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ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2019-08-31 Sat

#3778. ʬǤΰ -t 촴˼Ǥޤäư [etymology][verb][participle][-ate][analogy][reanalysis][metanalysis]

Ȥ̾դˤɸʣʷֲФƷ줿ư줬롥˶󤲤С t graft hoist ΤȤ
ε#3777. set, put, cut Τۤˤ⤢ä̵ѲѤư ([2019-08-30-1]) Ȥط뤷#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1])#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1])#3763. ƻ -ate εȯã ([2019-08-16-1])#3764. ư -ate εȯã ([2019-08-17-1]) Ȥ̩ܤ˴ؤ롤θǤ롥
graft ܤڤ롤ܿˤϥե󥹸 grafe ̤ꡤȤȸ t ϤʤäѸ˼Ѥƺ줿ʬ graftset, put, cut ʤɤθ촴 -t ̵ѲưǥȤơΤޤ޸ȤƲᤵ줿Ȥ櫓ꥸʥ˶ᤤ graff ȤԸդǤϤ뤬˳ǧ롥
Ʊͤ hoist Ȥ롤夲ˤ⡤ hyssen ѤΤѸƳ줿ǡ t դȺƲᤵ줿ȹͤ롥ꥸʥ˶ᤤ hoise ⡤ߡȤ¸ߤ롥
ʾ Jespersen (38) ľܰѤƤ

graft: earlier graft (< OF grafe). The ptc. graft was mistakenly interpreted as the unchanged ptc of an inf graft. Sh has both graft and graft; the latter is now the only form in use; it is inflected regularly. || hoist: originally hoise (perhaps < Middle Dutch hyssen). From the regular ptc hoist a new inf hoist sprang into use. Sh has both forms; now only hoist as a regular vb. The old ptc occurs in the well-known Shakespearean phrase "hoist with his own petard" (Hml III. 4.207).


Ƭ̾դˤֲȽҤ٤ʬ (metanalysis) Ȥʬ (reanalysis) ΰȤƸƤФ褤

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

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2019-08-30 Fri

#3777. set, put, cut Τۤˤ⤢ä̵ѲѤư [verb][conjugation][inflection][-ate][analogy][conversion][adjective][participle][conversion]

set, put, cut त̵ѲѤưˤĤơ#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1]) εǼ夲ƤǤϡưο񤤤Ѹβˤ˾Ȥ餻СϤΤͿ뤳Ȥߤ
t d ñǤ롤ȤΤưζ̹ŪˤϡξƤ¤ˤơۤưƱ̵ͤѲѤ򼨤ƤȤäȤСfast, fret, lift, start, waft ʤɤǤ롥Jespersen (36) Ƹ褦

   4.42. The influence of analogy has increased the number of invariable verbs. Especially verbs ending in -t tend in this direction. The tendency perhaps culminated in early ModE, when several words now regular had unchanged forms, sometimes side by side with forms in -ed:
   fast. Sh Cymb IV. 2.347 I fast and pray'd for their intelligense. || fret. More U 75 fret prt. || lift (from ON). AV John 8.7 hee lift vp himselfe | ib 8.10 when Iesus had lift vp himselfe (in AV also regular forms) | Mi PL 1. 193 With Head up-lift above the wave | Bunyan P 19 lift ptc. || start. AV Tobit 2.4 I start [prt] vp. || waft. Sh Merch. V. 1.11 Stood Dido .. and waft her Loue To come again to Carthage | John II. 1.73 a brauer choice of dauntlesse spirits Then now the English bottomes haue waft o're.


Jespersen Τ褦ˡŪˡ뤤ϲѲˤäǤ륿פ̵ѲưȤϡޤ set ʤɴ¸Ū̵Ѳư˿ȯ줿 (analogy) η̤Ȥ̵ѲưȤߤ٤Ǥ2Ū̵ѲưȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤϸޤǤˤɸѸ줫ϾäȤϤʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤΤϡ餬ΥǥȤʤäơʤƤǽ⤢뤫Ĥޤꡤ촴 -t ǽ뤬θΤ褦ñǤʤХޥͳǤʤΤˤ顤Ʊݤĥܤ뤫ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡεǤꤢ -ate ưʤɤǤʡ#3764. ư -ate εȯã ([2019-08-17-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
Ʊ Jespersen (36--37) ꡤλݤ˴ؤսѤ褦

4.43. It was thus not at all unusual in earlier English for a ptc in -t to be = the inf. The analogy of these cases was extended even to a series of words of Romantic origin, namely such as go back to Latin passive participle, e. g. complete, content, select, and separate. These words were originally adopted as participles but later came to be used also as infinitives; in older English they were frequently used in both functions (as well as in the preterit), often with an alternative ptc. in -ed; . . . A contributory cause of their use as verbal stems may have been such Latin agent-nouns as corruptor and editor; as -or is identical in sound with -er in agent-nouns, the infinitives corrupt and edit may have been arrived at merely through subtraction of the ending -or . . . . Finally, the fact that we have very often an adj = a vb, e. g. dry, empty, etc . . ., may also have contributed to the creation of infs out of these old ptcs (adjectives).


