hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ    

gradation - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2026-03-12 Thu

#6163. ȯteach ˡ§ --- a ޤޤưԵ§ -ought ǤϤʤ -aught Ȥʤ [gh][verb][spelling][pronunciation][vowel][orthography][voicy][heldio][hel_education][gradation][i-mutation][analogy][spelling_pronunciation_gap]



37 heldio ˤ #1742. ۵ --- teach/taught ˴ؤŷŪŦᤰäơۿޤѸ춵˷Ȥ4Ԥˤ̲Ǥ
夲ϡѸ˸ȤˤȤäƤ礭ʾ׷ǤȯüϡعDZѸ򶵤ƤΥ饹Ρ̤ˤȯǤ
Ѹؽˤơ -ought Ե§ѲưϳؽԤǺߤμǤthink --- thoughtbuy --- bought, bring --- brought, fight -- fought ʤɡ¿ o ޤֻȤʤޤteach --- taught catch --- caught Τ褦ˡa ޤ -aught ֻˤʤΤ⤢ޤۤȤɤαѸؽԤϡ֤ΤפȤƴݰŵƤȤǤ礦ޤ̤4ԤƱͤǤ
ȤϥΡȤǡμݤζä٤Ŧ򤷤ΤǤ teach a ޤޤƤ뤫顤 taught o ǤϤʤ a ˤʤΤǤϤʤȡ
λŦðŪʤΤϡñʤϤ碌䵭ѤμĶơѸֻ˸˻񤹤ǽˤޤѸˤδ餳 -aught ƸƤƤߤȡä٤¤⤭Ħˤʤޤtaught caught ʤɤθ¸ưǤʤˤβǵ§Ƥư򷡤굯ƤߤȡΡteach ˡ§פƤϤޤ㤬ĤĤΤǤ
ȤСߤϵ§ѲưȤʤäƤ reach ǤĤƤԵ§Ѳ raught Ȥ֤äƤޤ⸶ a ޤߡ -aught Ǥޤlatch ˤ⤫Ĥ laught Ȥ¸ߤޤ
ˡreck ȤưФƤ raught Ȥޤ a ޤޤƤޤ󤬡e a Ʊ첻ǤϤޤˡ§򾯤ơָ ae ޤޤưԵ§ -ought ǤϤʤ -aught ȤʤפȤл­ޤ
ŪˤߤСֻκϡĸ첻 (gradation) 䡤ޥΥ饦 (i-mutation)θ (analogy) ʣ߹ä̤ȹͤޤμ⤿ʤʴѻˤäƤΡˡ§פ򸫽ФȤϡƶä٤ȤǤ
ζ۵̤ǤϡλŦ˿ѸֻȤˤο¤ʹӤƤǽ뤫ޤޤǡͤΤۤ˶ʳ礭ʥͥ륮뤳ȤǤޤ
Ѹ˸ԤȤơĹǯȻפǸᤴƤ­ˡۤɤޤǤ䤫ˡ§ƤȤ˲Фޤʾˡĥեåʻº˵դ졤˲Ǥ餢ޤteach ˡ§פŪ΢դˤĤƤϡ夵ʤĴɬפǤƥ󥰤ʻߤˤʤȻפޤ
ѸؽԤγ󡤿ȶʱѸΡ֤ʤפñʤŵǺѤޤʬʤβΩƤƴѻƤߤƤˤϡȤäˡ§Ƥ뤫⤷ޤ
ʳ̤ƤϡҾ嵭 Voicy 󥯤ꤪİ

Referrer (Inside): [2026-03-13-1]

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2026-02-25 Wed

#6148. ĸ s-mobile [indo-european][morphology][reconstruction][gradation][vowel][consonant][etymology]

رѸ츻ŵ٤δˤְ캬ɽפįƤȡs ǻϤޤ캬ˤơƬ s ̤ɽƤΤʤʤ(s)ker-, (s)mer-, (s)pen-, (s)preg-, (s)teg- ʤɤΥȥդ򼨺 (s)- ϰĸκƷˤ񤷤褷Ƥ롥*(s)teg- "cover" ˡLass (118--19) ˲⤷Ƥ餪

