפޤ줺˸СܵΡֶʽŪʲפǤԽʬǤ
夲㤬ֿפɤ̤ˤƤ⡤֤פ m ֤Ϥ褯ˤΤܤޤ
JRοؤα̾ɽϳΤ Shimbashi ȤʤäƤޤܸɽȤƤϡ֤ФפΤ褦ˡ֤פǤäƤ⡤ѸɽΤˤСJRѤƤȤܤإܥɽ˶ᤤɽˤˤƤ n ǤϤʤ m ȤʤޤϤäʤǤ礦ϡ¤ϱѸˤδ뤳ȤΤǤ˥ǥפʤΤǤ϶ʽŪʲܤƤޤ礦
ޤŪǤإܥɽǤϡ֤פȯȸƤФ벻ˤϡb, m, p ֤ˤƤ n ǤϤʤ m ɽ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäơȡסʤʤСˤ Nambaܴ֡סʤۤޡˤ Hommaֻӡסʤڤˤ Sampei ȤʤꡤƱͤ˿ʤФˤ Shimbashi Ȥʤ櫓ǤϤʤʤΤȤȤǤ
b, m, p ֤ˤ m ɽͳ뤿ˤϡؤμɬפǤܸ֤פü첻ǤȸƤФ졤ܸ첻Ǥ /ɴ/ ɽޤ1ĤβǤꡤܸüԤˤȤäʶʤ1ĤβȤǧƤޤºݾϿΰۤʤȯǼ¸ޤ֤פϤɤΤ褦ʲĶ˸뤫ˤäơۤʤȯȤƼ¸ΤǤ
ȡסܴ֡סֻӡפ3ñȯƤߤȡ֤פʬϤξĤȯȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥʬ뤫ȻפޤϥԻҲ m θˤۤʤޤܸüԤˤȤäƤϡ֤פȤ n ȯƤĤǤ⡤ξˤϼ¤ m ȯƤΤǤϸ³ m, b, p ƱξǤ뤿ˡľ֤פԲ n ǤϤʤξ m ˶ŤƤۤΤȤƥࡼȯǤ뤫Ǥȯ䤹褦äƸ̡ǥեȤ n 顤ȯꥹࡼ m ؤĴƤȤ櫓Ǥ
̯ѲȤгΤˤǤΤǡܸɽǤϡäȯĴϢưˡ֤פɽΤޤޤǤꤹƤޤϢưʤСȤƤϡ֤դɽȤʤǤ礦ˡΤ褦ȯΰ㤤̵ǤϤʤѸɽʤӡ˶ᤤإܥɽˤˤäƤϡ嵭βĶˤƤϡn 夨ơ긷̩ʲɽǤ m Ѥ櫓Ǥ
ܸüԤˤȤäƤϡֿɡסʤ夯ˤֿסʤФˤƱ֤ײޤΤ顤Ʊ֤ = n ɽѤФ褤ǤϤʤȤǤѸʤإܥˤǤ2ĤΡ֤פ¤ƱȯǤʤȤ¤Ż뤷ơԤˤ n ʸԤˤ m ʸơ̤ɽʤ路ȤȤǤ
ǽȤϤɼԤȤܸüԤǰƬˤΤǤ n ɽۤʬ䤹ΤϤޤǤ⤢ޤ¸ƤΤἰǤˤȡֿפ Sinbasi Ȥʤޤ餯JRʤޤŴƻƼҡˤϡɼԤȤüԡʤ餯ѸɽǤǤȻפ¿γ͡ˤꤷἰǤϤʤإܥʤ˥ɽѤƤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤShimbashi ϡܸȱѸˤޤĤ벻ءֻˤȤɤޤ餺ݲ줿ܤθȤؤΤʤΤǤ
Ѹܼ (affix) ϡֲŪʴ2Ĥμ˶̤롥줾쥯饹 I ܼ饹 II ܼȸƤФƤ뤬ξԤ¿оŪǤ롥 (89--90) ˤäơޤȤ褦
| 饹 I | 饹 II | |
| -al, -ard, -ative/-itive, -ian, -ic, -ion, -ity, -ous, in- ʤ | -er, -ful, -ingN, -ish, -less, -ly, -ness, -ship, -yADJ, un- ʤ | |
| ʥ˶ְư (stress shift) | ʤ | |
| párent vs. paréntal | párent vs. párentless | |
| Cánada vs. Canádian | Fíinland vs. Fínlander | |
| átom vs. atómic | yéllow vs. yéllowish | |
| prohíbit vs. prohibítion | óbvious vs. óbviously | |
| májor vs. majórity | ácid vs. ácidness | |
| móment vs. moméntous | cítizen vs. cítizenship | |
| ʥ˻û첻 (trisyllabic shortening) | ʤ | |
| divíne vs. divínity | gréen vs. gréenishness | |
| sáne vs. sánity | bríne vs. bríniness | |
| obscéne vs. obscénity | ráin vs. ráininess | |
| deríve vs. derívative | róse vs. rósiness | |
| ʥ (velar softening) | ʤ | |
| electric vs. electricity, electrician | traffic vs. traffickingN | |
| panic vs. panickyADJ | ||
| ʥ˻Ҳά (consonant cluster simplification) | ʤ | |
| elongate cf. long | singer | |
| bombard cf. bomb | bomber | |
| hymnalADJ cf. hymn | crumby | |
| condemnation cf. condemn | condemner | |
| ʥƬɡƱ (nasal assimilation) | ʤ | |
| immoral | unmoral | |
| impatient | unpack |
