37 heldio ˤ #1742. ۵ --- teach/taught ˴ؤŷŪŦᤰäơۿޤѸ춵˷Ȥ4Ԥˤ̲Ǥ
夲ϡѸ˸ȤˤȤäƤ礭ʾǤȯüϡعDZѸƤΥ饹Ρ̤ˤȯǤ
Ѹؽˤơ -ought Ե§ѲưϳؽԤǺߤμǤthink --- thoughtbuy --- bought, bring --- brought, fight -- fought ʤɡ¿ o ޤֻȤʤޤteach --- taught catch --- caught Τ褦ˡa ޤ -aught ֻˤʤΤ⤢ޤۤȤɤαѸؽԤϡ֤ΤפȤƴݰŵƤȤǤ礦ޤ̤4ԤƱͤǤ
ȤϥΡȤǡμݤζä٤ŦΤǤ teach a ޤޤƤ뤫顤 taught o ǤϤʤ a ˤʤΤǤϤʤȡ
λŦðŪʤΤϡñʤϤ碌䵭ѤμĶơѸֻ˸˻ǽˤޤѸˤδ餳 -aught ƸƤƤߤȡä٤¤⤭Ħˤʤޤtaught caught ʤɤθ¸ưǤʤˤβǵ§Ƥư굯ƤߤȡΡteach ˡ§פƤϤޤ㤬ĤĤΤǤ
ȤСߤϵ§ѲưȤʤäƤ reach ǤĤƤԵ§Ѳ raught Ȥ֤äƤޤ⸶ a ޤߡ -aught Ǥޤlatch ˤ⤫Ĥ laught Ȥ¸ߤޤ
ˡreck ȤưФƤ raught Ȥޤ a ޤޤƤޤe a Ʊ첻ǤϤޤˡ§ơָ a 뤤 e ޤޤưԵ§ -ought ǤϤʤ -aught ȤʤפȤлޤ
ŪˤߤСֻκϡĸ첻 (gradation) 䡤ޥΥ饦 (i-mutation)θ (analogy) ʣ߹ä̤ȹͤޤμ⤿ʤʴѻˤäƤΡˡ§פФȤϡƶä٤ȤǤ
ζ۵̤ǤϡλŦ˿ѸֻȤˤο¤ʹӤƤǽ뤫ޤޤǡͤΤۤ˶ʳ礭ʥͥ륮뤳ȤǤޤ
Ѹ˸ԤȤơĹǯȻפǸᤴƤˡۤɤޤǤ䤫ˡ§ƤȤ˲Фޤʾˡĥեåʻº˵դ졤˲Ǥ餢ޤteach ˡ§פŪդˤĤƤϡ夵ʤĴɬפǤƥʻߤˤʤȻפޤ
ѸؽԤγȶʱѸΡ֤ʤפñʤŵǺѤޤʬʤβΩƤƴѻƤߤƤˤϡȤäˡ§Ƥ뤫⤷ޤ
ʳ̤ƤϡҾ嵭 Voicy ꤪİ
Ѹηƻ졦ӵ顦ǾˤԵ§ʤΤĤ롥good -- better -- best bad -- worse --worst ʤɤ佼ˡ (suppletion) ΤΤƤ뤬ϸűѸˤ¸ߤषűѸǤϸ¿Ե§ӵ顦Ǿ餬äSweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer (19--20) ꡤդ٤Τ롥
Ρi-mutation ޤƻӵ顦Ǿ顡
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|---|
| "old" | eald | ieldra | ieldest |
| "young" | ġeong | ġingra | ġingest |
| "long" | lang | lengra | lengest |
| "strong" | strang | strengra | strengest |
| "high" | hēah | hīerra | hīehst |
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|---|
| "good" | gōd | betera, betra | betst |
| sēlra | sēlest | ||
| "bad" | yfel | wiersa | wier(re)st |
| "great" | miċel | māra | mǣst |
| "little" | lȳtel | lǣssa | lǣst |
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|---|
| "formerly" | (ǣr) | ǣrra | ǣrest |
| "far" | (feorr) | fierra | fierrest |
| "before" | (fore) | forma, fyrmest, fyr(e)st | |
| "near" | (nēah) | nēarra | nīehst |
| "outside" | (ūte) | ūterra | ūt(e)mest |
| ȳterra | ȳt(e)mest |
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|---|
| "well" | wel | bet | bet(e)st |
| sēl | sēlest | ||
| "badly" | yfle | wiers | wier(re)st |
| "much" | micle | mā | mǣst |
| "little" | lȳt | lǣs | lǣst |
ۤˡ#4340. NHKδñѸ in English٤οϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפȤޤ ([2021-03-15-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤǯ٤˸Ƴ֤줿ֺ¡δñѸ in EnglishפΥƥȤΤʤǡѸΥܥʵ˴ؤϢܤϤƤޤˡ֥ߥƥΩƤפȤդǼɮƤꡤѸˤĶȤ٤ΤȤʤäƤޤΤǡؿΤɤ5ΥƥȤȯޤΤǡ⤷ޤ

5Ϣ2Ǽ夲ϡԵ§ʣɽȤ feet ˤĤƤǤʤ *foots ǤϤʤ feet ˤʤΤǤ礦
ܥ֥Ǥ#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1])#4304. ʤ foot ʣ feet ʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2021-02-07-1])#4320. űѸˤϤäȤä foot -- feet פʣ ([2021-02-23-1]) ǰäƤǤθ줬ŪˤɤäƤʣѲּСפȤѤơޤǰʾʬ䤹⤷ޤɤɤ
