ˤ͡ʱѸѼ郎ꡤҤä World Englishes New Englishes ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿䥢եꥫˤŪʷаޤ ESL (English as a Second Language) Ѽ郎¿¿ΥեꥫѼ˶̤Ƹ뱤ΧħĤŦƤ롥Ǥ2褦1Ĥ "syllable-timing" ȸƤФꥺ (rhythm) ⤦1Ĥϸζ (stress) ΰ֤˴ؤ뷹Ǥ롥ʲ Mesthrie and Bhatt (129) ȤƲ⤹롥
syllable-timing Ȥϡꥺδθ1ĤǡɸѸ줬 stress-timing ֤ΤǤ롥Ԥϲʥ⡼ˤֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡܸե줬Ԥ϶ֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡɸѸɥĸ줬cf. #1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])ˡ
եꥫϤνˤ syllable-timing ĤΤ¿δؤξ˾äƤ ESL Ѽˤ syllable-timing ΥꥺबۤȤȤ㤨СɷեꥫѸ졤ͷեꥫѸ졤쥢եꥫѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ʱѸ졤ɱѸ졤ѥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤եԥѸʤɤ syllable-timing Υꥺħ̤ħȤơѼˤϡ첻ˤ첻ŪƤݤȤ⤢롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥϡsyllable-timing ΥꥺϤ̣ǤͥȤäƤ褤
Ѽˤϡζ˴ؤƤⶦ̤Ƥߤ뷹롥ФɸѸȤϰۤʤ֤˶֤뤳Ȥrealíse Τ褦˶֤¦˴ΤȤ櫓¿롼ѸʤɤǤ adólescence Τ褦˺¦˴Τߤ롥ޤѼǤɸѸ ábsent (adj.) absént (v.) Τ褦ʡʻˤäƶ֤ư븽 (diatone) ϤߤʤȤ
ŪˤСظαƶβDZΧε§άΤȤäƤ褤ܸüԤˤȤäơͥױΧħǤꡤŸˤܤƤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ɸϡޤᡤƬ𤷤Ƥñ췲ǤֻϤ䤳Ƥ뤷γˤȯƱäۤʤäƤꤹ롥̣Ƥ褦ʡǤʤ褦ʡñϳؽǼ¤˺ޤΤ䤳ϸ츻̤äƤ⤿ƲäʤΤǤǯ٤αѸƳڡȤȤ⤢ꡤŪˤߤƤߤȻפޤcf. #4357. ǯ٤αѸƳڡϤޤ ([2021-04-01-1])ˡ
ޤϡäȤ꤬ʤǡΤʤƤ褤٥ñǤ dissert v. /dɪˈsəːt/ Ԥޤ礦פ̣ưǡǤϡԸդȤΥ졼٥뤬ŽƤޤñΤ褦ֻ <s> ʣˤϡ§Ȥ̵ /s/ Ȥʤޤʤʲ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡ㳰ޤˡư줫̾ dissertation ֳؽʸäʸˡפΤäƤƤ褤ñǤ͡
츻ȤƤϡƥǡפ̣ư dissertāre ̤ޤդƬ dis- ˡ촴 serere ʸդĤʤʸˤȿĤʤΤǡ֤äդĤʤ碌פۤɤǤcf. Ʊ촴 series ˡ
ˡ֥ǥȡפ̣ dessert /dɪˈzəːt/߿̾Ȼפޤ<ss> ֻǤ嵭®㳰ǡͭ /z/ ȯޤñϡեư desservir ʶդˤβʬͳ褷ޤĤޤ줿˽ФΡޤˡֿΥǥȡפʤ櫓ǤեνƬ des- servir ʱѸˤ serve ȤֿФפΰաˤȤʤΤǡǼǤ
˼˿ʤߤޤ֥ǥȡפ dessert ȤޤäƱȯʤ⡤<s> 1Ĥ desert ʤñ줬ޤʣʻ뤿ˡʲǤϡΰۤʤ desert 1 desert 2 2̤Ƥޤǽ desert 1 äޤ礦desert 1 ϡּΤƤ롤פ̣ưǤʸȤơShe was deserted by her husband. פ˼ΤƤ줿ˤƤޤưθ츻ϥե déserter ǡ̤ȥƥ dēserere ȿ˹Ԥ夭ޤ캬 serere ʤΤǡҤ dissert Ȥⶦ̤ǤñˤĤƤƬ dis- ǤϤʤ de- ǤĤʤ (serere) Ȥߤ (de) ȤȯۤǡּΤƤ롤ΤƤפȤ櫓Ǥ
ơư desert 1 Τޤޤη֤Ƿƻ첽̾첽ΤּΤƤ줿ϡˡפȤƤΡֺפǤѸǤ̾ư (diatone) ηˤꡤֺפȤƤ desert ȯϡ1˰ܤä /ˈdɛzət/ ȤʤΤդǤ
desert 2 /dɪˈzəːt/ ˰ܤޤ礦̾ǡ٤ȳפ̣ޤ嵭ΤޤǤθȤϤޤäۤʤʷϵǤ̸츻 deserve /dɪˈzəːv/ ?ͤˤȤưβʬͳ褹̾ǤΤȤͤ٤ʪ줬ȳȤȤǤθ deserve ʤưϥե deservir μѤǡ켫Ȥϥƥ dēservīre ̤ޤƬ dē- ϶ա촴 servīre ϡֻŤפΰ̣ǡԤϸ serve ȤƱѸ˼ޤޤ?˻Ť뤳ȤǤۤɤע?ͤפȤạ̈ȯŸȹͤޤ
ơ𤷤䤹ñ췲θ츻̤뤳Ȥǡäƺ𤷤⤷ޤʰ餺ˡʤǸ˼夲ư deserve ϡʤʤȤưǤ⤢ޤThe report deserves careful consideration., He deserves to be locked up for ever for what he did., Several other points deserve mentioning. ʤɼʸΥꥨ˭٤Ǥ̣ŪʴõäƤ⤪⤷ưȻפޤ̣Ūʴ顤ֱѸƳ2021ˤرˤ륳ƥ"You deserve it." ȡּȼסɽޤ⤴ɤ
ε#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1]) ˰³-ate ĸȯưǤ /eɪt/ Ȥʤ̾졦ƻǤ /ɪt/ ȤʤˤĤơ
Carney Ǥ⤳꤬ƽǰƤꡤä p. 398 ˤθݤñꥹȤƤ롥ʲ˺ƸƤŪǤϤʤȻפ뤬ʰǤ롥
aggregate, animate, appropriate, approximate, articulate, associate, certificate, co-ordinate, correlate, degenerate, delegate, deliberate, duplicate, elaborate, emasculate, estimate, expatriate, graduate, importunate, incorporate, initiate, intimate, moderate, postulate, precipitate, predicate, separate, subordinate, syndicate
