رѸ츻ŵ٤δˤְ캬ɽפįƤȡs ǻϤޤ캬ˤơƬ s ̤ɽƤΤʤʤ(s)ker-, (s)mer-, (s)pen-, (s)preg-, (s)teg- ʤɤΥȥդ (s)- ϰĸκƷˤ褷Ƥ롥*(s)teg- "cover" ˡLass (118--19) ˲⤷Ƥ餪
As we saw in teg-ō vs. stég-os, etc. . . . , certain roots appear to have 'optional' initial /s/; or perhaps better, to occur in two forms, one with and one without */s/, hence the conventional description of this phenomenon as 'mobile s'. The root 'cover' then might be represented as */(s)teg-/, or */steg-, teg/. . . .
. . . .
Awareness of s-mobile suggests an interesting perambulation through the lexicon of a language like English, given its enormous propensity for borrowing. The root */(s)teg-/ (in its various ablaut grades) appears in English in at least nine lexemes, both native and borrowed. Thatch of course we have already seen, and tile < tīgele < L tēg-ula. We also have borrowed L toga, and from this via French togs, a clipping of tog(e)mans 'cloak'. Still on the s-less alternant, there are various derivatives of L teg-ō and its forms, like in-teg-ument, pr-tec-t 'provide shelter for', de-tec-t 'un-cover'. The s-root is not well represented in English, but from (neo-)Greek we have the dinosaur steg-o-saurus 'roofed or covered lizard', and the rare sixteenth-century coinage steg-ano-graphy 'secret or cryptic writing'.
s-mobile ϡĸ첻 (gradation or ablaut) λҲǤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ첻ǤۤηŪǤʤȯŪǤ롥
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ؤäΤȤꡥ
Fertig (34) ˤȡɸ̤ꡤƻ졦κǾɸ -est ϡӵ -er ˤȯŸǤȤȤ餷
The superlative suffix -est, for example, is historically a combination of the ancestor of the -er comparative suffix (*-ôz-/*-iz- in proto-Germanic) followed by an originally separate *-to-.
ȤȤ *-ôz-/*-iz- *-to- ̡̡̤ä줬蘆뵡¿äΤǡ蘆ä̤η1ĤοȤ褦ˤʤäȤȤ
Ϥ礦ɸѸ -ist -ic ̡ȤߤʤƤ뤬蘆ä -istic 1ĤΩȤȤ館٤롥㤨 cannibalistic ˤơڤФ٤ -ist -ic 2ĤʬϤ⡤-istic 1ĤʬϤۤºŪȤΤϡ*cannibalist ȤñϤʤ
ȤСӵ -er -ist ˡǾ -est -istic ȤȤˤʤʬ䤹褦ʬˤ褦ʡ
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
Hogg and Fulk (202--203) Ȥơޥĸ (Proto-Germanic) ȸűѸ (Old English) 1;ñ̾γʶޤ¤٤Ƽ
| PGmc | OE | |
|---|---|---|
| Nom. | *ik | iċ |
| Acc. | *mek | mē |
| Gen. | *mīnō | mīn |
| Dat. | *miz | mē |
ɽκ¦ PGmc γƶޤˤƱ¦ OE η֤ѲˤϤʣ (analogy 䲻Ѳ (sound_change) 䤽¾βƯƤȤHogg and Fulk (203) βΤޤްѤ褦
nom.sg.: *ik must have been the unstressed form, with analogical introduction of its vowel into the stressed form, with only ON ek showing retention of the original stressed vowel amongst the Gmc languages (cf. Lat egō/ǒ).
acc.sg.: *mek is the stressed form; all the other Gmc languages show generalization of unstressed *mik. The root is *me-, with the addition of *-k borrowed from the nom. The form mē could be due to loss of *-k when *mek was extended to unstressed positions, with lengthening of the final vowel when it was re-stressed . . . . More likely it represents replacement of the acc. by the dat. . . . as happened widely in Gmc and IE . . . .
gen.sg.: To the root *me- was added the adj. suffix *-īn- (cf. stǣnen 'made of stone' < *stain-īn-a-z . . .), presumably producing *mein- > *mīn- . . . . To this was added an adj. ending, perhaps nom.acc.pl. neut. *-ō, as assumed here.
dat.sg.: Unstressed *miz developed in the same way as *hiz . . . .
ǸΤȤ PGmc *miz ˤ OE mē ˤʤäΤˤĤơHogg and Fulk (198) ȤƤϤ礦3;ñʤ PGmc *hiz OE *hē ȯãΤʿŪȯãȤ*hiz z ˤ벼θ̤ *hez Ȥʤꡤ˸Ҳ rhotacism Ф *her Ȥʤä˾ü *he ȤʤꡤǸ˶ȤĹ첻 hē ˻äȤ롥
;̾Ϲ٤εǽȤƶȼθؤ㤷Ȥ⤤뤷˿ȼޤ³Ȥ⤵롥嵭βѤǤ⡤Ӹؤʬ롥Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ
#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])
#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])
#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1])
#3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])
#3776. ǽζȼ岻 (2) ([2019-08-29-1])
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Ѹ3;̾ he, she, it, they ʳơϼʤηˤζηϤϸǤʣʤۤŪˤˤƤаޤ롥бűѸμʷС줾 hē, hēo, hit, hīe Ȥʤ뤬ܤǤ⸽Ȥκ礭Ȥʬ (cf. #155. űѸο;̾ζޡ ([2009-09-29-1]))
ޥο;̾ηϤ٤ȡΤȤƤȤϤȤ櫓3;ΤθġγʷˤĤƤϡɬƱθ츻̤櫓ǤϤʤޤƤĸޤ̤餻뤳ȤǤʤĤޤꡤ1Ĥζ̴Ʒ뤳ȤǤʤȤȤˤʤ롥3;̾ϡ12;̾䡤ؼ졤ʤɤȤϻ𤬰ۤʤ롥Lass (139) ϢѤ褦
Proto-Germanic did not inherit a fully coherent pronoun or determiner system; nothing quite like this reconstructs even for Proto-IE. Rather the collections labelled 'pronouns' or 'articles' or 'demonstratives' in the handbooks represent dialect-specific selections out of a mass of inherited forms and systems. There are clear IE first-, second-person pronoun systems: we can easily identify a first-person nom sg root */H1egh-/ (l eg-o, Go ik, OE ic 'I') and a second-person root in */t-/ (L tu, OCS ty, OE þū). There is also an interrogative in */kw-/ (L qu-is, OE hw-ā 'who?') and a deictic in */to-/ (Go to 'def art, masc nom sg', OE þæ-s 'def art m/n gen sg'). There is no reconstructable third-person pronoun, however. The personal pronouns may be heterogeneous even across Germanic: Go is, OE hē 'he' are not cognate. But overall the main systems are related, at least in outline.