ñ foot Фʣ feet Τ褦Ե§ʣηˡˤĤơ#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1])#4304. ʤ foot ʣ feet ʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2021-02-07-1]) Ǽ夲ƤɥĸʤɤǤϸߤǤ⤪ߤʣηˡǡ֥饦ʣפʤɤȸƤФƤ뤬ޥĸ줫饲ޥ줬 (i-mutation) ȤѲνϤȤ롥
ɸѸˤƤϡfeet, geese, lice, men, mice, teeth, women 7ˤĤƤβѲκפϻĤäƤʤűѸʳǤϤΥפ̾줬¾ˤ⤤Ĥ¸ߤLass (128) ˤȡāc (oak), bōc (book), brōc (trousers), burg (city), cū (cow), gāt, turf (turf), furh (furrow), hnutu (nut) ʤɤΥפäˤ̤ -s ʣݤ߹ޤƤä⤷Ǥʤк *each/ache, *beech, *breech, *birry, *ki(e), *gate, *tirf, *firry, *nit ʤɤΥ饦ʣѤƤϤǤʤ˵ͶֻϡֻˤʤäƤ⤷ʤȤ㼨ˤĤ餺ˡ
⤷Τϡbook ʣȤƤ *beech ĤäƤʤ츻Ū˴Ϣ beech ʥ֥ʡˤ¸ߤ뤳Ȥ (cf. #632. book beech ([2011-01-19-1])) ޤ֥ܥפ̣ʣ *breech ϺǤ¸ߤʤ鿷˺줿2ʣ (double_plural) Ȥ٤ breeches ȾܥˤϸǤ (cf. #218. ʣ ([2009-12-01-1])ˡˡ*ki(e) ȤʤäƤ뤬 n դϤ2ʣ kine ϡʤ⤤ޤѤƤ롥
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
̾ʣ̾ -(e)s ĤФ褤ǤʤˤԵ§ʣȤΤޤԵ§ʣˤ¤¿ढΤǤ1ĤΥפȤ foot --feet, goose -- geese, louse -- lice, man -- men, mouse -- mice, tooth -- teeth, woman -- women ޤ촴첻Ѱۤ륿פǤ͡ѸŪˤСʣƱθˤΤȤǤޤfoot -- feet ˡѲεޤ礦İ
/i/ Ȥ첻ϡŪˤжüǤɤĤǤϤβʬȤζ˰ĤФм¾ȤѼƤޤϤʥޥͥåȤȤƺѤޤ㤨Сθ̤ˤ /ai/ /eː/ Ϥ褯벻Ѳǡ֤Ф /yabai/ ǤϤФС֤١ /yabeː/ Ȥʤޤ͡ѸǤ⡤day ϤȤȤֻ̤ /dai/ ˶ᤤȯǤޤǤ /deː/ ؤѲޤ
Ȼ褦ʤȤѸΩΩĥޥλ foot ȯǤ /foːt/ ˵äΤǤʣǤ -iz ղä줿 /foːtiz/ ϡɤĤ /i/ βŪƶΤȤˡ䤬 /feːtiz/ Ȥʤޤθ塤Τʤ˰֤ /z/ 䡤ѲǤ /i/ ΤޤäƾüƤǽŪ /feːt/ ˵夷ΤǤʣ֤űѸ fēt ǤꡤѸ feet ʤΤǤ
ˤĤƤ##157,2017εåܳŪ˰äƤޤΤǡؿΤ⤴
ܸưˤϡֳѡפȸƤФΤ뤬̾ˤ⤽Τ롥פñȤǤϡ֤פȯ뤬פʤɤʣǤϡ֤ߡפȤʤ롥Ρ֤פȡ֤פϡ줾ΩΩ뤤ϪзʤȸƤФ롥Ʊطϡסʤդ͡ˤȡסʤդʤΤˡֱסʤˤȡֱסʤޤˡڡסʤˤȡڱסʤˡַסʤĤˤȡַסʡ̸ŸͤĤˤˤ⸫롥̾ΡֳѡפȤߤʤȤǤ롥
ΥڥδطϡϪзʤ *iפȤꤵ롥*i ϡΤˤϾü첾̾ǤȤ *i ΤȤǤ롥ϡñΩܼȹͤ롥ǶŪˤС
ama + *i ame
ko + *i ki
tuku + *i tuki
Ȥʤ롥첻ȤˤСa e, o i, u i ȤʤäƤꡤòβ꤫ǤϤʤΤΡѸޤॲޥˤƹ i-mutation θ̤ˤʤٻƤ롥źν̤ˤߤ첻Ĵ (vowel harmony) ΰǤꡤޤܸȱѸ˻褦ʸݤǧ뤫Ȥäơޤääˤʤ櫓ǤϤ뤬
ʾ塤 (45) ȤƼɮ
顡ܸˡ١˼Ҥӡ2017ǯ
2֤ε ([2018-07-07-1], [2018-07-08-1]) ˰³root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤѸ礭ĬήˤĤơ
űѸϤŪեȤˤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ؤȰܤѤȤǽʳȤ뤬ޤʤ stem-based morphology ǻ˻ĤäƤLass (191) ϸűѸθˡμब˭٤ʤȤˤĤơKastovsky ѤĤļΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
One of the most striking features of the OE lexicon is the extensive involvement in WF, not only of transparent affixation, compounding, and conversion, but of other devices of varying ages: ancient ones like ablaut, and newer ones like i-umlaut. This results in what Kastovsky (1992: 294) calls 'large morphologically related word-families'; considerable portions of the lexicon 'cohere' in a rather special way, characteristic of older IE and to some extent more archaic modern languages like German, but quite alien to Modern English.