Carney ΥꥹȤƤΤϡʻˤäȯؤतñ줬ȤˤƤǤ롥¾μȤƤϡؤ̾ư (diatone) Ƥ뤷 -ment ĸˤƤ롥̾ưȤݤȤŪطʤˤĤƤˤĤƤϡǤܥ֥Ǥ diatone γƵܳŪ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤʻˤäȯؤפȤݥȤ -ate ȤĤʤäƤȤΤϡȯä
-ment ˤĤƤϡưǤΤ첻 /-mɛnt/ Ȥʤ뤬̾졦ƻǤۣ첻 /-mənt/ Ȥʤ롥Carney (398) 곺ñΥꥹȤƤcomplement, compliment, document, implement, increment, ornament, supplement.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
récord ̾ˤ recórd ưˤΤ褦ˡ̾ưݤ2ˤƶ֤̾ưפȤʤ븽 (diatone) ˤĤơ#803. ̾ư̻Ū ([2011-07-09-1])#804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ̾ưפñ16Ⱦ鸽ˤƽƤϢ夲ƤѸŪʥեȤȤįƤߤȤ⤷ (cf. [2018-07-07-1], [2018-07-08-1], [2018-07-09-1]) ѸϳάȤƤϸűѸ줫鸽Ѹˤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ȥեȤƤȲǤ뤬̾ưפϤŪĬήФ뾮ʵήȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫
record ǹͤƤȡѸǤ̾ recórdư recórd(en) Ǥꡤ֤2ǰפƤưθ -en ϾüäƤ̵ͭˤ餺̾졦ưȤ recórd Ȥ̤ˤѤθ촴äƤΤǡξδطϻ¾ʻž (conversion) ȤֲˤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǺѤƤϡword-based morphology ȤäƤ褤
Ȥ16Ⱦʹߤ̾ˤƶưˡޤǶͭƤ1Ĥθ촴̾촴 récord ư촴 recórd 2Ĥʬ뤳ȤˤʤäʸβϤ줾 /ˈrɛkəd/, /rɪˈkɔːd/ˡޤѤθ촴˴Ť stem-based morphology ǽƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѸˤϡŪĬήȤƤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ȲǤ뤬ˤγʳƤġѲη̤ȤơʬŪ word-based morphology stem-based morphology εήΤ⤢ꤦȤȤָűѸ stem-based morphology λ塤Ѹ word-based morphology λפΤ褦˥ƥꥫʬहΤǤϤʤߤ٤ȤƤȤ館ΤǤ롥
#1695. ưʻž ([2013-12-17-1]) κǸ˼breakaway, sellout, writeoff ʤɤζư줫ž (verb-particle conversion) ̾ȡincrease, project, record ʤɤưѤ̾Ȥδ֤ˤϡܤ٤롥ϡ̾ưζѥäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥
̾ưˤĤƤϡ#803. ̾ư̻Ū ([2011-07-09-1])#804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1])#805. 衤̾ưˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ ([2011-07-11-1]) Ϥᡤdiatone γƵˤƤʸȤƤɽƤΤǡ#2. ʾҲ ([2009-05-01-73]) νȡˡverb-particle conversion ˤ̾ưζѥϰäȤϤʤäʻžθǤϡ嵭ζˤĤƤ鵤ŤƤ褦ǡ㤨ܳŪʻžθ路 Biese (246) ϡΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
It is of interest to note that the structural type so often characteristic of both simple conversion-substantives and verb-adverb combinations converted into nouns is the same, e.g. very often of a form ‿-́ . . .; the simple conv.-subst. showing a light, unstressed first syllable and a heavy, stressed second syllable, while in the adverb groups a (mostly) short verb is followed by an adverb having the main stress of the word-group.
⤷Τϡ2˴ؤơíncrease (n.) vs incréase (v.) Τ褦̾̾졦ưڥǤϥޥϼѸ줬¿ȤȤ⤢ꡤ1̣ηڤƬǡ2̣νŤ캬Ȥbrékawày (n.) vs brèak awáy (v.) ǤϹդȤʤäƤ뤳ȤäȤ⡤ưѤưϷڤ̣ΤΤ¿Ȥϻ¤̾ưȤ̤ζѥΤܤ٤Ǥ롥ϡ̾ưȤΧθݤȤδͿȤϡषʻη˴ؤǤ뤳ȤΤǤϤʤ
̾ưȤΧϡѸʹߤȯãŪݤưͳ褹̾ưζѥϤ˿ݤȻפ롥
ʻž̤̾ưδطˤĤƤϡǶε#2291. ̾ưžˤȷֲ ([2015-08-05-1]) ǿ줿ΤǻȤ줿
Biese, Y. M. Origin and Development of Conversions in English. Helsinki: Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, B XLV, 1941.