ϲ̣Τ3;̾줬¾ȯǤ뤳ȤΤƬ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡѸˤǤ˻˸¤äƤƱ礭ƤȤаޤ롥ȤȤϡ֤֡μѤηȤؤˤʸǤȤȤʤΤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ɤγʬǤ褯뤳ȤӸؤˤƤȤˤ̤ʤतνѸ¿ɸ˷ǤѸ줬ŵϢϡ#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤Ρ ([2011-03-28-1]) Ǽ夲ǵΰʾòؽѸȤ롥
줾 word ָ, root ָ캬, stem ָ촴, theme ָ촴ǡ, ending ָפ뤬Ϳ줿ޤ櫓ǤʤϰĸˤʲηŪʬϤȤʤäƤ롥
ROOT
STEM
THEME
WORD
ENDING
ROOT ϸỤ̄ôʬǤ롥THEME ϤȤϲ餫ʸˡŪǽôäƤǽ뤬Ǥ˰ĸʳˤợôʤʸ촴ǤȤƵǽƤľζ ENDING ؤΡ֤ĤʤפȹͤƤФ褤ROOT + THEME STEM Ȥʤꡤ ENDING ղäơŪ WORD θȤʤ롥
㤨Сϡפ̣ƥñʷ equus equ (ROOT) + u (THEME) + s (ENDING) ʬϤ졤Ʊꥷ hippos hipp (ROOT) + o (THEME) + s (ENDING) ʬϤ롥
űѸʹߤŪʳˤäƤϡĸˤ嵭ηŪʬϤǤƩ礭ROOT, THEME, ENDING ߤͻ礷ƤޤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿äơ嵭ϸ̩ˤжŪʬϤˤԸ̻ŪŪˤ̣ͭǤ뤷Ӹؤʬˤ봷ŪȤʤäƤ뤿ˡűѸʸˡʸ̮ǤʤۤȤʤʤޤޤˡȤƤ뤳Ȥ¿
ʤTHEME ˤ첻ȻҲꡤޥĸűѸ̾ˤơԤϡֶѲ̾סԤϡּѲ̾פ̾Τ롥THEME 礯 "athematic" ʤ¸ߤΤդפ롥
ʾ塤Lass (123--26) ȤƼɮ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
1Ⱦۤ56ڡˤˡYouTube ֤ͥإ饸˽ƽб餵Ƥޤ˸ؼԤ츻ˤĤƸä顤ܰڤȯڴܰñ1#227ȤǡȻ䤬Ѹθ츻夬ȤǤcf. #5122. Ρ֤إ饸פ˽饲Ƚб餷Ƥޤ ([2023-05-06-1])ˡ
Ѹ˸¤餺ˤϰ̤첻ؤ褯롤ȤäƤȤư19ʬ40նǡٸʤ⤽첻ؤȤѥΤʤΤȤѤʵꤲƤޤޤܼŪDZԤ䤤ʤΤǡ⤷Ф餯ǤޤäƤޤޤ⤷ɤɤˤʤĤġظˤ븶1ĤȤƲħ (sound_symbolism) ꤽȤȤޤǤϽҤ٤ΤǤޤäǼǤˤϤʤäƤʤäȻפޤ
Comrie ˤʸɤǤơεˤ䤤˴ϢڤĤޤޥɤ饦 (i-mutation or umlaut) κƷˤĤǡĸ첻 (gradation or ablaut) εȺƷͻƤսǤ (252)
. . . if we go back to an earlier stage of the Indo-European ablaut --- for instance, some instances of the so-called zero grade, with complete loss of the vowel, can plausibly be attributed to shift of the accent away from that vowel --- there is no general explanation, so that ablaut remains a morphophonemic alternation for which we cannot reconstruct a plausible origin.
ʤĸʤƸΰ¿ˤ첻ؤΤˤĤơϤŪϤʤȤȤǤ䤤ϡ첻ؤ뤳ȤˤäƵǽؤȤιפˤƲפȴ뤳ȤǤޤϳΤ˵ˤ䤤Τ褦˻פޤĴİСؤδ⡤첻ѰۤˤѤ䤹ǥХʤΤǤϤʤƤޤϤƤɤʤΤǤ礦
Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.