1Ȥơĸθ캬 *bhVr- "carry, bear" űѸñˤɤΤ褦ȿǤƤ뤫ͤƤߤ褦 (Lass 191--92) ΰ캬ˤ ablaut Ȥơ*bher- (e-grade), *bhor- (o-grade), *bhe:r- (lengthened e-grade), *bhr̥- (zero-grade) 4Ĥβä
ޤe-grade *bher- ˴ؤƤϡ*bher- > *er- > ber- ȷФơűѸ ber-an , ber-ende ʸʬ, ber-end "bearer"ber-end-nes "fertility" ˻äƤ롥
ˡo-grade *bhor- ˤĤƤϡ*bhor > *¦r- > bær- ФƸűѸ bær 1ˤ˽夷ۤ bær- (breaking) βФ bear-we "barrow, basket", bear-m "lap, bosom" ˻äΤ⤢롥
³ lengthened e-grade *bhe:r- ˤĤƤϡ*bhe:r- > *e:r- > bǣr ФƸűѸ bǣr-on 2, bǣr "bier", bǣr-e "manner, behaviour" ʤɤ뤷
Ǹ zero-grade *bhr̥- ϡ*ur- ؤѲ塤a-umlaut ˤ bor- *bur- Ϥ줿ԤϸűѸ bor-en ʲʬ, bor-a "carrier" ԤϤ i-umlaut ФƸűѸ byrðenn "burden", byr-ele "cup-bearer" ʤg߽Ф줿
űѸǤ /bVr-/ ȤŪʸ촴 (root) 첻ʣθ촴 (stems) ȤʤꡤŪʶŸƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤؤ "stem-based morphology" 뤤 "variable-stem morphology" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ (Lass 192)
űѸˤ⡤ʻ衤ʤ word-based morphology 뤤 invariable-stem morphology ͽǤǤʬŪ˸ФƤȤˤդƤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
ޥĸ줬3̡Υ롼פʬƤݤˡ줾ȼθѲ̤ȤơƱδ֤ˡбط뤳ȤˤʤäAlgeo and Pyles (82--83) ˤäơפѲбط6褦
(1) ޥĸǤϤĤ̾μñ *-az ǽäƤ (ex. *wulfaz ϵ) θޥ췲Ǥϼ (Old English wulf)̥ޥ췲Ǥ -r Ȥʤ (Old Icelandic ulfr)쥲ޥ췲Ǥ -s Ȥʤä (Gothic wolfs)
(2) ޥĸǤư23ñ줾̤Ƥ쥲ޥ췲Ǥ϶̤³OE Ǥ bindest (you bind), bindeþ (he/she/it binds) ȤʤꡤGo Ǥ bindis, bindiþ Τɤḁ̈ޥ췲Ǥ2ñ -r 3ñݤ߹ߡȤ bindr Ȥʤä
(3) ̥ޥ췲Ǥ괧줬̾˸³褦ˤʤä (ex. ulfrinn (the wolf)) 쥲ޥǤϤΤ褦Ѳϵʤä
(4) Verner's Law νϤȤƤ *z ϡ̥ޥ췲Ǥ r Ȥʤä (= rhotacism) 쥲ޥ췲Ǥ s ȤʤäȤơOE ēare (ear), OIc eyra, Go auso
(5) ̥ޥ췲Ǥ i-mutation ơ㤨 OE mann (man) ФƤʣ menn (men) ȤʤäGo Ǥñ mannan Фʣ mannans Ȥʤ첻ѲȿǤƤʤ
(6) ޥ췲Ǥ Verner's Law νϤȤƤ *ð d Ȥʤä̡쥲ޥ췲ǤˤȤɤޤäȤơOE fæder (father) ФơOIc faðir, Go faðar ʤֻ fadarˡ
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Ѹ첻ˤǤϴȤơűѸ West-Saxon ˤ <æ> ֤Ĺ첻ϡε˱2˶̤롥줾Ū ǣ1 ǣ2 ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤʤȤ˸ԤˤäƤ 1 2 źžڤߤˡ2ϡѸʹߤˤˤƤˤäƤФж̤뤳Ȥ顤ƱѤʤɡѸ˸塤פôäƤ롥
(75--76) ˤСޥӸؾ塤ǣ1 ǣ2 εϰۤʤäƤ롥ǣ1 ޥʳǤ *[aː]- ɡ֤ West-Saxon ˤ岽Τǡnon-West-Saxon ǤϤ˾夲Ф [eː] Ȥʤä (ex. dǣd "deed", lǣtan "let", þǣr "there") ǣ2 ޥ *[aɪ] űѸޤǤ [ɑː] ѲΤ i-mutation ФϤǤ (ex. lǣran "teach", dǣlan "deal") ϡWest-Saxon Τߤʤ餺 Anglian Ǥݤ줿Kentish ǤϾ夲ˤ [eː] Ȥʤääơǣ1 ǣ2 βδطϡWest-Saxon Ǥ [æː] : [æː]Anglian Ǥ [eː] : [æː]Kentish Ǥ [eː] : [eː] Ȥʤ롥ޤȤСʲ̤ꡥ
PGmc aː > OE WS æː NWS æː > eː WGmc aɪ > OE ɑː > (i-mutation) WS, Angl æː K æː > eː
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ѸβˤؤܤȤȡűѸ鸽Ѹˤơޤ¿βѲäƤΤܤ饯餹ۤɤܥ֥Ǥ⡤ޤǸġˤ¿βѲäƤηŪ˼פʤΤǤ⾯ƤѤƤФȻפäƤ롥
ϡHamer (14--15) θűѸ첻ѲꡤűѸΩĥޥ3ܤ٤첻ѲҲ𤹤롥
| Sound change | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| A | u > o unless followed by a nasal consonant, or by u or i/j in the following syllable. (By this is meant if the vowel element of the following syllable consisted of any u sound, or of any i sound or of any combination beginning with j.) | bunden, holpen are both OE p.p. of Class III Strong Verbs, the u of bunden having been retained, because of the following n. god, gyden = 'god', goddess. gyden had earlier had i instead of e in its ending, and this i first caused the u to survive, then later caused it to change to y by i-mutation (see I below). Thus both the o and y in these forms derive from Gmc. u. |