Ѹˤӥޥˤˤơ̾ưžˡϤäޤܼź (affixation) ˤ¾ʻˡäűѸǤС̾ lufu (love) ưդ lufian (to love) Ȥ륿פǤ롥Ѹˤ light (n.) lighten (v.) Τ褦ʥڥ졤٤̤Ȥơˡ켫Τϳǧ (cf. #1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1]))
ˡΤ褦źä줿ܼŪ˼岽ĤˤϾüƤޤäΤ롥ϡŪˤߤСʻž (conversion) 뤤ϥ (zero-derivation) ȸƤФΤǤ롥Ѹʹߤ love 1Ǥꡤ̾ưϷֲޤä̤ʤ
ˡźä줿ܼŪפȤǤϥƱܼκפ촴ΰ˴Τ褦˻ĤäƤȤ롥ŵŪʥפ1Ĥϡhouse /haʊs/ (n.) vs house /haʊz/ (v.) Τ褦˸촴Ҳ̵ͭΤǤ롥촴첻Ĺûääơbreath /brɛθ/ (n.) vs breathe /briːð/ (v.) Τ褦ΩΤ⾯ʤʤ (cf. #2223. ФˤҲ̵ͭ ([2015-05-29-1]), #979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1]))
֤ĤƤܼκספΤ⤦1ĤŵŪʥפϡi-mutation Ǥ롥i-mutation Ȥϡܼ i/j ʤɤ첻ǤȤˡԤ촴첻Ĥꤢ뤤Ϲ⤤֤شŪʲǤ (cf. #157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1])) ܼ˾üƤޤȡ꤬ϸ촴첻ѰۤΤߤȤȤˤʤ롥food (n.) vs feed (v.), tooth (n.) vs teethe (v.) ʤɤ
ʥˤ̾ưβ֤ܴۤ˰פǤ⡤¿ξˡ֤Ѱۤˤʻ줬̤Τ롥diatone γƵǰäƤ̾ưפǤꡤrécord (n.) vs recórd (v.), íncrease (n.) vs incréase (v.) ʤɿ¿¸ߤ (cf. #804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1]))
ǸƤ褦ˡѸˤӥޥˤˤơܼž촴Ҳ̵ͭΩi-mutation̾ưϡ줾Ūˤ϶̤븽ݤǽŪˤߤʻžȤ̤ͭƤȤ롥ŪˤϴϢΤʤ褦ˤߤ i-mutation ȥ̾ư夬˾塤䴰Ū˵ǽƤȤȤ϶̣˴Ūʰ̴طǤϤűѸ i-mutation षȤȡѸǥ̾ư夬иŪȤʤäȤȤϥƤΤ
ʾƶͿƤ줿ΤϡBiese (250--51) Ǥ롥ʲ˰ѤƤ
[W]e must mention another feature in the development of English sound-changes that was to become important to the process of conversion. In Old English there existed a great number of denominative verbs derived from the corresponding nouns by a suffix causing an i-umlaut, i.e. word-pairs of the following character were very common: scrȳdan?scrūd, hiertan?heorte, rȳman?rūm.
We may regard this differentiation of nouns and verbs in OE. as a phenomenon on the same lines as the stress-distinction . . . . Now, while in the other Germanic languages the umlaut remained a living featuring principle in the field of word-formation, it soon ceased to be an integral principle of English word-formation. Even in early Middle English the umlaut as a living feature of the language, e.g. as used in forming denominatives from new substantives, had disappeared. Moreover, during the development of English a lot of levelling took place in word-pairs that had originally been distinguished by umlaut. In other cases one of the two words, the subst. or adjective on the other hand or the verb on the other, became obsolete. This feature in the development of the structure of the English language was necessarily very favourable to the spread of the process of forming new words by the method of direct conversion.
Biese, Y. M. Origin and Development of conversions in English. Helsinki: Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, B XLV, 1941.
̾ (53--54) Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡطˤǡҲͭ¾̵ʤСͭưΤۤǤפȤ§롥ʲͿƤꡤۤȤɤư̾ФǤ롥
[f] <f> vs [v] <v>: life--live, proof--prove, safe--save, belief--believe, relief-relieve, thief--thieve, grief--grieve, half--halve, calf--calve, shelf--shelve
[s] <s> vs [z] <s>: close--close, use--use, excuse--excuse, house--house, mouse--mouse, loss--lose
[s] <s> vs [z] <z>: grass--graze, glass--glaze, brass--braze
[c] <s> vs [z] <s>: advice--advise, device--devise, choice--choose
[θ] <th> vs [ð] <th>: bath--bathe, breath--breathe, cloth--clothe, kith--kithe, loath--loathe, mouth--mouth, sheath-sheathe, sooth--soothe, tooth--teethe, wreath--wreathe
close--close Τ褦λҲֻƱΤ⤢Сadvice--advise Τ褦˰ۤʤΤ⤢ (cf. #1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1])) ޤưϸ e ĤΤ⾯ʤʤ (cf. #979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1])) <th> ˴ؤΤˤĤƤϡԤ첻βۤʤΤ¿
ФθҲ (voicing) Ωˤϡ¿ξ硤ŪʲͿƤ롥١̵̾ưͭפΥѥΩȡ줬פȤʤä (analogy) ˤ㤬ȤȤ⤢줾ФΩǯʤɤĴɬפ롥
ߤطˤ̾ưΤβ֤ˤƤˡƱ (homonymic_clash) 뤿ΩѤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ƱưŤϡ֤㤨 récord vs recórd Τ褦ʡ̾ưפΥڥ (diatone) ˤѻ褦˻פ롥
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹʹߡʻž (conversion) ϤƤаޤˤĤƤϡ#190. ʻž ([2009-11-03-1]) #1414. ʻžϥͥϤθ줫 ([2013-03-11-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤʻžΤʤǤ⡤ä˸ѸˤʤäƤϤФΤư̾ؤžǤ롥#420. 20ȾˤϤäĤθ ([2010-06-21-1]) Ǥϡsell-out, write-off, call-up, take-over, breakdown ʤɤʣˤȤ餳 headless compounds 뤤 exocentric compounds ȸƤư줫žȤȤ館ۤ狼䤹⤷ʤбư줬ʤ love-in, think-in ʤɤ̾⤢ΤǡξˤžȤϹͤ줺ľܤʣˤȤȤˤʤ롥
ۤȤɤξ硤ưǤѤΤǡޥϷ٤ȡľŪ˿˶϶ŪǡʤȤФ褤Potter (171) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Among the commonest of recent shifts are those of Germanic-derived phrasal verbs into nouns. These new forms are felt to be more forceful and vigorous than those Latin-derived synonyms which they so often supplant.