knead, knee, knell, knife, knight, knob, knock, knot, know ʤɤ˸ <kn> ΥڥϡȯȤƤ [n] б롥ϡ1718ˤ [kn] [n] βѲǤ롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεǰäƤ
#122. /kn/ ǻϤޤñ ([2009-08-27-1])
#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])
#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1])
#3482. ƬλҲϢñ㲽Ƥˡ ([2018-11-08-1])
#3386. Ѹ˾μפʻҲѲ ([2018-08-04-1])
βѲϡλ֤ [kn] [xn] [hn] [n] ȤʳФʤʹԤȹͤƤ롥Dobson (Vol. 2, 417) ꡤսѤ롥
In OE and ME [k] in the initial group kn- in, for example, knife had the same pronunciation as before the other consonants (e.g. [l] in cliff), and is retained as [k] by all sixteenth- and most seventeenth-century orthoepists. The process of loss was that, in order to facilitate transition to the [n] (which is articulated with the point of the tongue, not the back as for [k]), the stop was imperfectly made, so that [k] became the fricative [χ], which in turn passed into [h]; the resulting group [hn] then, by assimilation, became voiceless [n̥], which was finally re-voiced under the influence of the following vowel.
βѲλˤĤƤϡDobson ϼΤ褦˹ͤƤ롥
[T]he entry of this pronunciation into educated StE clearly belongs to the eighteenth century. The normal seventeenth-century pronunciation was still [kn], but the intermediate stages [hn] and/or [n̥] were also in (perhaps rare) use.
βѲΥߥϡ#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1]) ǼȤˤäᤤ٤κäΤǡˤäɬפ롥
Ϣơgnarr, gnash, gnat, gnaw, gnome ˤ [gn] [n] βѲˤĤƤߤƤ츫ξѲϥѥΤǤϤʤȵȤºݤˤϡ#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1]) ǵ褦ξԤΥߥϰۤʤ롥[gn] [n] ΤۤᤤΤǤ롥
Dobson (Vol. 2, 418) ̯ʲѲβꤷơξѲϤϤʬŪˤϴϢƤȹͤƤ褦
Initial [gn] had two developments which affected educated speech in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the first the [g] was lost by a direct process of assimilation to [n]; too early opening of the nasal passage would tend to produce [ŋn], which would forthwith become [n]. In the second [gn] by dissimilation becomes [kn], the vibration of the vocal chords being delayed fractionally and coinciding, not with the making of the stop, but with the opening of the nasal passage; thereafter it develops with original kn- through [χn] and [hn] to [n̥] and [n].
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957.