   As we saw in teg-ō vs. stég-os, etc. . . . , certain roots appear to have 'optional' initial /s/; or perhaps better, to occur in two forms, one with and one without */s/, hence the conventional description of this phenomenon as 'mobile s'. The root 'cover' then might be represented as */(s)teg-/, or */steg-, teg/. . . .
   . . . .
   Awareness of s-mobile suggests an interesting perambulation through the lexicon of a language like English, given its enormous propensity for borrowing. The root */(s)teg-/ (in its various ablaut grades) appears in English in at least nine lexemes, both native and borrowed. Thatch of course we have already seen, and tile < tīgele < L tēg-ula. We also have borrowed L toga, and from this via French togs, a clipping of tog(e)mans 'cloak'. Still on the s-less alternant, there are various derivatives of L teg-ō and its forms, like in-teg-ument, pr-tec-t 'provide shelter for', de-tec-t 'un-cover'. The s-root is not well represented in English, but from (neo-)Greek we have the dinosaur steg-o-saurus 'roofed or covered lizard', and the rare sixteenth-century coinage steg-ano-graphy 'secret or cryptic writing'.


s-mobile ϡĸ첻 (gradation or ablaut) λҲǤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ첻ǤۤηŪǤʤ⻶ȯŪǤ롥

߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2023-06-25 Sun

#5172. ʤĸˤ첻ؤäΤ [gradation][vowel][indo-european][reconstruction][comparative_linguistics][yurugengogakuradio][sound_symbolism][sobokunagimon]

1Ⱦۤ56ڡˤˡYouTube ֤ͥإ饸˽ƽб餵Ƥޤ˸ؼԤ츻ˤĤƸä顤ܰڤȯڴܰñ1#227ȤǡȻ䤬Ѹθ츻夬ȤǤcf. #5122. Ρ֤إ饸פ˽饲Ƚб餷Ƥޤ ([2023-05-06-1]
Ѹ˸¤餺ˤϰ̤첻ؤ褯롤Ȥä򤷤ƤȤư19ʬ40նǡٸ󤬡ʤ⤽첻ؤȤѥ󤬤ΤʤΤȤѤʵꤲƤޤޤܼŪDZԤ䤤ʤΤǡ⤷Ф餯ǤޤäƤޤޤ⤷ɤɤˤʤĤġظˤ븶1ĤȤƲħ (sound_symbolism) ꤽȤȤޤǤϽҤ٤ΤǤޤäǼǤˤϤʤäƤʤäȻפޤ



Comrie ˤʸɤǤơεˤ䤤˴Ϣڤ򸫤Ĥޤޥɤ饦 (i-mutation or umlaut) κƷˤĤǡĸ첻 (gradation or ablaut) εȺƷͻƤսǤ (252)

. . . if we go back to an earlier stage of the Indo-European ablaut --- for instance, some instances of the so-called zero grade, with complete loss of the vowel, can plausibly be attributed to shift of the accent away from that vowel --- there is no general explanation, so that ablaut remains a morphophonemic alternation for which we cannot reconstruct a plausible origin.


ʤĸʤƸΰ¿ˤ첻ؤΤˤĤơϤŪϤʤȤȤǤ䤤ϡ첻ؤ뤳ȤˤäƵǽؤȤιפˤƲפȴ뤳ȤǤޤϳΤ˵ˤ䤤Τ褦˻פޤĴİСؤδ⡤첻ѰۤˤѤ䤹ǥХʤΤǤϤʤƤޤϤƤɤʤΤǤ礦

Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-01-1]

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2022-06-28 Tue

#4810. sing β sang Ǥ⤢ sung Ǥ⤢롪 [youtube][notice][sobokunagimon][verb][inflection][gradation][vowel]

YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥϤ4Фޤ35ƤޤֱѸԵ§ưΤҤ⤴ --- 󥰤о졪Ǥ



ɸŪˤABC sing -- sang -- sung ȶޤ¤ABB sing -- sung -- sung ɸŪʤ⸽ѤƤޤϡָѡפǤϤʤűѸ줫³ǤűѸǤԵ§ưŪʡֶѲưסˤβˤϼο;Τ˱2Ĥꡤ줾12ȸƤФƤޤ2ʬϡɸѸǤĶٸǤ be ưΤߤ˻ĤäƤꡤ줾 was were ȤʤޤűѸǤϡwas -- were Τ褦2ʬ¾Ե§ưˤ⤪ʤ٤¸ߤȤ櫓Ǥ
sing ξˤ1 sang2 sungon Ǥθˤǡ1Ĥ˽󤵤뤳Ȥˤʤޤġư˱ơɤη֤˽󤵤뤫ϰۤʤäƤޤư1̲ޤ̤ưǤ2̲ޤξԤɤϼ¤˽Ѹ1500--1700ǯˤޤ³12ɤŪǤ
Ѹ1700--1900ǯˤˤ褦䤯ϲʤߡ줫פ줿ΤǤȽǴϥɥۥåǡɬͳ餫ǤϤޤsing ξˤϡűѸ1˴Ť sang ޤɸȤޤĿˡȤƤϡθ2˴Ť sung ʻѤ³ᡤߤαѸüԤˤ sung ѤͤΤǤ
ϡʬ sung ˤŬѤȤ̣ǤζŪʡָѡפ (analogy) Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ޤ󤬡ˤη³Ż뤹ʤСűѸ2λ¸Ȥߤ٤ݤʤΤǤ
ˤĤƤϡʲ hellog Ǥ夲ƤޤΤǤȤ

#492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1])
#860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1])
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1])
#3343. drink--drank--drank Ω ([2018-06-22-1])
#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1])

Voicy heldio Ǥ夲Ȥޤ#35. sing β sang sung 򡤤Ҥİ


Referrer (Inside): [2023-11-12-1]

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2019-07-22 Mon

#3738. ĸ5Ĥγ --- *sed- ξ [indo-european][reconstruction][gradation][vowel][terminology]

ĸθ촴첻ˤϡǥեȤ *e ꤵƤ롥־塤줬͡첻˲ƤȤˤʤΤӸؤˤƤΥǥեȤ *e "e-grade" 뤤 "full grade" ʴˤȸƤФƤ롥 *e ϡɬŪʤˤ첻 *o ˲뤳Ȥ롥 "o-grade" o ˤȸƤ֡*e ʤ *o ʤϡ줾Ĺ첻뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤ줾 "lengthened e-grade" e Ĺ, "lengthened o-grade" o ĹˤȸƤФ롥ˡ*e 첻μ¸ʤ "zero-grade" ʥˤȤΤ⤢ä
̤Ȥơ촴ˤŵŪ5Ĥ첻¸ߤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ѱۤ첻ΤȤ򡤰ӸؤǤ gradation, ablaut, apophony ʤɤȸƤǤ롥ɤ첻ˤʤФɤΤ褦ʰ̣ǽˤʤȤäΤбϤʤ¾塤ŪѰۤȤȤ館ۤʤ
ĸǡֺ¤ (to sit) ̣ *sed- ˴ؤơƳθȡ줬ˤƤɤΤ褦˼¸Ƥ뤫򼨤򼨤 (Fortson 73)

e-grade (full grade)*sed-Lat. sed-ēre 'to sit', Gk. héd-ra, Eng. sit (i from earlier *e)
o-grade*sod-Eng. sat (a from earlier *o)
zero-grade*sd-*ni-sd-o- 'where [the bird] sits down = nest' > Eng. nest
lengthened e-grade*sēd-Lat. sēdēs 'seat', Eng. seat
lengthened o-grade*sōd-OE sōt > Eng. soot (*'accumulated stuff that sits on surfaces')


Ե§ưŪʶѲưˤ첻Ѱۤ⡤ư̾ʤʻ㤤θˤߤ첻ؤδط⡤ĸΡֳ׺ˤΤܤ롥˽פʲŪݤǤ롥

Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.

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2018-07-09 Mon

#3360. ĸϸ캬١ޥĸϸ촴١űѸʹߤϸ١ (3) [gradation][i-mutation][indo-european][oe][morphology][vowel][word_formation]

2֤ε ([2018-07-07-1], [2018-07-08-1]) ˰³root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤѸ礭ĬήˤĤơ
űѸϤ෿ŪեȤˤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ؤȰܤѤȤǽʳȤ뤬ޤʤ stem-based morphology ǻ˻ĤäƤLass (191) ϸűѸθˡμब˭٤ʤȤˤĤơKastovsky ѤĤļΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

One of the most striking features of the OE lexicon is the extensive involvement in WF, not only of transparent affixation, compounding, and conversion, but of other devices of varying ages: ancient ones like ablaut, and newer ones like i-umlaut. This results in what Kastovsky (1992: 294) calls 'large morphologically related word-families'; considerable portions of the lexicon 'cohere' in a rather special way, characteristic of older IE and to some extent more archaic modern languages like German, but quite alien to Modern English.