Potter (172--73) Ƥȡbreakaway, breakdown, breakout, breakthrough, breakup, buildup, dropout, followup, frameup, getaway, getby, getout, gettogether, getup, hideout, holdup, hookup, layout, leadin, leftover, letup, makeup, payoff, rakeoff, sellout, setback, setup, shakeup, shareout, showdown, stepup, takeoff, takeover, throwaway, walkout, walkover Ȥʤ뤬ŻҼǸ¾ˤǤФƤ롥㤨СOALD8 -away ȡ+breakaway, castaway, +cutaway, getaway, +giveaway, hideaway, layaway, +runaway, stowaway, takeaway, tearaway ʤɤҥåȤ롥+ դΤϸƻȤƤѤ졤¾ˤƻȤƤΤѤ flyaway, foldaway, soaraway, throwaway ʤɤ⸫Ĥ롥ư좪ƻž⾯ʤʤ褦ǡष̾ؤžŪԤƤΤ⤢롥
away ˤȤɤޤ餺˼פֻƱ褦˸ƴϢΰȻפäϾ֤ꤽʤΤǡϸäƤǯåɬפ뤬Ѹ줫鸽ѸˤƤλ˽иΤ¿Ǥ롥
ư줫žϤΤΤоݤˤʤۤ̾ư (diatone) ζѥδ⡤ưͳ̾졦ƻܤǤ롥
Potter, Simon. Changing English. London: Deutsch, 1969.
Χ (metrical phonology) ˤȡѸˤ Consonant Extrametricality (CE) ȤΧ§롥üŪˤСλҲϡαΧθ뤦ǴʤȤ뵬§Ǥ롥"[+cons] [+ex] / ] word" ȸ롥
Ҳ줺ˡǽ rhyme ʲ2⡼ʾȤʤʤĤޤʬ˾ˤϡ§ȤƤ˶֤롥Hogg and McCully (109--10)
| (a) | (b) | (c) |
| obey /obée/ | torment /tɔrmén | astonish /astɔ'nɪ |
| polite /polái | perhaps /perháp | decrepit /dikrépi |
| humane /hjuuméy | august /ɔɔgús | normal /nɔ'rma |
| petite /petíi | divert /daivér | consider /kɔnsíde |
. . . with regard to the disyllabic noun stress rule, only the nucleus of the second syllable is projected. The noun stress rule only 'sees' the syllable nucleus: if the nucleus branches (i.e. contains a long vowel or diphthong), stress is on the final syllable. Otherwise, stress is on the initial syllable.
ϡ̾ξˤϺǽκǽҲ1ĤǤʤǽҲΤ٤ƤΧȤߤʤȤ§ơλҲǤޤ rhyme ʲʬʤĤޤĹ첻2첻ޤ˾ˤΤߡκǽ˶Ȥ롥ξ˹ʤСԲؤȰưƤ椯ˤꡤ̾ torment ̾ August ϡ줾 /tɔ'rment/, /ɔ'ɔgust/ ʬϤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
αΧʬϤ˽С̾ư (diatone) ¿θζѥϡConsonant Extrametricality ʻ̾줫̾줫ˤ2ȤƵҤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ ([2011-07-10-1]) ̾ưˤ϶֤ѰۤѲϤ뤷 (ex. control (n.), retard (n.); [2012-04-23-1]) ͽۤƤϤޤʤ⾯ʤʤ (ex. discount, exploit, increase) ʬϤǽϤ⤿ʤȤΤϴñŪΤߤʤ餺̻ŪʷΤΤǤС̾ưθóȻҤǡͭʬϤȤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
Katamba, Francis. An Introduction to Phonology. New York: Longman, 1989.
óȻ (lexical diffusion) ȤƿʹԤ벻Ѳƻڤ٤ؤƤ餷ȤϡŤ19ŦƤºݤˡPhillips (1984: 321) ˵Ƥ褦ˡ٤ι⤤줫Ѳ뤲ȤѲϿڤƤǡ٤㤤줫Ѳ뤲ǧƤꡤ٤ȸóȻνδطˤĤƤϡޤ˵䤬¿ˤĤơPhillips ϡꥫѸˤ glide deletion Ѹ unrounding Ѹ̾ưdiatonic stress shift; diatone εȡˤȤ٤㤤˿ʹԤȤ3ĤβѲ夲ơ"Frequency Actuation Hypothesis" ϡ"physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first" (1984: 336) ȤΤǤԤ surface phonetic form ƯѲԤ underlying phonetic form ƯѲؤˡ
Phillips 1998ǯ -ate ǽưζ֤ΰư˴ؤ븦ˤơŪưŤƤʤѲͽۤ褦٤㤤ˤϿʤޤष٤ι⤤˿ʤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤǡ Frequency Actuation Hypothesis
[F]or segmental changes, physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first. For suprasegmental changes, changes which require analysis (e.g., by part of speech or by morphemic element) affect the least frequent words first, whereas changes which eliminate or ignore grammatical information affect the most frequent words first. (1998: 231)
ĤޤꡤΰưΤ褦ĶʬβѲ˴ؤƤϡüԤˤʬϤ뤫ʤǡ٤ȽδطžȤ櫓Ǥ롥ʤʤΤˤĤơPhillips Bybee (117--19) "lexical strength" ȤͤФƤ롥
ɬ⤳εǼƤʤޤPhillips μĥȤϰۤʤꡤ̾ư夬٤ι⤤˿ʹԤȤǡȼƤ롥٤ѲνˤĤƤθϽ˽ФǤꡤ;Ϥ¿ʬ˻ĤƤ롥
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Bybee, Joan L. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1985.