19ΥɥĤӸؼ August Schleicher (1821--68) ϡƷ줿ĸӤϤξʸƤ롥ºݤΰĸʸդƤʤäΤǡޤŪƷ˴ŤθؼԤˤϺǤ롥ȾܵȾФͷӤκʤRinge (45) ͳǰѤʸ˸Ѹ³ˡ
Schleicher's Tale
Avis, jasmin varnā na ā ast, dadarka akvams, tam, vāgham garum vaghantam, tam, bhāram magham, tam, manum āku bharantam. Avis akvabhjams ā vavakat: kard aghnutai mai vidanti manum akvams agantam.
Akvāsam ā vavakant: krudhi avai, kard aghnutai vividvant-svas: manus patis varnām avisāms karnauti svabhjam gharmam vastram avibhjams ka varnā na asti.
Tat kukruvants avis agram ā bhugat.
A sheep that had no wool saw horses---one pulling a heavy wagon, another one a great load, and another swiftly carrying a man. The sheep said to the horses: 'it pains my heart seeing a man driving horses.'
The horses said to the sheep: 'listen sheep! it pains our hearts seeing man, the master, making a warm garment for himself from the wool of a sheep when the sheep has no wool for itself.'
On hearing this the sheep fled into the plain.
Schleicher ΰĸ쾮ˤ19ΰӸؤ̤ȿǤƤ櫓θƱʬθȯŸˤꡤξθ켫ΤƤаޤ롥ĤޤꡤΰӸؼԤϡ嵭 Schleicher ˤĸΤޤޤηǤϼƤʤȤȤ
̴ȥޥΤʬǤĥ뤫ʬʤĥ롥
Ringe, Don. From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. Oxford: Clarendon, 2006.
Ѹư̿ˡη֤ϡ˰פ롥űѸ̤ȡ̿ˡǤϸˤȤϰۤʤ֤ꡤ2;ñʣȤǸ§Ȥưۤʤä
ˤᤷƥޥĸˤޤ̤ȡƷǤϤˤ衤;Τ˱ơ¿ΰۤʤäƤȤ롥ʲˡޥĸ¿ζѲưˤĤƺƷƤ (Ringe 237)
| indicative | subjunctive | imperative | ||
| active | infinitive -a-ną | |||
| sg. | 1 -ō | -a-ų | --- | participle -a-nd- |
| 2 -i-zi | -ai-z | ø | ||
| 3 -i-di | -ai-ø | -a-dau | ||
| du. | 1 -ōz(?) | -ai-w | --- | |
| 2 -a-diz(?) | -a-diz(?) | -a-diz(?) | ||
| pl. | 1 -a-maz | -ai-m | --- | |
| 2 -i-d | -ai-d | -i-d | ||
| 3 a-ndi | -ai-n | -a-ndau |
δñѸ in English٤1椬ȯ䤵ޤϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפ22Ȥơ֤ʤ衼åѤοͤϱѸ줬ʤΡפƤޤ

Ѥʵϡ绨Ĥǥʥ䤤˶⤷ޤ衼åѿͤߤʱѸ줬ʤ櫓ǤϤޤ䥢եꥫޤγϤ˱Ѹ줬ʿͤϤޤΤȤϾΤξǡεʤ٤¿ϤȤפ顤ƤΤ褦ɽǤǤ
˱ѸؽᤤʳǤҤȤΤäƤ餤פʤȤޤϡѸȥ衼åѤμȤδطǤؤʤɤ˿ʳؤƱѸʳθؤ֤ȤˤʤäȤ뤤ȳؤ¾ĩǤߤ褦ȻפΩäȤ⤷衼åѤνǰƬˤƤΤǤСұѸ졤ɥĸ졤졤ե졤ڥ졤ꥢʤɤߴطˤĤƸءŪʴƤƤؽǡȤƤμǤ
ضǤŪդäƤޤΤʤˤϡѸˤμȤʤɤDZѸȥ衼åѤνȤδطΤȡ2ȤơǤϤʤե졿ɥĸƤФ褫äʤɤȸˤޤ⤦1ǯ2ǯ֤δطΤäƤ颤ǤΤˡȸƤ褦ʤΤǤ
γϡѸʳθؤֲǽΤǤСѸ¾θȤδطˤĤΤäƤۤǤŪ˳ؽǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫ǤǽŪˤɤθ֤ˤ衤¿ξäƤ˱ۤȤϤޤ
Ѹ衼åѤμϡ⥤ɥ衼åѸ²ȸƤФ²ΰǤޤˤи줬ߤ˻ƤΤǤѸӤƤɤǤɤΤ餤ƤΤ뤤ϻƤʤΤϡ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤޤ
ɥĸȥϡѸȤȤ˥ɥ衼åѸ²ΤʤǤ⥲ޥɤȤȶ°ƤꡤʸˡȯˤƸߤ˻ƤȤޤºݤ˥ɥĸ䥪˿ƤߤȡѸƱȶ°ƤˤϡۤɻƤʤȤݤ뤫⤷ޤƤ뤱ɤƤʤƤʤɤƤ롤Ȥä̯ʵΥǤ
ե졤ڥ졤ꥢʤɤϡĹ餯衼åѤζ̸äƥȤȤ˥ɥ衼åѸ²ΤʤǤ⥤åɤȤȶ°ƤޤѸȤ礭ۤʤȶʤΤǤѸˤ̤ƥեƥ줫¿ñڤƤаޤ뤿ᡤä˴ؤƤϼ¤϶̤ƤΤ¿ΤǤäơθؤǤߤȡɽŪˤϱѸȤ褯ƤȤݤޤ
Ѹϡޥɤ˥롼ĤĤɤ⥤åɤαƶ礭ʤȯŸƤʤΤǤñ㲽ƤСѸϥ衼åѤΤĤθ碌褦ʺȤäƤ褤Ǥ礦Ѹμ˳ؤָݤˤϡҤΤȤͤˤƤߤƤ
ȴϢ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ȤƤ#486. Ѹ¾μפʥ衼åѸȤδطʩȸǤҤİ
Ӹ (comparative_linguistics) Ǥϡطˤ뤫⤷ʤȵ2ĤθԥååפбȤܤɤβӤ롥κݤˡξβ餫ǡֻƤפȤܤΤľŪǤϤ뤬ӸؤΡӡפ (similarity) ǤϤʤб (correspondence) Ǥ롥ϰճ⤷ʤȤƤޤäƤĤʤɤƱ츻̤⤢Сդ˸ɤϤäɤŪ̵ط⤢뤫
줾Ȥơ#778. P-Celtic Q-Celtic ([2011-06-14-1])#1151. ¿ ([2012-06-21-1])#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1])#4683. ۤʤδ֤ǡֶ줬 ([2022-02-21-1])#4072. Ѹ have ȥƥ habere, ե avoir ̸츻 ([2020-06-20-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
ӸؤˤĤơCampbell (266--67) ϼΤ褦ͺۤ˻ŦƤ롥