| B | e > i if followed by a nasal consonant, or by i/j in the following syllable. | bindan, helpan are both OE infin. of Class III Strong Verbs. helpan has 3 sg. pres indic. hilpþ < Gmc. *hilpiþi. |
| C | eu > iu before i/j in the following syllable. |
űѸŵŪ <cyning> 뤤 <cyng> ֤Ƥ줬ѸǤŵŪ <king> ֤褦ˤʤäƤ롥 /k/ ɽ魯ʸ <c> <k> ؤ֤줿ȤȤˤϤʤưŤäΤ
/k/ бʸ <c> <k> ִ줿аޤˤĤơScragg (45) ϵǽŪΩ줫鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . Old English orthography continued to represent the two sounds [= [k] and [ʧ]] by <c> (i.e. both of these words in late Old English were spelt cinn or cynn). Although <c> could still unambiguously represent /k/ before back vowels and consonants (as it still does in cat, cot, cut, climb, crumb), there was no agreed way of distinguishing the sounds graphically before front vowels. The use of <k> for the plosive appeared sporadically from the ninth century but it was not until the thirteenth that it was fully established in words like king and keen, by which time <ch> had been adopted for the affricate.
<c> <k> ؤѲϡ/y/ ߿Ȥ첻ѲͿƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥űѸǤϸ (palatalisation) θ̤ˤꡤ첻Ԥ /k/ [ʧ] ȤƼ¸褦ˤʤäƤ첻Ԥ /k/ [k] ȤƼ¸³ƤꡤߤʬۤʤᡤξϤޤƱ첻Ǥΰۤʤ¸Ǥˤʤääơɽ魯ʸ <c> 1Ĥǻꤿ
Ȥ첻 /u/ i-mutation ˤ첻 /y/ Ȥʤꡤ߿ /i/ ؤѲȡcinn [ʧin] cynn [kin] Ωޤ졤ʬۤ롥 /ʧ/ /k/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤȤƶ̤褦ˤʤäDz (phonemicisation) βǤ롥
ʳˤơۤʤ벻ǤϰۤʤʸɽΤդ路ȤǽŪȯۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ͤˡϤĤμ¸ȼѤδ֤Ф夤Τϡ/k/ Ф <k> /ʧ/ Ф <ch> Ƥˡä <c> ΤΤĤäƤʤȤդ줿
Ѹˤ <k> <ch> Ѥ줿طʤˤϡֻѤ륢Υޥ̻νͿƤScragg θǤʸǤб˴ؤ뵡ǽŪ˽ϤƤΤФOED K, n. εҤϡΥޥֻˤڤǤꡤХμ줿Ȥ롥
Yet, in the Old English use of the Roman alphabet, both the guttural and the palatal sound were represented by C, although in the practice of individual scribes K was by no means infrequent for the guttural, especially in positions where C would have been liable to be taken as palatal, or would at least have been ambiguous, as in such words as Kent, kéne, kennan, akenned, kynn, kyning, kyðed, folkes, céak, þicke. But, even in these cases, C was much more usual down to the 11th century; and K can be regarded only as a supplemental symbol occasionally used instead of C for the guttural sound. After the Conquest, however, the Norman usage gradually prevailed, in accordance with which C was retained for the original guttural only before a, o, u, l, r, and K was substituted for the same sound before e, i, y, and (later) n; while the palatalized Old English c, now advanced to /ʧ/, was written Ch. Hence, in native words, initial K now appears only before e, i, y (y being moreover usually merged in i), and before n ( < Old English cn-), where it is no longer pronounced in Standard English, though retained in some dialects.