̾ưפθݤˤĤơdiatone γƵǿƤKelly and Bock θˤС2ˤ̾ưζѥϡŪʶ֤ηȿǤƤȤʤ2̾Ǥ1˶Τ붯巿 (trochaic) 2ưǤ2˶嶯 (iambic) ̤Ȥ롥η stress typicality ȸƤФ뤬ΨǤФɤ٤ηΤ
Amano ϡKelly and Bock Sereno Ĵ̤Ȥʤ顤MRC Psycholinguistic Database ѤȼĴʤäĴ֤ӤǽȤʤ褦ˡ̾¾ʻ쵡ǽ⤿ʤΡˤȽư˸ꤷƤο夲Τ褦ʷ̤Ȥʤä¾Ĵȹ碌ơAmano (86) Ĵפ褦
| researcher | category | result |
| Sereno (1986) | noun | out of 1425 nouns, 93% are trochaic |
| verb | out of 523 verbs, 76% are iambic | |
| Kelly & Bock (1988) | noun | out of 3202 nouns, 94% are trochaic |
| verb | out of 1021 verbs, 69% are iambic | |
| Amano (2009) | noun | out of 5766 nouns, 92.92% are trochaic |
| verb | out of 1184 verbs, 72.65% are iambic |
Ѹʻž (conversion) 뤤 (zero-derivation) ȤƤϡ̾ưΤ㤬¿β2ٷ֤㤬롥[2011-07-30-1]ε#824. smoke --- 2Ťʻžפǡ smoke ֱעֱۤעֵʱפȤФΤǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤2ˤƶΰưȼβʻžȤߤʤȤˤΤǤСabstráct ݤˡábstract ݡˡábstract ˡߴط˲ä[2011-11-08-1]ε#925. conversion ϶ŪƱǤ뤫פ (3) ȡˡ
ΰưˤʻ줬ؤȤݤϡѸǤϡ̾ưפȤΤƤꡤܥ֥Ǥ diatone γƵˤƤabstract ϡѸȯã conversion diatone Ȥ2Ĥβ¤˳ѤȤȤǤƸΨŪǤ롥䤬 diatone θĴ٤ȤƤϰʲθ줬롥줾ž̤ǧ3Ԥδط smoke abstract ȻƤ롥
discóunt ʹθʤˡdíscount ʳˡdíscount ʳ
éxtract ʪˡéxtract Фˡextráct ȴ褹
combíne ʷ礹ˡcómbine ʥХˡcómbine ʥХǼϤ
concréte ʶŷ뤵ˡcóncrete ʥȡˡcóncrete ʥȤǸǤ
contráct µˤ롨̤ޤˡcóntract ʷˡcóntract ʷ
contról 椹ˡcontról ˡcóntrol ֡
retárd ٤餻ˡretárd ٤ˡrétard η٤ο͡
Τ褦Ͽ¿ʤѤǽΤǤϤʤѸˤήΤʤǡŤŪȤʤäƤˡȤϢơ (169--70) ڤ Hotta (59) ȡ
ط١ҡ1988ǯ
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Noun-Verb Stress Alternation: An Example of Continuing Lexical Diffusion in Present-Day English." Journal of the Faculty of Letters: Language, Literature and Culture 110 (2012): 36--63.
ˤƶεǽϲMartinet (105--06) ˤСʣ뤬ǤŪʵǽ "contrastive" 뤤ϤΤ "culminative" ǤȤȤȤˡϢսѤ롥
La fonction de l'accent est essentiellement contrastive, c'est-à-dire qu'il contribue à individualiser le mot ou l'unité qu'il caractérise par rapport aux autres unités du même énoncé; une langue a un accent; et non des accents. Lorsque, dans une langue donnée, l'accent se trouve toujours sur la première ou la dernière syllabe du mot, cette individualisation est parfaite puisque le mot est ansi bien distingué de ce qui précède ou ce qui suit. Lá où la place de l'accent est imprévisible, doit être apprise pour chaque mot et ne marque pas la fin et le début de l'unité accentuelle, l'accent a une fonction dite culminative: il sert à noter la présence dans l'énoncé d'un certain nombre d'articulations importante; il facilite ainsi l'analyse du message. Que sa place soit prévisible ou non, l'accent permet, en faisant varier l'importance respective des mises en valeur successives, de préciser ce message.