. . . it is important to keep in mind that it is correspondences which are crucial, not mere similarities, and that such correspondences do not necessarily involve very similar sounds. It is surprising how the matched sounds in proposals of remote relationship are typically so similar, often identical, while among the daughter languages of well-established, non-controversial, older language families such identities are not as frequent. While some sounds may stay relatively unchanged, many undergo changes which leave phonetically non-identical correspondences. One wonders why correspondences that are not so similar are not more common in such proposals. The sound changes that lead to such non-identical correspondences often change cognate words so much that their cognancy is not apparent. These true but non-obvious cognates are missed by methods such as multilateral comparison which seek inspectional resemblances.
ϻȤȤͽۤ⤺äȷ㤷Ѥ롥줬ӸؤζǤ롥Ϣơ#411. Ʒ---Ʊ줫Ѹ줫 ([2010-06-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
Campbell, Lyle. "How to Show Languages are Related: Methods for Distant Genetic Relationship." Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Oxford: Blackwell, 262--82.
Ѹ˸ǤϡѸȤ櫓18ɸŪȯƱȿƤ18ȤСλפǤꡤˤĤƤФޤ˵ϼ (prescriptivism) λǤ롥#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) ɽȤơɸŪǵŪȯ뼭ȽǤ줿äɸŪϰҲϿ;ϤʤɤʤȿƤ
ͤƤߤСϼθȤΤϡ֡ȤȯˡѤ٤פȤǤϤʤ֢ȤȯˡѤ٤餺פ⤯Ȥ¿Ĥޤꡤػߤ٤Ȥ֢פɸŪʸɽ路ƤΤȲǤΤǤ롥äΤ뤳ȤϡʤΰŪʸ촷뤳ȤˤĤʤΤǤ롥ʸؾξڵ (evidence) ɥȤưΤɤǤ֤ȤäƤ褤Beal ʸϡޤˤΤɤǤ֤ϪƤƤ롥Beal (345--46) ηѤ褦
I hope that I have demonstrated that, even though the authors of these works [= prescriptive works] were prescribing what they viewed as 'correct' pronunciation, a proto-RP used by educated, higher-class speakers in London, they were often acute observers of the variants which were proscribed. In telling their readers which pronunciations to avoid, they provide us with a record of precisely those non-standard features that were most salient at the time. Such evidence can fill in the gaps in the histories of dialects, provide answers to puzzles such as those surrounding the reversal of mergers, and, perhaps most importantly, can provide time-depth to the 'apparent-time' studies so prevalent in current variationist work.
ʸؤˤƤϾڵ꤬ǽפǤ뤳ȤƹͤƤ롥
Beal, Joan C. "Marks of Disgrace: Attitudes to Non-Standard Pronunciation in 18th-Century English Pronouncing Dictionaries. Methods and Data in English Historical Dialectology. Ed. Marina Dossena and Roger Lass. Bern: Peter Lang,2003. 329--49.
#4482. Shakespeare ȯ ([2021-08-04-1]) 褦ˡShakespeare ȯפȤȤ˲̣Ƥ뤫˵ĤɬפϤ뤬Ū Shakespeare Υꥸʥȯʤ뤤ϺƷ (reconstruction)ˤ褦ȻߤȤˡˤʤ4ढ롥ֻ (spelling)ӱ (rhyme)ϸ (pun)ƱκȤΥȤǤ롥Crystal (xx) ʬ䤹ȤȤˡ4Ĥʷ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤΤǡ˰Ѥ롥
- In RJ 1.4.66, when Mercutio describes Queen Mab as having a whip with 'a lash of film', the Folio and Quarto spellings of philome indicate a bisyllabic pronunciation, 'fillum' (as in modern Irish English).
- MND 3.2.118, Puck's couplet indicates a pronunciation of one that no longer exists in English: 'Then will two at once woo one / That must needs be sport alone'.
- In LLL 5.2.574, there is a pun in the line 'Your lion, that holds his pole-axe sitting on a close-stool, will be given to Ajax' which can only work if we recognize . . . that Ajax could also be pronounced 'a jakes' (jakes = 'privy').
- In Ben Johnson's English Grammar (1616), the letter 'o' is described as follows: 'In the short time more flat, and akin to u; as ... brother, love, prove', indicating that, for him at least, prove was pronounced like love, not the other way round.