1Ȥơĸθ캬 *bhVr- "carry, bear" űѸñˤɤΤ褦ȿǤƤ뤫ͤƤߤ褦 (Lass 191--92) ΰ캬ˤ ablaut ꡼Ȥơ*bher- (e-grade), *bhor- (o-grade), *bhe:r- (lengthened e-grade), *bhr̥- (zero-grade) 4Ĥβä
ޤe-grade *bher- ˴ؤƤϡ*bher- > *er- > ber- ȷФơűѸ ber-an , ber-ende ʸʬ, ber-end "bearer"ber-end-nes "fertility" ˻äƤ롥
ˡo-grade *bhor- ˤĤƤϡ*bhor > *¦r- > bær- ФƸűѸ bær 1ˤ˽夷ۤ bær- (breaking) βФ bear-we "barrow, basket", bear-m "lap, bosom" ˻äΤ⤢롥
³ lengthened e-grade *bhe:r- ˤĤƤϡ*bhe:r- > *e:r- > bǣr ФƸűѸ bǣr-on 2, bǣr "bier", bǣr-e "manner, behaviour" ʤɤ뤷
Ǹ zero-grade *bhr̥- ϡ*ur- ؤѲ塤a-umlaut ˤ bor- *bur- Ϥ줿ԤϸűѸ bor-en ʲʬ, bor-a "carrier" ԤϤ i-umlaut ФƸűѸ byrðenn "burden", byr-ele "cup-bearer" ʤg߽Ф줿
űѸǤ /bVr-/ ȤŪʸ촴 (root) 񸽲첻򼨤ʣθ촴 (stems) ȤʤꡤŪʶ޷ŸƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤؤ "stem-based morphology" 뤤 "variable-stem morphology" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ (Lass 192)
űѸˤ⡤ʻ衤ʤ word-based morphology 뤤 invariable-stem morphology ͽǤǤʬŪ˸ФƤȤˤդƤ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-09-23-1] [2018-07-10-1]

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2018-06-20 Wed

#3341. ƥ󡦥ե󥹼ѸϱѸζѥĸصꤵ [rsr][gsr][stress][germanic][indo-european][gradation][vowel][morphology]

Ѹʹߡƥե󥹸줫μѸ줬Ѹä̤˼ޤ줿ȤˤꡤѸζѥ礭ƤȤˤĤơ#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1]) #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥ󥹷Ϥ ([2009-11-13-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ
ƤϡGermanic Stress Rule (gsr) ξ˿ Romance Stress Rule (rsr) դääΤ󤹤뤳ȤǤ뤬˹ŪߤȡĸŪʶѥؤβ󵢤Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĸǤϲѤäζ֤ޥĸǤϸƬ˸경ƥե󥹸ȤܿˤꡤƤӲѤȤʤäƤȲǤ뤫ơβѤζϡΤδ֤첻μ̤Ѱۤ뤳ȤˤʤäǸθݤϡĸηħŤ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ˤۤʤʤ
Kastovsky (129--30) ǻ̩ʸϤǤθˤĤƾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

[T]here are . . . typological innovations like the vowel and/or consonant alternations in sane : sanity, serene : serenity, Japán : Jàpanése, hístory : históric : hìstorícity, eléctric : elètrícity, close : closure resulting from the integration of non-native (Romance, Latin and Net-Latin) word-formation patterns into English with a concomitant variable stress system, which reverses the original typological drift towards a non-alternating relation between bases and derivatives and is reminiscent of Indo-European, where variable stress/accent produced variable vowel quality/quantity (ablaut).