űѸǤ⤹Ǥ <k> ѤƤȤˤդ٤Ǥ롥ʸǤֻѲޤᡤѲˤϡʣξװͿƤȤ (multiple causation of language change) ˺ƤϤʤʤ
Ϣơ/k/ бʸŪˤĤơ#1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1]) ȡ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
Ѹˤӥޥˤˤơ̾ưžˡϤäޤܼź (affixation) ˤ¾ʻˡäűѸǤС̾ lufu (love) ưդ lufian (to love) Ȥ륿פǤ롥Ѹˤ light (n.) lighten (v.) Τ褦ʥڥ졤٤̤Ȥơˡ켫Τϳǧ (cf. #1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1]))
ˡΤ褦źä줿ܼŪ˼岽ĤˤϾüƤޤäΤ롥ϡŪˤߤСʻž (conversion) 뤤ϥ (zero-derivation) ȸƤФΤǤ롥Ѹʹߤ love 1Ǥꡤ̾ưϷֲޤä̤ʤ
ˡźä줿ܼŪפȤǤϥƱܼκפ촴ΰ˴Τ褦˻ĤäƤȤ롥ŵŪʥפ1Ĥϡhouse /haʊs/ (n.) vs house /haʊz/ (v.) Τ褦˸촴Ҳ̵ͭΤǤ롥촴첻Ĺûääơbreath /brɛθ/ (n.) vs breathe /briːð/ (v.) Τ褦ΩΤ⾯ʤʤ (cf. #2223. ФˤҲ̵ͭ ([2015-05-29-1]), #979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1]))
֤ĤƤܼκספΤ⤦1ĤŵŪʥפϡi-mutation Ǥ롥i-mutation Ȥϡܼ i/j ʤɤ첻ǤȤˡԤ촴첻Ĥꤢ뤤Ϲ⤤֤شŪʲǤ (cf. #157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1])) ܼ˾üƤޤȡ꤬ϸ촴첻ѰۤΤߤȤȤˤʤ롥food (n.) vs feed (v.), tooth (n.) vs teethe (v.) ʤɤ
ʥˤ̾ưβ֤ܴۤ˰פǤ⡤¿ξˡ֤Ѱۤˤʻ줬̤Τ롥diatone γƵǰäƤ̾ưפǤꡤrécord (n.) vs recórd (v.), íncrease (n.) vs incréase (v.) ʤɿ¿¸ߤ (cf. #804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1]))
ǸƤ褦ˡѸˤӥޥˤˤơܼž촴Ҳ̵ͭΩi-mutation̾ưϡ줾Ūˤ϶̤븽ݤǽŪˤߤʻžȤ̤ͭƤȤ롥ŪˤϴϢΤʤ褦ˤߤ i-mutation ȥ̾ư夬˾塤䴰Ū˵ǽƤȤȤ϶̣˴Ūʰ̴طǤϤűѸ i-mutation षȤȡѸǥ̾ư夬иŪȤʤäȤȤϥƤΤ
ʾƶͿƤ줿ΤϡBiese (250--51) Ǥ롥ʲ˰ѤƤ
[W]e must mention another feature in the development of English sound-changes that was to become important to the process of conversion. In Old English there existed a great number of denominative verbs derived from the corresponding nouns by a suffix causing an i-umlaut, i.e. word-pairs of the following character were very common: scrȳdan?scrūd, hiertan?heorte, rȳman?rūm.
We may regard this differentiation of nouns and verbs in OE. as a phenomenon on the same lines as the stress-distinction . . . . Now, while in the other Germanic languages the umlaut remained a living featuring principle in the field of word-formation, it soon ceased to be an integral principle of English word-formation. Even in early Middle English the umlaut as a living feature of the language, e.g. as used in forming denominatives from new substantives, had disappeared. Moreover, during the development of English a lot of levelling took place in word-pairs that had originally been distinguished by umlaut. In other cases one of the two words, the subst. or adjective on the other hand or the verb on the other, became obsolete. This feature in the development of the structure of the English language was necessarily very favourable to the spread of the process of forming new words by the method of direct conversion.