ĸκƷʤɤǤƱͤμʤγơˤĤȤʤٹ礤Ū˰ۤʤ롥ֻɸಽƤʤλˤϡֻѰۤϤʤפʾڵˤʤ뤷ӱؤοŪ˹⤤ȤäƤ褤ϸϼ¦μѤƤǽäȤжɤ߹ǤޤäƤǽꡤŤɾʤФʤʤShakespeare ˤäƤϤ٤ƤϸȤ⤢ΤˡƱκȤˤȯ˴ؤȤˤĤƤ⡤Τ˻ͤˤϤʤ뤬ĿŪȯʤȿǤΤˤʤ⤷ʤƱȯ뤤 Shakespeare ȯŬѤǤ뤫ɤӿŤȽǤɬפ롥
ʣμʤˤƱؤߤ˶礦褦ǤСȤƤοޤ뤳ȤϤޤǤʤŲοϡʣʥѥΤ褦Ϣơ#437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1])#758. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 (2) ([2011-05-25-1])#4015. ˤѸȯꤹ뤫 ([2020-04-24-1]) ⻲ȡ
Crystal, David. The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
ѸαʸˤƵӱ (rhyme) ƧȤΤϡ̤˰ȤιθΡ첻ʡܻҲˡʬ̤Ƥ뤳ȤؤޤDzΰפΤȤ櫓ѼȤ eye rhyme ʻбˤȤΤ롥ϲΰפǤϤʤֻΰפʤΤǤ롥McArthur Ѹ켭ŵ
EYE RHYME. In verse, the correspondence of written vowels and following consonants which may look as though they rhyme, but do not represent identical sounds, as in move/love, speak/break. Eye rhyme may be deliberate, but often results from a changed pronunciation in one of two words which once made a perfect rhyme, or rhyme in a non-standard variety of English, as in these lines by the Scottish general James Graham, Marquis of Montrose (1649): 'I'll tune thy elegies to trumpet sounds, / And write thy epitaph in blood and wounds.' In Scots, both italicized words have the same 'oo' sound.
ΰѤǤϡeye rhyme "deliberate" Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢롤Ȳ⤵Ƥ뤬Ϥषͤ "deliberate" ˤΤ eye rhyme ȸƤ֤ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥嵭ΥåȥɱѸˤ벻εӱ sounds/wounds eye rhyme ȸƤ֤ΤϡޤɸѸüԤδǤϤȤΤȤǤ롥eye rhyme ¾Ȥơ#210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ơeye rhyme Ωϡӱʬֻϰפ뤬ϰפʤȤȤǤ롥ξ郎ΤĤDz褦ȤƤͤΤߤʤ餺ɤꡦʹˤȤäƤ⤽μݤǶͭƤʤС⤽ eye rhyme ϼԤȤʤϤĤޤꡤ춦ƱΤΤʤǡΰФθˤĤơֻϰפ뤬ϰפʤפȤȤʤäƤʤФʤʤפˡ餫٤ɽȤˡ춦Ʊ˹ԤϤäƤʤС̣ʤʤȤȤդߤСˡǤޤäƤʤˤϡeye rhyme ϡȤäȤƤͭǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
ˡΩƤ븽ѸδȤƤȡϻפʤ褯ͤФȤΤ褦˻פ롥䤬ͤ줿ΤϡϢȤƤ Crystal Shakespeare ΥꥸʥȯΥȥɤߤʤ顤eye rhyme Shakespeare Υꥸʥȯ뤿ΥҥȤˤʤΤʤʤΤȤ˽вäǤ롥Crystal (xxiii--xxiv) ꡤϢʬѤ
Certainly, as poetry became less an oral performance and more a private reading experience---a development which accompanied the availability of printed books and the rise of literacy in the sixteenth century---we might expect visual rhymes to be increasingly used as a poetic device. But from a linguistic point of view, this was unlikely to happen until a standardized spelling system had developed. When spelling is inconsistent, regionally diverse, and idiosyncratic, as it was in Middle English (with as many as 52 spellings recorded for might, for example, in the OED), a predictable graphaesthetic effect is impossible. And although the process of spelling standardization was well underway in the sixteenth century, it was still a long way from achieving the stability that would be seen a century later. As John Hart put it in his influential Orthographie (1569, folio 2), English spelling shows 'such confusion and disorder, as it may be accounted rather a kind of ciphring'. And Richard Mulcaster, in his Elementarie (1582), affirms that it is 'a very necessarie labor to set the writing certaine, that the reading may be sure'. Word endings, in particular, were variably spelled, notably the presence or absence of a final e (again vs againe), the alteration between apostrophe and e (arm'd vs armed), the use of ie or y (busie vs busy), and variation between double and single consonants (royall vs royal). This is not a climate in which we would expect eye-rhymes to thrive.
'That the reading may be sure.' Poets, far more alert to the impact of their linguistic choices than the average language user, would hardly be likely to introduce a graphic effect when there was no guarantee that their readers would recognize it. And certainly not to the extent found in the sonnets.