ܸưˤϡֳѡפȸƤФΤ뤬̾ˤ⤽Τ롥פñȤǤϡ֤פȯ뤬פʤɤʣǤϡ֤ߡפȤʤ롥Ρ֤פȡ֤פϡ줾ΩΩ뤤ϪзʤȸƤФ롥Ʊطϡסʤդ͡ˤȡסʤդʤΤˡֱסʤˤȡֱסʤޤˡڡסʤˤȡڱסʤˡַסʤĤˤȡַסʡ̸ŸͤĤˤˤ⸫롥̾ΡֳѡפȤߤʤȤǤ롥
ΥڥδطϡϪзʤ *iפȤꤵ롥*i ϡΤˤϾü첾̾ǤȤ *i ΤȤǤ롥ϡñΩܼȹͤ롥ǶŪˤС
ama + *i ame
ko + *i ki
tuku + *i tuki
Ȥʤ롥첻ȤˤСa e, o i, u i ȤʤäƤꡤòβ꤫ǤϤʤΤΡѸޤॲޥˤƹ i-mutation θ̤ˤʤٻƤ롥źν̤ˤߤ첻Ĵ (vowel harmony) ΰǤꡤޤܸȱѸ˻褦ʸݤǧ뤫Ȥäơޤääˤʤ櫓ǤϤ뤬
ʾ塤 (45) ȤƼɮ
顡ܸˡ١˼Ҥӡ2017ǯ
Ƭ in- ϡ§ȤƸ³ΤɤΤ褦ʲǻϤޤ뤫ˤäơǥեȤ in- Ǥʤ, im b, m, p , il- l , ir- r , i- g ˤʤɤΰ۷֤Ȥ롥̣ȤƤϡƬ in- ˤϡפȡˡפ2Ĥ̤뤬۷֤ˤĤƤξȤƱͤ˿줾Сinactive, inconclusive, inspirit; imbalance, immature, immoral, imperil, implode, impossible; illegal, illicit, illogical; irreducible, irregular, irruptive; ignoble, ignominy, ignorant ʤɤǤ롥
in- λҲ³벻ˤäĴĴͼ㴳Ѱۤ븽ݤϡҲƱ (assimilation) Ȥ뤬ҲƱȤΤϡۤȤɤξ硤ѸΥƥʤեˤˤƤǤꡤѸäƤݤˤϡǤˤΤ褦ʰ۷֤ȤäƤȤΤ¤Ǥ롥षѸ¦Ω줫ϡμѸ夫ʬϤơƬ in- ڤФȤߤΤǤ롥äΤ褦ʬϤʤ夹ȡʹ in- ϤѸͭƬǤ뤫Τ褦˿Ф۷֤μ⥪ꥸʥΥƥʤɤƱͤ˵§ŪʤΤȤȤ館褦ˤʤä
ƥͳΡפȡˡפ̣Ƭ in- Ͼ嵭Τ褦˿դ٤ϱѸˤˡפ̣Ʊ֤ in ¸ߤ뤳Ȥֻ졦ȤƤαѸ in ƬȤѤˤϡ嵭ΥƥƬ in- Τ褦˰۷֤Ȥ뤳ȤϤʤĤޤꡤin- ѲǤ롥ɸñ input in- ϡȿи output out- ٤ʬȤꡤޤƬ in- Ǥ롥äơ*imput ȤϤʤʤʤʤߤ˥ƥ out- бΤ ex- Ǥˡδ in-between, in-place, inmate ʤɤƱͤǤ롥
ȯϼºݤΤȤҲƱƤ뤳Ȥ¿input ֤ƤƤ⡤/ˈɪnpʊt/ ˲ä /ˈɪmpʊt/ ԤʤƤ롥
228դηǼĤǡcomfort(able) m ˤĤƼ䤬줿ƥͳ褹Ƭ com- Ҳϡp, b, m Ǥ computer, combine, communicate ˸褦 m ݤ뤬ʳξǤϸ³˱ n, l, r ʤɤѲꡤȤ˼줿ꤹΤ̤Ǥ롥com- f Ǥ con- ȤʤΤǤꡤconfer, conflict, confront, convict ʤɤ˸̤Ǥ롥comfort Ǥ f m Ƥ롥ϡɤȤѸǤбեñ confort(able) n ֤Ƥ櫓ʤΤǡޤޤ䤬ޤ롥碌ơñ m Ϥ褦ȯΤȤ
ѸǤʤ m ΤˤĤƤϡĴ٤ƤߤޤǼ褦ʲƤʤǤϡȤꤢ m ȯˤĤ˲⤷ƤѸǤϡ<m> ʸϤۤ11δط /m/ βǤб롥 /m/ κǤŵŪʼ¸ͭξɡ [m] ĶˤäƤϤʳΰ۲ (allophone) ȤƤ¸롥ľ [f] [v] Τ褦ʿ³ˤϡ/m/ ĴεչƱ (assimilation) ˤͭɡ [ɱ] ȤʤΤ̤Ǥ롥פˡ[f] ȯιɡ©ȴƤФ褤βñȤĴ뤳ȤϤʤȻפ뤬[f] [v] ³֤Ǥ̵ռΤ [ɱ] ĴȤʤäƤϤǤ롥comfort m Ϥޤˤΰ۲Ǽ¸롥
ʲˡJespersen Cruttenden 顤۲ [ɱ] ˤĤƿƤʬѤ褦
Before [f, v], as in nymph, pamphlet, comfort, triumph, triumvir, circumvent [nimf, pæmflit, kʌmfət, traiəmf, traiˈʌmvə, səkəmˈvent], the [m]-closure is frequently formed not by means of both lips, but of the lower lip alone, which is applied to the lower edge of the upper front teeth. (Jespersen 395)