Kastovsky ϡѸηˤ෿Ūª٤ȤĥƤ뤬ñʤ붦Ū෿ˤȤɤޤ餺෿Ȥ⤤٤ʻƤǤ⤢褦˻פ롥
ǿ줿2Ĥζ§ˤĤƤϡ#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1]) ȡ#1474. Romance Stress Rule ([2013-05-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-08-1] [2018-07-07-1]

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2018-06-19 Tue

#3340. ޥˤưζѲȸƬȤߴط [germanic][indo-european][stress][gradation][exaptation][aspect][tense][suffix][contact][stress][preterite][verb][conjugation][grammaticalisation][participle][dental_suffix]

#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 6ĤκΩäޥŪħ󤲤Kastovsky (140) ˤȡΤʲ3ĤˤĤƤϡޥĸ줬ȯãǸߤ̩ܤʴطäȤ

(2) ư˸ߤȲ2λ
(3) ư˶Ѳ (strong conjugation) ȼѲ (weak conjugation) 2γѤ
(4) 촴1˶

One major Germanic innovation was a shift from an aspectual to a tense system. This coincided with the shift to initial accent, and both may have been due to language contact, maybe with Finno-Ugric. Initial stress deprived ablaut of its phonological conditioning, and the shift from aspect to tense required a systematic marking of the new preterit tense. From this, two types of exponents emerged. One is connected to the secondary (weak) verbs, which only had present aspect/tense forms. They developed an affixal "dental preterit", together with an affix for the past participle. The source of the latter was the Indo-European participial -to-suffix; the source of the former is not clear . . . . The most popular theory is grammaticalization of a periphrastic construction with do (IE *dhe-), but there are a number of phonological problems with this. The second type was the functionalization of the originally non-functional ablaut alternations to express the new category, i.e. the making use of junk . . . . But this was somewhat unsystematic, because original perfect forms were mixed with aorist forms, resulting in a pattern with over- and under-differentiation. Thus, in class III (helpan : healp : hulpon : geholpen) the preterit is over-differentiated, because the different ablaut forms are non-functional, since the personal endings would be sufficient to signal the necessary distinctions. But in class I (wrītan : wrāt : writon : gewriten), there is under-differentiation, because some preterit forms and the past participle have the same vowel. (140)


Kastovsky ˤСޥĸϡ餯 Finno-Ugric Ȥθܿη̡(a) ĸŪ (aspect) Ż뤹줫 (tense) Ż뤹ؤɤڤꡤ(b) ѥȤŪʸƬȤؤڤؤäȤ˶̤٤褦ˤʤäη֤ϡȤȤϰĸŪʥѰۤ˰¸Ƥ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ǽŪˡѤƺäΤȡ (dental suffix) դȤΤȤäηȿʣȤؤˤꡤѸưŪʻѲϢʤפΩƤäΤǤ롥츫ȸߤ̵ط˻פ븽ݤ֤εˤƸߤ˴ϢƤȤ1Ĥ
ΰѤǿƤȴϢơ#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) ⻲ȡ

Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-07-1]

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2018-06-14 Thu

#3335. Ѳưβʬ -n [participle][oe][inflection][reconstruction][indo-european][germanic][suffix][gradation][verb][verners_law]

ѸΡԵ§ưפβʬˤϡŵŪ -(e)nwritten, born, eaten, fallen ǡǤ롥ϡűѸǶѲưȸƤФưβʬͳ褹ΤǤꡤűѸǤ⤽줾 writen, boren, eten, feallen Τ褦ˡ§Ū -en 줿ʡ#2217. űѸ춯Ѳư෿ΤޤȤ ([2015-05-23-1]) ˼ѥ򻲾ȡˡ
űѸζѲư ablaut 뤤 gradation ȸƤФ첻Ǥϡߡ12ʬ4̤졤碌ưΡ4׷ (four principal parts) ȸƤФ롥4ܤβʬγʤΤűѸ줫餵̤СϤȤȤư줽ΤΤ°볬ǤϤʤäषư줫Ωƻͳ褹餷ޥĸǤ *ROOT - - n- ƷƤꡤĸǤ * ROOT- o - nó- ƷƤ롥ķ˴ޤޤɡ n ѸˤޤǻĤʬ -(e)n εȹͤƤ롥
θϡ촴β֤ˤ⾯ƶͿƤ롥äդ٤ϡĸķǤ϶ n θ³ȤϡޥǤ Verner's Law ͳƸ촴λҲѲȤͽۤ롥ʤߤˡѲ V, VI, VII ˤĤơʬθ촴첻γˤ긽߷ƱˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥˤդ (ex. tredan (pres.)/treden (pp.), faran (pres.)/faren (pp.), healdan (pres.)/healden (pp.))
ʾ塤Lass (161--62) 򻲾Ȥ-en ˤĤƤϡϢơ#1916. ˡȽˡǰۤʤ֤ķƻ ([2014-07-26-1]) ⻲ȡ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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