褯ȤƤϡֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ⡤ɽŪֻɸಽ餳ǽȤʤäȤΤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2097. ɽʸƱֻ֡ȯ ([2015-01-23-1]) ȡޤŲΤ (eye) rhyme ѤˤĤƤϡ#437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1]) ⻲ȡ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Crystal, David. The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
Crystal ˤ The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation ѥѥįƤ롥Shakespeare 400ǯۤνηȤǤꡤǯΤܤäĸλ٤Τ̯ʴ뤫⤷ʤShakespeare Ρ֥ꥸʥȯפȤŪ줿ΤǤʾ塤ĸκƷ (reconstruction) ܼŪ˰ۤʤȤϤʤShakespeare ξˤϡֻ (spelling)ӱ (rhyme)ϸ (pun) ʤɡƷ٤ƤҥȤŪ¿Ȥü𤬤뤳ȤϳΤϼΰ㤤Ȥ̡٤ΰ㤤Ȥäۤ褤ºݡShakespeare ȯκƷˤĤƤ⡤٤ʲȤʤȡǤʤȤ¿褦
μΡ֥ꥸʥȯפμѤݤˡդʤФʤʤȤ롥 The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation ξǤС Shakespeare ȯƤ뼭ǤϤʤȤȤơϤɤȤCrystal (xi) ⤳ĴƤΤǡϢսѤƤ
The notion of 'Modern English pronunciation' is actually an abstraction, realized by hundreds of different accents around the world, and the same kind of variation existed in earlier states of the language. People often loosely refer to OP as an accent', but this is as misleading as it would be to refer to Modern English pronunciation as 'an accent'. It would be even more misleading to describe OP as 'Shakespeare's accent', as is sometimes done. We know nothing about how Shakespeare himself spoke, though we can conjecture that his accent would have been a mixture of Warwickshire and London. It cannot be be stated too often that OP is a phonology---a sound system---which would have been realized in a variety of accents, all of which were different in certain respects from the variety we find in present-day English.
1ˡƱϡ Shakespeare ȤȯˤĤƶƤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥ƤΤ Shakespeare ȤȯǤϤʤShakespeare оʪʤɤ˸餻褦ȤƤդȯˤʤΥȥ뤬 "Shakespeare's Pronunciation" ǤϤʤƻѤƾܤ "Shakespearean Pronunciation" ȤʤäƤ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥
2ˡƱͿƤȯϡ̩ˤСShakespeare оʪʤɤ˸餻褦ȤƤդȯɽ路Ƥ餤ʤǤϲɽ蘆ƤΤȤСShakespeare оʪʤɤ˸餻褦ȤƤդβ (phonology) Ǥ롥ºݤоʪԡˤȯƤȯΤΡĤޤ phonetics ǤϤʤݲηϤǤ phonology ɽ路ƤΤǤ롥ϼºݤζ줿ȯˤٶƤϤȤϸΤǡѾ塤㤨ԤȯŪΤˤϽʬѤ̩ˤСȯΤΤƤ뼭ǤϤʤȤȤƤȤϽפǤ롥פˡμΤ "The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Phonology" Ȥ٤ΤǤ롥
Shakespeare ˸¤餺Ųݤ˹ԤʤƤ뤳Ȥϡ§ȤƲηϤʤΤȻפظ˼ºݤβƤ뤳ȤϤ褽ȤƤˤ衤ƷоݤȤʤΤϡޤäŪʲηϤǤ롥
(phonetics) Ȳ (phonology) ΰ㤤ˤĤƤϡ#3717. ؤȲϤɤ㤦ΤǤ ([2019-07-01-1]) ӡ#4232. ؤȲϡ֤ι¤ȥ ([2020-11-27-1]) ȡ
Crystal, David. The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
ؤʸؤˤϡʪηޤפ碌 (tree) ͡ʤȤƤ롥ζ繽¤ӸؤηܤηʤɤǤ롥3Ĥ˵ܤη (stemma) ϡ¸ܴ֤塤ãѤʤɤ˴ؤܺ٤ʬϤ˴ŤơδطвΤǤcf. #730. ʸ textual transmission ([2011-04-27-1]) ˡȤΥƥȤθͤߤ뤳ȤŪ stemma 夲Ƥܷ (stemmatology) ϡĤƤαѸʸظβַäȤäƤ褤
ܷؤϸߤǤϤۤǤϤʤʳصѤ˻٤줿ŪʼȤߤʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤäƤ1998ǯʸʳػ Nature ˡʲʪؤѤ뵻ѤѤChaucer The Canterbury Tales μܤ˴ؤ븦椬Ǻܤ줿ѸεǰŪʤȤäƤ褤 The Canterbury Tales 80ۤɤμܤǸ¸Ƥ롥Τ15˽줿58ܤˤĤơ"The Wife of Bath's Prologue" Υƥȡ850ԡˤΥǡȤ˷Ԥʤܤηط餫ˤ褦ȤߤȤβǡʣμܤΥԡǤǽʤɤȽǤ14ܤ졤ǽŪˤ44ܤ˴ؤޤκߤ줿ԥ塼ˤϤФ줿ޤ˴ŤΤ褦ʷƳФ줿Ȥ
From this analysis and other evidence, we deduce that the ancestor of the whole tradition, Chaucer's own copy, was not a finished or fair copy, but a working draft containing (for example) Chaucer's own notes of passages to be deleted or added, and alternative drafts of sections. In time, this may lead editors to produce a radically different text of The Canterbury Tales. (Barbrook et. al 839)
ޤ Chaucer ⼫ʬκʡʤɾˤʳػ˷ǺܤȤ̴ˤפʤäǤ롥
Barbrook, Adrian C., Chirstopher J. Howe, Norman Blake, and Peter Robinson. "The Phylogeny of The Canterbury Tales." Nature 394 (1998): 839.