When followed by a labiodental sound /f,v/, the front closure may be labiodental [ɱ] rather than bilabial, e.g. in nymph, comfort, triumph, come first, circumvent, warm vest. Additionally pronunciations of infant, enforce, unforced, etc. with assimilation of [n] to [ɱ] can be regarded as having an allophone of /m/. (Cruttenden 212)
In connected speech /m/ frequently results from a final /n/ of the citation form before a following bilabial, e.g. one mile /wʌm ˈmaɪl/, more and more /mɔːr əm ˈmɔː/, ten pairs /tem ˈpeəz/, gone back /gɒm ˈbak/; sometimes /m/ is a realisation of word-final /ən/ or /n/ following /p/ or /b/, e.g. happen /ˈhapm/, ribbon /ˈrɪbm/, or, in context, cap and gown /kap m ˈgaʊn/ . . . . (Cruttenden 212)
դΤϡconfer, conflict, confront, convict ʤɤˤƤϡտȯǤϡ [f] [v] ³ȤϤäɡ [n] ȯΤ̤ȤȤˤ衤comfort(able) ϤϤѤäñǤ롥
ʤܸǤ̾ [f] [v] ȯʤΤǡޤƤ [ɱ] ʤɸ뤳Ȥʤ褦˻פ뤬ü˲˳֤ǥԤȯȡƤ [ɱ] Ȥʤ롥˥äȺ˳̤ξФߤǡֽޤơפȤȤΡ֤פȡ֤ޡפλҲݱʤ [ɱ] ȤʤäƤޤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
űѸҲѲΤʤǤ⡤ߤˤޤǸ̻ĤäƤΤˡ (palatalisation) 롥ޤǤˤ⡤ʲεޤᡤ͡ʷǤβˤĤƿƤ
#49. /k/ θڥ ([2009-06-16-1])
#168. <c> <g> β ([2009-10-12-1])
#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1])
#2054. seek beseech θҲ (2) ([2014-12-11-1])
#2367. űѸ <c> Ѹ <k> ء ([2015-10-20-1])
ѸλǤ Frisian ˤǧ벻Ǥʡ#787. Frisian ([2011-06-23-1]) 줬ϡѸˤˤƤƸŤʳΤȤȹͤƤ롥Ūˤϡ4--5˻Ϥޤꡤ11ޤǿʹԤȤ롥
äȤϡĺ [k], [gg], [g] ǤĴȤʤꡤ2ĤˤĤƤϻȤǤ롥ŵŪ˸űѸ <c> ֤줿 [k] ϡ[i, iː, e, eː, æ, æː, ie, iːe, eo, eːo, io, iːo, ea, eːa] Τ褦첻ʤޤ2첻ˤΰ֤ǡ̵ĺ [c] Ȥʤꡤ [ʧ] ؤȯŸˤꡤ㤨 ċiriċe [ˈcirice] [ˈʧiriʧe] ءċeosan [ˈceozɑn] [ˈʧeozɑn] ءbenċ [benc] [benʧ] ؤѲ
[gg] ˤĤƤ [k] ƱĶǡͭĺ [ɟɟ] Ȥʤꡤ˻ [ʤ] Ȥʤäˤꡤbrycg [bryɟɟ] [bryʤ] ءsecg [seɟɟ] [seʤ] , licgan [ˈliɟɟɑn] [ˈliʤɑn] ؤѲ
[g] ξƱͤξǸ [j] ȤʤäϻʤäȤơġift [gift] [jift] , ġeong [geoŋg] [jeoŋg] Ѳ
βθ̤ϡѸ¿ñ˷ѾƤ롥ʾ塤߷ (4, 6) Ȥ
߷ ˧ͺ 顡ԡرѸǯɽ?ѸˡѸػˡʸػˡ̻?١ҡ1993ǯ
Ѳϸν̿Ȥ⤤ۤŪʤΤǤꡤźȤ줿Ϥʤ줯餤ߤƤʤ⡤θޤ餫ȤƤʤΤԻĤȤԻĤǤ롥⤽⡤ְ̣פȼʤʱˤѲȤΤϤɤȤʤΤạ̈ѲȤΤ䤹Ѳ뤳ȤïȤΤؤκǤ̥ŪǤ롥