Biese, Y. M. Origin and Development of conversions in English. Helsinki: Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, B XLV, 1941.
ɽ3ϡ -en Ȥؾ (diminutive) λؾϡޥĸ *-īnam (neut.) ̤롥äơűѸʸڤ cicen mægden ̾Ǥ롥
chicken β֤ȯãϴˤ餫ˤƤʤޥĸ *kiukīno ̤Ȥ롥촴 *kiuk- ϡ*kuk- 첻αƶ i-mutation ФΤǡθ캬 cock űѸǤ cicen ʤɤȤʸڤ (cf. Du. kuiken, G Küken, ON kjúklingr) æ chike (> PDE chick) ϡ֤Ҥ褳Ҥʡפΰ̣ǡѸ˽Ф롥
kitten ϡťե chitoun, cheton (cf. ե chaton) ΥΥޥ *kitoun, *ketun Ѹ˼ѤΤȤ롥Ūˤ -o(u)n ȤˤƤȤ̵طä17˷ŪˤⵡǽŪˤؾ -en Ʊ
maiden ʲˤϡűѸ mægden ʤɤȤʸڤ롥mægden ѸޤǤ˸æΤ mæide Ǥꡤ줬 maid Ϣʤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸΩĻˤ maid ؤܼźäˤ maiden ȹͤ뤬ºݤ˱Ѹ˾ʸڤϡmaiden Ǥꡤü maid ȤȤǤ롥ξϸߤ˻ޤǡ־פΰ̣äƶ¸Ƥ롥⥲ޥĸ *maȝaðiz ʾˤ̤ꡤϴϢűѸ magð ʾˤƤ롥ˡ־פɽ魯Ѹ may (< OE mǣġ (kinswoman)) Ʊȹͤ졤Ϣη֤Ọ̇̄ʣǤ롥ʤmaid ѸǤϡ̤˻ҡפɽ魯Ȥ⤢ä
-en ˤ¾ˤⵯۤˤ͡ʥפ롥#1471. golden ߽ФѲ ([2013-05-07-1])#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1])#2221. vixen ν ([2015-05-27-1]) ȡ
ѸǶˤ <en> Ȥֻκǽ첻 /ˈɪŋ/ бΤϡEnglish England ȤñˤƤΤߤǤ롥ޤ˸ƤΤǰ´Ф뤳Ȥʤ2ϤԵ§ֻȯδطƤ롥ŪطʤɤäƤߤ褦
#1145. English England ̾Ρ ([2012-06-15-1]) 褦ˡEnglish England ϡ줾űѸˤ졤ʣǤ롥ԤϴΤ Engle (or Angle)ʥ͡ˤ˷ƻ -isc դ֤ǤꡤԤƱΤʣ°ʷ land դ Englaland la haplography ʽŻæˤФ֤Ǥ롥űѸδ Engle ϡޥĸ *anȝli- ̤ꡤ (angle) η Schleswig ΰ̾ȴϢŤ뤬줬ƥ˼Ѥ Anglus (nom. sg.) Angli (nom. pl.) ȤѤ줿ΤűѸäΤǤ롥
ޥĸθƬ˼ [ɑ] 첻ϡβ i ˤ i-mutation Ф [æ] ȤʤäɡǤϤ˾夲Ф [ɛ] ˻ä2Ĥξ夲ϡ2 i-mutation Ȥ⤤٤ΤǡCampbell (75) ˤȸűѸΥƥȤˤϤ褯ȿǤƤʤѸ South-East Midland ϰǤʤäˡƱѲФȤƤϡmenn (< *manni), ende (< *andja) ʤɤp. 222--24ˡΰϢβѲȿǤ˸ˤ夷ȤƤϡ(East) Anglia Anglo-Saxon ʤɤ롥
ơ14ˤʤ /eŋ/ > /iŋ/ Ѳڤ褦ˤʤ롥senge > singe, henge > hinge, streng > string, weng > wing, þenken > þinken, enke > inke ʤɤǤp. 169ˡȤƤϡޥĸΤȤȤ첻 [ɑ] 夲β٤ФƤĤ˹첻 [ɪ] ˤʤäƤޤä櫓Ǥ롥
ơ˵ñ췲Ǥϡ첻ξ夲ȼɸŪֻǤ <eng> <ing> ȽƸ˻뤬English, England ˤĤƤϡϹԤʤƤ <Inglish>, <Ingland> ʤɤֻɸಽ뤳ȤϤʤ<Eng>- ¸³뤳Ȥˤʤä (cf. #1436. English England ̾ (2) ([2013-04-02-1])) ͳϤ褯狼ʤˤ衤2ˤĤƤԵ§ֻȯδط夷ƤޤäȤſ
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ɸγѤϸѸǤԵ§Ȥ뤬ʬǻ (dental suffix) 뤳Ȥ顤Ե§٤㤤ȤߤƤ褵Ǥ롥ưϸűѸǤϼѲ1°ޤ˵§ŪưǤꡤ hīeranñ˷ hīerdeʬ (ge)hīered ȳѤ
űѸưζηϤȤդ٤ϡѲ1ưΤʤ hīeran פΤΤϲλľ첻礱Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥Ʊ1° fremman (to perform) fremede 첻ȼnerian (to save) nerede 첻ȼϡűѸΩĻ hīeran פ fremman פ nerian פȤϰۤʤ벻ФƤǤ롥Ѹ *heared ʤ heard βʬθˤϡűѸ̤ǤϽʬǤʤ˸ŤޤʤФʤʤ
Ѳ1ư˶̤Ūطʤϡ⤫ĤƲʬΤ *-ida Τ褦 i ղäȤǤ롥 i Ȥʤäơ촴첻 i-mutation 뤳ȤȤʤä i ϡܺ٤Ͼά뤬 fremman ФƲ fremede Τ褦 m ñҲȤʤäƤ뤳ȡ nerian ФƲ nerede Τ褦 i üƤ뤳ȤȤط롥
ˤȤäƽפʤΤϡhīeran פ fremman nerian פȰۤʤꡤĹ첻˻Ҳ³촴äƤȤΤĹ̵ι첻 (/i/ /u/) ³ˤϡι첻æȤ "High Vowel Deletion" (high_vowel_deletion) űѸλƤʤ*hauzida > *hīridæ > hīerde ȤȯãꤵƤ (Hogg, Vol. 1 222--23) High Vowel Deletion θ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1674. ѲȶοʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1]) Ǥ̤ʤ鿨ƤΤǡȤ줿