ϿϿʤľܤβڵĤäƤʤŤθ첻ˤƿꤹ뤫Ȥ䤤ϡѤʵǤʤ顤˸ؤˤȤäܼŪʲǤ롥Ѹˤˤ뤳βˤĤƤϡޤǤŪʴ#437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1])#758. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 (2) ([2011-05-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
оݤȤʤˤäƤ⡤ΤѤǤʤˤϰ㤤롥 Smith (40) ȤơȤ櫓ѸȯꤹˡܤƤߤ5ۤɵƤ롥
a) "reconstruction", both comparative (dealing with cognate languages) and internal (dealing with paradigmatic variation);
b) analysis of "residualisms" surviving in modern accents of English;
c) analysis of the writings of spelling-reformers and phoneticians from the Early Modern English period, supplying information about usages closer to the Middle English period than now;
d) analysis of contemporary verse-practices, based on the analysis of rhyme, alliteration and meter; and
e) analysis of spellings.
ս˥ȤäƤe) ΥڥʬϤȤΤȴ뤯餤ΤȤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸɽʸɸ֤ޥե٥åȤѤƽƤʾ塤ñΥڥͤˤΤǤ롥ѸȯȥڥδطͤƤߤʬ褦ˡڥľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤäơѸˤƤⴰľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤȤŪɤƤɬפȤʤ롥ǤľǤϤʤȤϤʤȤŪʷȯɽ綠ȤƤ뤳ȤǧƤ褵ǤꡤɤΤ褦ľǤʤΤɤΤ餤ŪʤΤˤĤƤϡʸηϤ䥹ڥηϤξܺ٤ʬϤ̤Ƥʤ餫ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥
d) ϱʸѤǤ롥ѸαʸϡȤ櫓ˤΦ鿷⤿餵줿ӱ (rhyme) ɤӱξڵϡȤ櫓첻μ̤䶯֤˴ؤ¿ξͿƤ롥űѸδƬ (alliteration) ѸˤϱߤΤΡ濴˺ĤꡤѸλҲ䶯֤˴ؤҥȤͿ³Ƥ롥ޤʸϡ嵭εӱƬȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ뤫DZΧ (meter) μǤϤȯ˼ͿƤ롥
c) ϡ³Ѹ˻˾ܳŪ˸Ƥ벻ؼԤˤ롤ȯˤĤƤΥȤ˰͵ˡǤ롥ΥȤϤޤǶѸΡʼȤƵŪʡȯˤĤƤ줬Τ˿ǤСȯˤĤƤ礭ʥҥȤȤʤŪʲѲħƤСϡʶѸȯˤջϡѸȯˤǽޤ롥
b) ḽμŪˤϡ˸Ť¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥ּΤܤΤ˶ּäƤ롤ȤˡϢơ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
Ǹ a) ϡϢȤ (comparative_linguistics) ˴ŤƷ (reconstruction) ŪƷˤŪʿˡǤ롥ƷȤȡʸΤʤθˡȻפ뤫⤷ʤʸǧűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤƤڵηΤ˽ʬѤ롥
Ѹȯθϡ嵭Τ褦ʿμˡǿʤƤƤꡤǤܤȤ餫ˤƤ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
[2020-02-24-1] εǼ夲ˤĤ³ԤϤ롥
űѸ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ֤32Ż (digraph) ϡ줾ŪˤûǤĹǤΤɽ路ƤȤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸǤƱ2Ż֤Ƥʤ⡤Ūˤϡû2첻פȡĹ2첻סʸʸǤϤФ1첻Ĺ (macron) դɽˤ̤ƤȤȤľ˲᤹С<ea> [ɛɑ], <ēa> [ɛːɑ], <eo> [eo], <ēo> [eːo], <ie> [ie], <īe> [iːe] Τ褦бطȲƤ褵줬ŪˤʤäƤΤ⤿ǤϤʤűѸʸؤˤƺǤʣĿǤ롥
¤ΤȤĹû2첻ΤűѸνˤϳ경2첻ǤϤʤʤäƤޤǤϸαѸ첻ˤˤۤȤɱƶͿƤʤ櫓Ǥꡤ츫Ȥʤۤ礭ˤʤΤʬˤϸűѸβηϤ˴ؤˤȤɤޤ餺ŪʰյǤꡤ餳褬ҡȥåפƤΤʲMinkova (178--79) ˽äơ2첻Ĺûζ̤äȤȿФƤߤ褦
ޤεˤҤ٤褦ˡŪˤä2첻Ĺûζ̤ϤޤǤ롥Τ褦ʤޤ첻ηϤűѸΤ˺ƷƤ褤ΤȤ꤬롥Τ褦첻ηϤʤȤޤǤϤʤΤΡˤޤȤС⤽ⲾŪʺƷθȤƵƤ褤ΤϡʤʤȿˤȿǤ롥
⤦1Ĥεϡ32첻Ȥ̤2첻 [ej] ϡäĹûζ̤ƤʤȤȤ˰͵롥츻ŪˤϤ2첻Ĺûζ̤ƤűѸǤϸ츻ŪˤĹϤ hēȝ (hay) ûϤ weȝ (way) äΩʤƤʤȤС32첻ˤĤƤĹûζ̤ϤʤäȤǽ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
3ĤˡβˤȤƤߤȡû2첻פϤ䤬û첻ͻ礷ƤȤˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤû2첻פ2Ż֤ƤΤǴ㤤䤹¤ϤȤ1⡼첻äΤǤϤʤŪ˹ͤȡĹ2첻פϼ¤2⡼̤2첻ˤʤΤǤϤʤ