ѲθˤĤƤϡŤ͡⤬ƤAlgeo and Pyles (34--35) ȤơĤɽŪʤ Ҳ𤷤褦
ޤ2ĤθABܿAüԤBԴ˽ȤAȯħBػۤȤȤ롥СˡظȯħƳ륱ϡظ첾 (substratum_theory) ȸƤФ롥դˡظȯħظ˻ۤ졤Ū˸Ԥ˲Ѳˤ "superstratum theory" ȸƤФ롥
ʤ٤ߤηֳ֤Ȥʤ褦ĴƯΤǤϤʤȤ "phonological space" ʲ֡ˤδ⤢롥ܸΤ褦첻Ȥ [i, e] 첻Ȥ [u, o, ɑ] 첻ηϤϡ褯ѹդμ줿֤ǤꡤŪѲˤѹդμƤʤ֤ϡѹդܻؤѲ䤹⤷ʤ
Ʊ (assimilation) ۲ (dissimilation)æ (elision) (intrusion)ۤˡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) Ǽ褦ʳƼβظˤϡ "ease of articulation" ĴưפˤȤưŤ褦˻פ롥Ť龧ƤǤϤ뤬⤷줬ѲͣθȤС٤Ƥθ줬Ĵ䤹νؤȵ夷ƤޤȤˤʤäơϡĤꤦ븶1ĤˤʤȤ롥
üԤΰռٴͿβѲ⤢롥#192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) Ǹ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ȥƿ줿褦ˡcomptroller ֻҲ [mptr] ȯ褦ˤʤäȤˤϰ spelling_pronunciation äȤˤʤ롥ޤ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡchaise longue chaise lounge Ȥȯ褦ˤʤäΤϡָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ˤΤǤ롥
ҿȯؤΰռ뤳Ȥˤä꽤 (hypercorrection) ⡤Ѳ1װȹͤ롥talkin' somethin' Τ褦 g æȯ¤ޤפޤꡤ g ͽʤĶǤ g [ɪŋ] ȯ褦ʥǤ롥㤨 chicken Virgin Islands 줾 chicking, Virging Islands ʤɤȯѲ롥Ϣơrajah, cashmere, kosher ʤɤλˡͽʤä /ʒ/ 褦ˤʤä̲ (overgeneralization) ⤢롥
͡ʲ⤬ƤƤñȤDzѲԤȤϤǤʤʣװͿƤ뤳 (multiple causation of language change) Ȥɬפ
Ѳθ˸¤餺Ū˸Ѳθ˴ؤƤϡ#442. Ѳθ([2010-07-13-1]) Ȥ줿
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
#1348. 13ʹߤ v ([2013-01-04-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡѸˤ¸ߤ [v] 줿줬ʤʤäˡ (156) Ŧ褦ˡ첻Ԥ [v] ƱФƼפϱѸˤǤʤĤ褦
OE hlāford > lord
OE hlǣfdiġe > lady (cf. #23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1]))
OE heafod > head
OE havoc > hawk
OE lāferce > lark
OE wīfmann > woman (cf. #223. woman ȯֻ ([2009-12-06-1]))
OE hæfde > had (cf. #2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1]))
ۤ never > ne'er, ever > e'er, over > o'er of clock > oclock > o'clock ä뤫⤷ʤ
[v] ޤäơ[w] ؤȾ첻䤹줬 [u] ؤ첻䤹Τơ첻ݤ߹ޤƾüƤ椯Ȥ뤳ȤǤ롥
סOE byrðen "burden vs. fæder "fath''er"Ѹˤ˻ȯŪ˸ [d] [ð] θؤˤĤơסظդΤʿءˡ˶ǰʸ١ҡ2015ǯ155--66ǡ
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