ƸűѸβ hīerde Ϥ줿衤ƱϩɤϤäʬϡͽۤ *(ge)hīerd ǤϤʤʸڤΤ첻줿 (ge)hīered Ǥ롥ϡfremman nerian פη̤ȹͤ (Hogg, Vol. 2 263)
ơűѸѸˤơʤƲʬˤˤƤϡĹ첻2ҲפȤŤäƤȤ顤#1751. ʣ1Ǥβû̡ ([2014-02-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡĹ첻û礿븽߶Ǥϡ d 礱Ƥ뤿˲ϽŤʤ餺ûƤʤˤꡤߤ hear heard 첻㤬롥
ʤƱṽ¤ hīeran פ¾ư줬űѸʹߡhīeran Ʊ褦˿äƤȤȡǤϤʤdēman ƱפǤϤ뤬ˤʬ deemed ǤꡤŪ˴˵§ŪǤ롥ϡѤƯ̤Ǥ롥
Ѳ1γѤˤĤƤϡ#2210. think -- thought -- thought γѡ ([2015-05-16-1]) ⻲ȡ
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. 1992. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ȡ#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1]) ǡvixen ʻĥ͡ˤȤ˿줿ɸѸθäΤʤǡƬͭŪðۤǤȽҤ٤ƤθˤϤ⤦1Ūðۤ롥ϡŤޥν̾ͳ褹 -en ȤɤƤ
ߡ̾줫б̾礿Ȥ -ess 롥ϡꥷ -issa ƥ줬Ѥ -issa եͳ -esse ȤƱѸäƤΤǤꡤǤ롥ޥϤΤΤȤƤϡ#2188. spinster, youngster ʤɤˤߤ -ster ([2015-04-24-1]) ǿ줿ޥ췲ˤߤ -estre 뤬˽ɽ魯ΤȤƸΤ spinster ΤߤǤ롥ˤƤ -en ⥲ޥɤˤߤǤꡤޥĸ *-inī, *-injō űѸ -en, -in ȯŸΤǤ롥űѸȤƤϡgod (god) Ф gyden (goddess)munuc (monk) Ф mynecen (nun), wulf (wolf) Ф wylfen (she-wolf) ʤŪ˴ޤޤƤ i ˤ i-mutation θ̤աˡ
vixen ˴ؤƤСḥ̂ͤ̾ȤƤϡűѸˤϼгʤȤƤ fyxan 1ΤʸڤˤʤMED fixen (n.) ˤȡѸǤ fixen 뤬fixen hyd (fox hide) ȤѤƤ뤳Ȥ顤η֤ϸűѸν̾ǤϤʤƻ fyxen (of the fox) ͳ褹Ȥͤ뤫⤷ʤѸǤ̾ȤƤ ffixen Τʸڤ졤رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤС16ʹߤˤϸƬͭߤ vyxen Ϣʤ֤褦ˤʤOED ˤ15ˤˡ
ɥĸǤϽȤƤ -in ϸǤꡤFuchs vs Füchsin Τߤʤ餺Student vs Studentin, Sänger vs Sängerin ʤɰŪѤ롥ѸǤϽκפ vixen ˻ĤΤߤȤʤäƤޤäޥθȤơѸˤƤ뵮ŤǤ롥Ƭ v ȹ碌ơѸŪ˴ǽ
ɸ think γѤΤߤʤ餺bring, buy, seek, teach ʤɤγѤǤϡʬ˷˸Ȥϰۤʤ첻롥ۤʤ첻˲äơֻξ ght ʤҲϢ³졤Ե§פȤΰݤϷŪǤ롥Ūˤϵ§ŪưǤꡤ-ed դƲʬ˷¿ư֤Ǥ롥¿ΤΤ¿βѲŪ˷иƤˡ̤ȤơԵ§ޤʤɤΤѤȤˤʤäƤ롥
Mitchell and Robinson (48--49) ˽äơŪаޤ⤷褦ޤthink ưθűѸǤηɽ˼ߤޤǤѸȤʤäΡʵ§ѲؤȰܹԤΤޤޤƤ롥
| Inf. | Pret. Sg. | Past Ptc. |
|---|---|---|
| brenġan 'bring' | brōhte | brōht |
| bycgan 'buy' | bohte | boht |
| cwellan 'kill' | cwealde | cweald |
| reċċan 'tell' | rōhte | rōht |
| sēċan 'seek' | sōhte | sōht |
| sellan 'give' | sealde | seald |
| streċċan 'stretch' | strōhte | strōht |
| tǣċan 'teach' | tǣhte, tāhte | tǣt, tāht |
| þenċan 'think' | þōhte | þōht |
| þynċan 'seem' | þūhte | þūht |
| wyrċan 'work' | worhte | worht |
#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1]) ǡԵ§ʣ feet η֤ˤĤơi-mutation ޤϢβѲη̤Ȥ§ȤƱ feet ˸¤餺¾Ե§ʣ geese, lice, men, mice, teeth, women ˤƤϤޤ뤬ȡάʲΤ褦ʷаޤäȹͤƤ롥
(1) ޥĸ졧 *fōt- (sg.) / *fōt-iz- (pl.)
(2) ʣ i-mutation 롧 *fōt- (sg.) / *fēt-iz- (pl.)
(3) űѸޤǤ *-iz ü fōt- (sg.) / fēt- (pl.)
βΤˤϡѲξܺ٤ˤޤƧ߹ɬפ롥ä (3) *-iz üȤϡ겼ɬפ롥ȤΤϡ*-iz ξüˤꡤϲŪʰյʤä ō ē ΩŪô褦ˤʤäǤ롥
*-iz ξüϡ2Ĥβ쵤˾üΤǤϤʤ *z *i üȹͤƤ롥ޥĸǤϡfoot ϸ촴ȶδ֤첻ΤʤȤħȤ athematic ζޥפ°ʣʤȤ *-iz ̵ˤä *z ϡĸ *s ȼʤͭ Verner's Law νϤǤ (Campbell 398.2) *z ϡƱ岻δĶǸ˾üʤޥĸˤ a-stem Ѳޤˤʣʸ϶ *-ôs Ǥäᡤ*s ϼ뤳Ȥʤߤ˻ޤʣɸεǽô³Ƥ (Campbell 571) Ĥޤꡤfeet 㤨 stones Τɤä־ˤϡʣʸ˶ʤääΰ㤤ʵŪˤϡĸ°Ƥޥפΰ㤤ˤ˵뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ơ*z æȡϸ *i üˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäűѸλˡμ岻ˤ첻 *i *u ϡľ˶ΤĹĶæ롤High Vowel Deletion ȸƤФ벻ѲǤ롥*fēti *i Ϥξ˹פƤæ뤳Ȥˤʤä (Campbell 345)