εǽܼŪεǽǤ롥ʤϡħŤƤñ̤Ʊȯ¾ñ̤Ȥˤ̲뤳Ȥ˹롥äơ1ĤζĤΤǤꡤʣζĤΤǤϤʤͿθˤơ˸κǽ餢뤤ϺǽβȤԤΤ³ΤΤ˶̤ΤǤ뤫顤θ̲εǽϴȤʤ롥ΰ֤ͽ¬ǽǤꡤñ줴Ȥ˳ؽͤФʤ餺ñ̤κǸȺǽʤˤϡĺɽȸƤФ뵡ǽġĤޤꡤϡȯäˤĤνפĴ¸ߤȤȤŤƯƤΤǤꡤˤäƥåʬϤưפˤƤΤǤ롥ΰ֤ͽ¬ǽǤԲǽǤ졤ϡϢ³벻줾ν㤨ʤ顤ΥåΤˤƤ롥
Martinet (106) ϡѸʤɤθǤ϶ΰ֤ˤäƸ̤ (distinctive) 㤬ꡤ϶ŪʵǽΤǤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ΰ֤ˤäʻѤ increase, permit (diatone) ŵ٤Ƥθ˶̤ħȤƹͤΤǤСμ礿뵡ǽ "contrastive" 뤤 "culminative" ȤäƤ٤Τ褦ʸ̤ɴѤ̤ơѸˤ붯ħ⤭Ħˤʤ褦˻פ롥
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
[2009-11-03-1]ε#190. ʻžפۤ conversion νǤϡconversion ȤŪȤƲᤷƤŪʸô֤δطȤƲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥ξˤ conversion ϰռƤ褦˻פ롥conversion zero-derivation ȹͤȡνȯ (base) (derivative) ȸƤʬ뤳ȤǤ뤬ŪˤƱǤ base derivative Ū˶̤꤬ϤɤˤΤ (167--73) Lieber (49--50) ȤפˡˤĤ褦
(1) ̣Ȥˡ̾ưˡ net ˼ȡ̾ȤƤΡ֡פȤȡư "put into a net" ȤưפǤ뤬εդϴñǤϤʤ̾ȤƤ net Ūʰ̣äƤȤȤǤꡤȹͤ٤ŪʺƤ롥ȿФˡư줫̾ؤžɽ魯̻Ū˳ǧƤȤƤϡwash throw 롥줾̾ΰ̣ϡбư X Ȥ "an instance of X-ing" ȤΤ̤ǤꡤդˤŵŬ礷Ƥư줫̾ؤžǤǽ⤤
(2) ܼäˤȤˡθˡʻŵŪ˷ӤĤܼǤղäƤˤϡʻȤƤˡǤȹͤ롥㤨Сcommission ŵŪ̾äƤΤǡ̾ˡǡưˡǤꤵ롥
(3) conversion ǤϤʤθؤȼ̾ư (diatone θǤϡ§ȤƴΤưǤȹͤ롥Sherman (53) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤ1˶ĤΤ̤Ǥ̾줬ΤǤˤϡư첽Ȥ˶θؤΨ㤤 ("the creation of stress alternation is more likely to occur as stress-retraction in an oxytonic pair than to occur as stress-advancement in a paroxytonic pair") Ϣơabstráct Фˢ ábstract ȴˢ ábstract ȴ褹ˤΤ褦2ʳ conversion ([2011-07-30-1]ε#824. smoke --- 2ŤʻžפȡˤФա
(4) ͭ̾줬ΤȤʤäƤˤϡṲ̄Ĥ䤹boycott ʥܥåȤ, lynch ʥä, meander ʶʤ꤯ͤ, shanghai ʰռ碌Ϣǿפˤ, japan ʼɤˤʤɡ
(5) Ĥȳब conversion δطˤ硤ԤԤؤžǤǽ⤤But me no buts. ʤȸʡˤʤɡ
(6) ư줫줿̾ʳǤϡ̾ϹȤ뤳ȤǤʤȤ˴Ťˡthe robber of the bank ϲǽ*the thief of the bank ԲǽǤ롥ϡthief ̾Ǥʤ̾Ǥȹͤ롥Ѥȡhis release by the government the government's release of the prisoners Ǥ release ϹȤäƤΤ̾ȽǤ롥
(7) conversion ˤ를ܼϡ奯饹IIܼǤȵ뤳ȤǤ뤿ᡤ饹IܼղäǤ뤫ɤǴΤζ̤ǽǤ롥figure Ϸƻ -al ղä figural ΤǡŪˤ̾Ǥȹͤ롥picture ϡư -ize ղä picturize ΤǡŪˤưǤȹͤ롤
Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.
ط١ҡ1988ǯ
2֤ε ([2011-10-11-1], [2011-10-12-1]) ǡƹαѸ켭 Web3 ħƤɾɽ碌СαѸ켭˾塤Ǥ descriptive ǡǤ permissive ʼäȤȤˤʤ
ȯҤ˴ؤƤϡεǵ̤Ѽܤɸʻ30Ķ⤢ˡͥȯɬפǤꡤǤ⤢Ȥݤ롥ºݤˡǶᡤΤΥȰ֤ʣμˤäĴ٤ȤȤԤʤäƤΤWeb3 variation ˭٤ϷȴƤWeb3 ŪȯΤȤŪ˸ƤʤȤڤ˴
Ū˽Ҥ٤ȡܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤äƤΡ̾ưײˤĤ (see diatone) 1δ֤ζѲˤäɤȤξѼäꥫѸ줫ϰʲ4ĤμǶεҤӤ
Web1913 = Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. Ed. Noah Porter. Online version published on 9 January 1997 at http://machaut.uchicago.edu/websters . Merriam, 1913.
PDAE = Kenyon, John Samuel and Thomas Albert Knott, eds. A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam, 1951.
Web3 = Gove, Philip Babcock, ed. Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam, 1961. (In this survey I used the CD-ROM version [2000] based on the 1961 unabridged edition.)
AHD4 = The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. \ Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006.