Ǹˡ⤽2첻Ĺûζ̤¾ڤǾ (minimal_pair) ¤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¤ƤѻȡǤȤưۤʤȤˤ餺Ȥ⡤̤βˤ롥
ϰ¦Ҳ𤷤ˤʤξرĤơΩƤƷ㤷깭Ƥ롥2첻2첻٤
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
űѸ츦νפ "digraph controversy" ȤΤ롥2Ĥ첻Ťͤ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ʤɤ2Ż (digraph) ʤ첻ɽ魯ΤȤǤ롥첻μ̤ä͡ʸФƤ
űѸμܤǤ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ʤɤ֤ƤΤߤιǤǤϤФ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> Ȥ̤ˡ1첻Ĺ (macron) դ <ēa>, <ēo>, <īe> Ȥɽߤ롥 <ea> ֤벻ˤϡŪˤϡûפΤȡĹפΤäȤΤƤ뤫Ǥ롥ĹΤʤСȤСȤǡºݤ˸űѸˤ첻μ̤ɤΤ褦˰äƤΤͤߤ뤳Ȥ͡ʿ¬ʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǥ⥹ȥ졼ȤʤΤϡֻΤޤޤˡû2첻פȡĹ2첻פꤹƤǤ롥<ea> [ɛɑ], <ēa> [ɛːɑ], <eo> [eo], <ēo> [eːo], <ie> [ie], <īe> [iːe] ʤɤȺƷʡ#2497. űѸ줫ѸˤƤ첻Ѳ ([2016-02-27-1]) 첻ɽȡˡŪˤߤơʤȤ⥲ޥɤˤ2첻 (diphthong) ûΤĹΤ̤륱ϤʤȤ顤䤬褵Ƥ롥
ФơĹΤʤСñ첻 (monophthong) ǤꡤС2첻 (diphthong) ǤȤ롥ˤĤƤ Minkova (178--79) ĤƤ뤬ǤϾܺ٤ˤƧ߹ޤʤ˽äƺƷ줿ʲ˼ (Minkova 156)
| Value | Example | ||
| Digraph | Early | Late | |
| <ēa> | æʊ | æə | strēam 'stream' |
| <ea> | æə | æ | heall 'hall' |
| <ēo> | eʊ | eə | sēon 'to see' |
| <eo> | ɛə | ɛ | ġeolu 'yellow' |
| <īe> | iʊ | iə, iː | (ġe)līefan 'to believe' |
| <ie> | ɪə | ɪ | ġiefan 'to give' |
ĸθ캬ˤϡȤˤƬҲȤ s 졤̤ȤˤϸʤȤθ캬롥s νפΥѥͽ¬Ǥʤ "s mobile root" ȸƤФ롥캬ŵʤɤǤ *(s)ker-, *(s)pek-, *(s)tenə- Τ褦ˡs åˤƤ뤳Ȥ¿
Ȥ *(s)teg- (to cover) 褦ꥷȿǷ stégō (I cover) Ǥ s Ƥ뤬ƱˤΤܤƥ toga ʥȡԸ̱γաˤǤ s ʤѸؤμѸǹͤƤߤСꥷ줫 stegosaur ʷεƥ륹ˤǤ s 뤬ƥ줫췲 detect, protect, tectorial, tegument, tile Ǥ s ʤޥñȤƤ thatch deck ƱˤΤܤ뤬s ʤ
츫ȳƸˤưĸ *s ˴ؤ벻ŪۤʤäƤ褦ˤߤ뤬ºݤΤȤ1ĤθįƤߤƤ s ɤϴѻ졤ͽ¬Ǥʤñ줴Ȥ s ̵ͭޤäƤ褦äơ캬ΤΤ˥åդ s ȤʤäƤ롥
s ǻϤޤƬҲοϡΰĸˤȤ̤ˡѸ첻ˤˤƤ꤬¿Ϣơ#2080. /sp/, /st/, /sk/ Ҳð ([2015-01-06-1])#2676. űѻƬ ([2016-08-24-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ĸθ촴첻ˤϡǥեȤ *e ꤵƤ롥־塤줬͡첻˲ƤȤˤʤΤӸؤˤƤΥǥեȤ *e "e-grade" 뤤 "full grade" ʴˤȸƤФƤ롥 *e ϡɬŪʤˤ첻 *o ˲뤳Ȥ롥 "o-grade" o ˤȸƤ֡*e ʤ *o ʤϡ줾Ĺ첻뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤ줾 "lengthened e-grade" e Ĺ, "lengthened o-grade" o ĹˤȸƤФ롥ˡ*e 첻μ¸ʤ "zero-grade" ʥˤȤΤ⤢ä
̤Ȥơ촴ˤŵŪ5Ĥ첻¸ߤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ѱۤ첻ΤȤӸؤǤ gradation, ablaut, apophony ʤɤȸƤǤ롥ɤ첻ˤʤФɤΤ褦ʰ̣ǽˤʤȤäΤбϤʤ¾塤ŪѰۤȤȤ館ۤʤ
ĸǡֺ¤ (to sit) ̣ *sed- ˴ؤơƳθȡ줬ˤƤɤΤ褦˼¸Ƥ뤫 (Fortson 73)
| e-grade (full grade) | *sed- | Lat. sed-ēre 'to sit', Gk. héd-ra, Eng. sit (i from earlier *e) |
| o-grade | *sod- | Eng. sat (a from earlier *o) |
| zero-grade | *sd- | *ni-sd-o- 'where [the bird] sits down = nest' > Eng. nest |
| lengthened e-grade | *sēd- | Lat. sēdēs 'seat', Eng. seat |
| lengthened o-grade | *sōd- | OE sōt > Eng. soot (*'accumulated stuff that sits on surfaces') |
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