(3) Ǥϰ *-iz æȽҤ٤ºݤˤϾŤ줿ϢβѲϢˤäƽ緫æƤäΤǤ롥ɸΤ褦ʸѸΡѤʵפФƤǤ¤Τ뤿ˤϡɤޤǤˤ̤ʤФʤʤ
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
#1825. <F> εȯŸ ([2014-04-26-1]) εǿ줿褦ˡ <F>, <U>, <V>, <W>, <Y> Ϥ٤ƥࡦե٥åȤ wāu ˵ĻʸǤ롥ƥ줫Ѹޤ¿θǤϡ<y> Ϥ줬ɽ魯椨 <i> ȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿षŪˤ <u> ȱ郎<Y> <U> ᤷʸǤ뤳Ȥϡꥷե٥åȤ20 upsilon ʸʸԤǤ뤳Ȥ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ뤷űѸ <u> = /u/ 饦Ȳ߿첻 /y/ ɽ魯Τ <y> äƤȤΤ롥űѸǤϡ/y/ α߿ /i/ Ȥʤäᡤ<y> Ϥष <i> ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤä
<Y> <U> ζᤵ⤦1ĤϡY ̾ΤΤʤ˱Ƥ뤫⤷ʤѸ Y [waɪ] ȸƤФͳˤĤϤʤJespersen ˤС <Y> λ <U> β <I> äǤȤȴط롥[uiː] [wiː] Ȥʤꡤ첻ܤˤ [waɪ] ѲȤ桤pp. 183--84ˡ
OED ˤȡʸȯˤĤƤκǽθڤϡ1200ǯ˽줿 Ormulum l. 4320 ˤ IESOYS 5ʸܤξ˸ ƿı Ǥ롥1513ǯˤϡG. Douglas Virgil Æneid vii. Prol. 120 ˡ"Palamedes byrdis crouping in the sky, Fleand on randoune schapin lik ane Y." Ȥߤ롥ޤ16ȾˤϡΤʵҤߤ롥
1573 J. Baret Aluearie, Y hath bene taken for a greeke vowel among our latin Grammarians a great while, which me thinke if we marke well we shall finde to be rather a diphthong: for it appeareth to be compounded of u and i, which both spelled togither soundeth as we write Wy.
1580 W. Bullokar Bk. Amendm. Orthogr. 8 The olde name of :y: (which is wy).
ϢơH ̾ΤˤĤƤϡ#488. ȯɤΰ ([2010-08-28-1]) J ̾ΤˤĤƤϡ#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ ([2014-04-29-1]) Z ̾ΤˤĤƤϡ#964. z ʸȯ (1) ([2011-12-17-1]) ӡ#965. z ʸȯ (2) ([2011-12-18-1]) ȡ
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
ǰʤ顤ɤʸɤϼǰֲѲϵ§Ū뤬Ե§⤿餷ѲԵ§뤬˵§⤿餹פȤ⤤롥ѲȷѲŵŪˤѡˤħޤɽΤǤ롥#838. ηϤȥȥԡ ([2011-08-13-1]) εǤϡƱȤַˤơ§ŪʲѲϥȥԡ礵Ե§ŪѤϥȥԡפȴʴϢơ#1674. ѲȶοʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
1ĵ褦#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡfoot (sg.) vs feet (pl.) ϸѸǤϷŪԵ§ȤȤ館Ƥ롥ʬ̾줬 {s} ղäȤ§ʣ뤳Ȥ˾Ȥ餻СΤԵ§Ȥä٤Ǥ롥Ե§ͳõȡi-mutation ȸƤФ뵬§ŪʲѲ˹Ԥ夯§ŪʲǤСη̤§ŪˤʤϤǤϤʤȵ뤫⤷ʤѲǤ§Ȥ¿ξĤ§ǤȤΤߥǤ롥foot -- feet ξˤϡ³첻 /i/ ޤޤ뤳ȤǤ롥⡤ /i/ ˾üƤޤȤʤ벻ѲѤ̡ʣͽԲǽʷ֤Ĥ˻äƤޤäʾޤȤСѲε§ȤϤޤǾĤε§Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ˤΤ褦ʲѲʣŤʤ뤳Ȥˤꡤºݾͽ¬Բǽʷ֤˻äƤޤΤʤΤǤ롥ǡ嵭ΰ⤤ȾʬֲѲϵ§Ū뤬Ե§⤿餹פ롥
ˡȾʬַѲԵ§뤬˵§⤿餹פ˰ܤfoot -- feet ƱͤˡűѸǤϡܡפɽ魯 bōc ʣʼʡгʡ˷ i-mutation θ̤ bēc Ȥ֤äΤޤѸäƤС*beech ʤɤȤʤäƤϤθ˴ؤƤ (analogy) κѤˤꡤ¿ -s ʣݤ߹ޤ졤Ѹʹߤ books ȡֵ§פǤȤŵŪʷѲβ̤ȤƵ§⤿餷Ȥˤʤ뤬bōc ˤƯfōt ˤƯʤäȤ̣ǡñȯŪǤ롥ɤθƯΤͽ¬ԲǽʤΤǤ뤫顤ǤԵ§Ǥ롥
§ŪʲѲԵ§⤿餷Ե§ʬŪ˽뤫Τ褦ˡѲԵ§˺Ѥ롥ѲϤʤ鼫ŪŪ̵ռŪǤꡤѲϤʤͰŪŪռŪǤ롤Ǥ褦Τ褦ȿ뵡Τ褦˷֤ưѲưƤΤ
ѲȷѲˤĤơ (56) 褦ʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȻŪĹȤˤƤ⡤2ĤѲδ֤Τ椬ȤŦϽפ
Ǥϡ§Ūʲˡ§ˤäѲ뤬ˡ§ϤΤŬѤΤǤ롥ǤԵ§ѲѲϻŪĹˤäƸꤵʤ
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