ʲϡ̾ư岽η14ˤĤơȤ˶εҤޤȤΤǤ롥"o" "oxytone"ʸβ˶ˡ"p" "paroxytone" β˶ˤWeb3 Ǥϡ"p, o" "o, p" ¿ɤ˶ƤĤȸФǤ롥ĴλȤƤϡȤ櫓ŪȯŻ뤹Ȥˤä櫓ǤϤʤΤľʤȤޤ permissive ʵҤȲ˺٤ȡäǤ롥ɡʸ (forthcoming) ǤϼεϼȵҼˤĤưҤ٤ˤϤʤä
| WORD | POS | Web1913 | PDAE | Web3 | AHD4 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| decline | noun | o | o | o, p | o |
| decline | verb | o | o | o | o |
| dismount | noun | -- | o | o | p |
| dismount | verb | o | o | o | o |
| dispute | noun | o | o | o, p | o |
| dispute | verb | o | o | o | o |
| employ | noun | o | o | o, p | o |
| employ | verb | o | o | o | o |
| entail | noun | o | o | o, p | o |
| entail | verb | o | o | o | o |
| rebuff | noun | o | o | o, p | o |
| rebuff | verb | o | o | o | o |
| replay | noun | -- | o | p, o | p |
| replay | verb | -- | o | o | o |
| report | noun | o | o | o, p | o |
| report | verb | o | o | o | o |
| retort | noun | o | o | o | o, p |
| retort | verb | o | o | o | o |
| retouch | noun | o | o | p, o | o, p |
| retouch | verb | o | o | o | o |
| revise | noun | o | o | o | p, o |
| revise | verb | o | o | o | o |
| romance | noun | o | o, p | o, p | o, p |
| romance | verb | o | o | o, p | o |
| surmise | noun | o | o, p | o, p | o |
| surmise | verb | o | o | o | o |
| traject | noun | o | p | p | -- |
| traject | verb | o | o | o | o |
ñζˤޤĤˤ˹äƤ롥[2009-11-13-1]ε֥Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥϤפ[2011-04-15-1]εֱѸζѥѸѼפǸڤˤ褦ˡѸʹߡGermanic Stress Rule Romance Stress Rule δطʣƤȤطʤˤ롥춯꤬ʣʤΤϡ̻ŪʴǤϤʤѸŪ˸Ǥ⡤¿ͤ analogy ˤ붯֤ѲѰۤƤꡤΰ֤ŪͿΤơѸθ춯˴ؤФϤޤ¸ߤʤΤǤ롥
ǤϡΧ˸ƤȤ¿ͤ analogy ˤϡɤΤ褦ʤΤΤStrang (55--56) ˤСפʤΤ3ढ롥
(1) GSR ˴Ť경ΰŪʷ
"a tendency to move the stress toward the beginning of a word, as in; /ˈædʌlt/ beside /əˈdʌlt/, /ˈækjʊmɪn/ beside /əˈkjuːmɪn/, /ˈsɒnərəs/ beside /səˈnɔːrəs/" (55).
(2) ̾ưθ췲˴ŤǽʬŪʷdiatone γƵȡˡ
"Variable stress-placement is exploited for grammatical purposes, in a series of items with root stress in nominals (usually nouns and substantival modifiers) and second-syllable stress in verbs, e.g., absent, concert, desert, perfect, record, subject . . ." (55).
(3) word-family ιǴ֤붯֤ε۰ϡ
". . . [analogical pull] of the word family an item belongs to. . . Word-analogy is responsible for variations such as applicable, subsidence (first-syllable stress, or a variant with a second-syllable stress on the model of apply, subside. Secret, borrowed in ME with second-syllable stress, has shifted to first syllable stress; its derivative secretive (a 15c formation), kept the older stress as late as OED, but is now tending to follow the example of the commoner secret, with first-syllable stress" (56).
3ϸߤ¾ŪǤϤʤषĤȤ롥㤨С̾ưεǽ romance ϸѸǤȤ2˶ΤήäꥫѸǤ̾ư첽ή줬롥Τ褦ʹ (2) αƶѤƤȸư碌ƶƤڵʬŪˤ롥Ȥȡ(1) 䤬ѤƤʤʤ(3) δϡromance ζȤʤäơromancer, romancist, romantic, romanticism ʤɤζذĤȤǽƤȤȤġñʥեߥˤȤȡΤ˶֤Υ롼벽
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
Ʊ֤ʻˤäƶ֤θؤ (diatone) ŵǤ̾ưפˤĤƤϡ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1], [2011-07-08-1], [2011-07-10-1], [2011-07-11-1]ΰϢεڤƤ̾ưκۤĴƤƻ⤳ε˴ؤäƤ[2011-07-07-1]εǤϴϢ˸ڤˡ֤ˤĤơƻϸ§Ȥ̾Ʊư֤롥СַưפǤ롥
ưλ¤ϡޤŪ˻ٻ롥Bolinger (156--57) ˤС3ζѸýΥץĴˤȡ¿ˤĤơƻ91% non-oxytonic ʺǽʳ˶ˤư63% oxytonic ʺǽ˶ˤǤȤñˤĤƤϡΰ֤뤳ȤϤǤʤΰ̣ʤñưȷƻθĿΨư줬60.7%롥ñζ̾ oxytonic ȲᤵΤǡΨϷƻ椷ư oxytonic ʷٻͤȤ褦
ưȤ֤ʬۤ˴ϢơBolinger ξʻθκۤ˸ڤƤ롥ƻˤäΤ¿ (ex. -ant, -ent, -ean, -ial, -al, -ate, -ary, -ory, -ous, -ive, -able, -ible, -ic, -ical, -ish, -ful) ưƬˤ¿ (ex. re-, un-, de-, dis-, mis-, pre-) 㳰Ūˤ켫Ȥ˶ -ose Τ褦ʷƻ⤢뤬㳰ŪǤ뤳ȤˤäƤäƺΩ (phonaesthesia) ʤ 缭 ( augmentative ) ȤƤεǽ碌ĤȤˤʤäƤ缭ˤĤƤ[2009-08-30-1]εɼפ⻲ȡˡbellicose, grandiose, jocose, otiose, verbose ʤɤǡǤ롥
ΤȤʤ顤Τʤˤ줿¿ηƻɬ non-oxytonic Ȥʤ뤷ΤʤƬˤ줿¿ư϶2ܰʹߤ֤뤳Ȥˤʤ oxytonic Ȥʤǽ⤤εȯŸˤϡܼμθɬפ뤬ܼˤѥ㤬ưνи˹ȤȤǤ礤˶̣ޤ̾⡤ƻƱͤˡƬǤϤʤ¿Ѥ뤳ȤͤС̾ưˤƱΩĤΤǤϤʤ
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
ε̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1]) ǤϸѸˤ̾ưפθε̾ư̻Ū([2011-07-09-1]) 鼨褦ˡߡ̾ưפƤ oxytone θ⺣̾ưײƤ椯ǽ礤ˤ롥Sherman ϡ2˸¤215줬θȤƵȤƤꡤΰƤ (ºݤ˿213Τ) ΰʲ˺Ƹ
abuse, accord, account, advance, affront, alarm, amount, appeal, approach, array, arrest, assault, assent, assign, attack, attaint, attempt, attire, award, bastille, bespeak, blockade, brigade, brocade, canoe, career, caress, carouse, cartoon, cascade, cashier, chagrin, chicane, collapse, command, compare, conceit, concern, consent, control, croquet, crusade, cuirass, debate, debauch, decay, decease, decline, decree, default, defeat, delay, delight, demand, demean, demise, demur, derout, design, desire, despair, devise, direct, distain, disease, disgrace, disguise, disgust, dislike, dismay, dismount, dispatch, display, dispraise, dispute, disquiet, dissent, dissolve, distress, distrust, disuse, divide, divine, divorce, dragoon, eclipse, effect, embrace, employ, entail, escape, escheat, essoin, estate, esteem, exchange, excuse, exempt, exhaust, express, festoon, finesse, galosh, garage, garotte, guitar, halloo, harpoon, hello, hollo, hurrah, incuse, japan, lament, lampoon, machine, manure, marcel, maroon, massage, misprize, misrule, mistake, mistrust, misuse, neglect, obstruct, parade, parole, patrol, pirouette, police, pomade, pontoon, preserve, profane, ratoon, ravine, rebuff, rebuke, rebus, receipt, recruit, reform, refrain, regale, regard, regret, release, remand, remark, remove, repair, repeal, replay, reply, report, repose, reprieve, reproach, repulse, repute, request, reserve, resist, resolve, resort, respect, respond, result, retard, retort, retouch, retreat, retrieve, return, reveal, revenge, reverse, revert, review, revise, revoke, revolt, revolve, reward, romance, salaam, salute, secure, shampoo, siamese, silhouette, stampede, stockade, supply, support, suppose, surmise, surprise, surround, syringe, taboo, tattoo, tehee, traject, travail, trepan, trephine, trustee, vandyke, veneer, vignette
ΥꥹȤΤޤ Frequency Sorter ήȡ٤ι⤤줬¿ޤޤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥500ޤǤ˥ȡeffect, result, report, police, control, return, support 롥⤤Ĥ̾ưפ̤ȤˤʤΤ
óȻ (Lexical Diffusion) δϡɤθ줬Ϥ䤯̾ư岽䤹ȤͤȤ뤳ȤפȤʤ롥Ƭˤ̤䡤ȤƤΤ뤤ʻ줴Ȥ٤ͿΤ⤷ʤϺĴȤʤ
Sherman, D. "Noun-Verb Stress Alternation: An Example of the Lexical Diffusion of Sound Change in English." Linguistics 159 (1975): 43--71.
̾ưפ뤤 diatone ˤĤ diatone γƵˤƤ[2009-11-01-1]ε̾ưεפǼ̾ưθΰ30ˤŪʰǤ롥ǡSherman (57--67) ˷ǺܤƤ SOED Ф줿 150 disyllabic diatones ΰʲ˺Ƹ
abstract, accent, addict, address, affix, affect, alloy, ally, annex, assay, bombard, cement, collect, combat, commune, compact, compound, compress, concert, concrete, conduct, confect, confine, conflict, conscript, conserve, consort, content, contest, contract, contrast, converse, convert, convict, convoy, costume, decoy, decrease, defect, defile, descant, desert, detail, dictate, digest, discard, discharge, discord, discount, discourse, egress, eject, escort, essay, excerpt, excise, exile, exploit, export, extract, ferment, impact, import, impress, imprint, incense, incline, increase, indent, infix, inflow, inlay, inlet, insert, inset, insult, invert, legate, misprint, object, outcast, outcry, outgo, outlaw, outleap, outlook, outpour, outspread, outstretch, outwork, perfume, permit, pervert, post-date, prefix, prelude, premise, presage, present, produce, progress, project, protest, purport, rampage, rebate, rebel, rebound, recall, recast, recess, recoil, record, recount, redraft, redress, refill, refit, refund, refuse, regress, rehash, reject, relapse, relay, repeat, reprint, research, reset, sojourn, subject, sublease, sub-let, surcharge, survey, suspect, torment, transfer, transplant, transport, transverse, traverse, undress, upcast, upgrade, uplift, upright, uprise, uprush, upset
įȤ狼褦ˡƬȤβ㤬Ƥ롥¿Ƭܸ캬פȤäƤꡤʬƥեѸout- up- ȤƬޤ17 (11.33%) 롥ޤin- mis- ϱѸˤեˤⶦͭƤƬǤ롥Τ褦˸ȡƬܸ캬פ2ϡ줫Ѹ줫ˤ餺̾ưפνפʥȤʤꤦ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Sherman, D. "Noun-Verb Stress Alternation: An Example of the Lexical Diffusion of Sound Change in English." Linguistics 159 (1975): 43--71.
̾ưפεˤĤ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1], [2011-07-08-1]εǵƤ̻Ūλ¤ˤĤƤϤޤҲ𤷤Ƥʤä
Sherman ϡSOED Web3 ξ˽ʣƳǧ̾ư줬Ʊ֤ (homograph) ǤФΤʤǶؤʬ̤̤ȡʲ̤Ȥʤ (Sherman 51)
| potential diatonics | actual diatonics | |
|---|---|---|
| disyllabic N-V pairs | 1,315 | 150 (11.41%) |
| trisyllabic | 442 | 70 (15.84%) |
| polysyllabic | 1,757 | 220 (12.52%) |

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