ѤθȾǡΥǥ뤬ۤˤ2Ĥ˿ƤΤפǤ롥corruptor, editor פε (back_formation) dry, empty פư졦ƻѤñ¸ߤǤ롥#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1]) ⻲ȡ

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-08-31-1]

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2019-08-17 Sat

#3764. ư -ate εȯã [suffix][-ate][adjective][participle][verb][word_formation][loan_word][latin][french][conversion][morphology][analogy]

ε#3763. ƻ -ate εȯã ([2019-08-16-1]) ˰³ -ate ꡥư -ate ˤĤƤϡ#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) Ǽ夲ϤεȯãˤĤơOED -ate, suffix1 򻲾Ȥʤ顤⤦ܺ٤˹ͤƤߤ褦
Ҥ٤褦ˡ-ate ϥƥ1ưβʬܼ -ātus, -ātum, -āta ̤뤫顤ưθȤϡʲʬ˷ƻθȤ٤ΤǤ롥ư -ate εȤƤΤϡ-ate ˴ؤƷƻ줫ưؤʻž (conversion) äȤȤǤ롥ƻ줫ưؤʻž¿θǧ졤ºݤ˸űѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤˤȤޤʤȤСűѸǤ hwít hwítian, wearm wearmian, bysig bysgian, drýge drýgan 졤줾Ԥư϶Ѹˤƶ޸򼺤ԤȷŪͻ礷Ȥаޤ롥
ƥǤƱͤˡƻ줫ưؤʻžӤäȤСsiccus siccāre, clārus clārāre, līber līberāre, sacer sacrāre ʤɤ줿˥ե󥹸Ǥǡsec sècher, clair clairer, content contenter, confus confuser ʤɤ줿Ѹϥƥե󥹸줫餳θѤηƻưϤ޸οˤ15ޤǤͻ礷
ήΤʤǡ16ˤϥƥβʬƻ򤽤ΤޤưȤѤ륿פʻžŪˤߤ褦ˤʤädirect, separate, aggravate ʤɤ㤬롥ѸǤΤ褦㤬Ƥȡƥ -ātus ŪˤϲʬбƤϤŪˤϤФбѸưθˤҤŤ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤʬƻŪʵǽβߤʤˡ-ate ľܤưθȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
ηդޤȡƥʤե󥹸ˤư촴ڤƤơ -ate ĤСѸ¦ǿưñƳǤȤ1θˡȯã16ˤ fascinate, concatenate, asseverate, venerate ޤɴ -ate ư줬߽Ф줿
ä󤳤ˡΩƤޤСºݤ˥ƥʤե󥹸ˤ¸ߤɤ鷺֥ƥʤե󥹸ŪǡפǤСäƤ -ate դ뤳ȤˤꡤȤ⤿䤹ưǤ褦ˤʤä櫓ˤ nobilitate, felicitate, capacitate, differentiate, substantiate, vaccinate ʤ¿ -ate ư줬ḽ߽Ф줿
ΤȤ -ate ȯãϡȤ̤ȤƤ -ate ư췲Ȥδ֤Ρ䤨֤ʤѤȵ§ĥˤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2019-08-31-1] [2019-08-30-1]

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2019-08-16 Fri

#3763. ƻ -ate εȯã [suffix][-ate][adjective][participle][word_formation][loan_word][latin][french][conversion][morphology]

ѸŵŪư1ĤȹͤƤ -ate ϡ¤ϤĤηƻˤߤ롥aspirate, desolate, moderate, prostrate, sedate, separate ưȤƤˡ⤢뤬ƻǤ⤢롥 innate, oblate, ornate, temperate ʤɤϾ˷ƻǤ롥ƻȤƤ -ate εȯã򤿤ɤäƤߤ褦
ϥƥ1ưβʬܼ -ātus, -ātum, -āta ̤롥ե󥹸Ϥˤߤܼ -us, -um, -a æѸƥݤˤæδޤƥե󥹸Τ򿿻̤ȤơѸ1400ǯ餤顤ƥ -atus ʤɤ -at ʤΤԤ첻ĹȤ򼨤 e ź -ate) ȤƼཬƤä
嵭Τ褦 -ate εưβʬǤ뤫顤ѸǤʸ̤ưβʬΤۤƻȤƤⵡǽƤȤ̵ʤǤ -ate ưθʬϤ˵ڤǡŪʲʬϡ¿˵§Ū˺줿 -ated Ȥ֤˼ä졤ʬʷƻˤȤƤ -ate ¿ѤȤʤäƤޤäƻȤƼŪ˻ĤäΤ⤢äƬ˵󤲤 -ate ƻϡΤ褦ʷаޤǡĤäפΤǤ롥
ʾή⤷սOED -ate, suffix2

Forming participial adjectives from Latin past participles in -ātus, -āta, -ātum, being only a special instance of the adoption of Latin past participles by dropping the inflectional endings, e.g. content-us, convict-us, direct-us, remiss-us, or with phonetic final -e, e.g. complēt-us, finīt-us, revolūt-us, spars-us. The analogy for this was set by the survival of some Latin past participles in Old French, as confus:--confūsus, content:--contentus, divers:--diversus. This analogy was widely followed in later French, in introducing new words from Latin; and both classes of French words, i.e. the popular survivals and the later accessions, being adopted in English, provided English in its turn with analogies for adapting similar words directly from Latin, by dropping the termination. This began about 1400, and as in -ate suffix1 (with which this suffix is phonetically identical), Latin -ātus gave -at, subsequently -ate, e.g. desolātus, desolat, desolate, separātus, separat, separate. Many of these participial adjectives soon gave rise to causative verbs, identical with them in form (see -ate suffix3), to which, for some time, they did duty as past participles, as 'the land was desolat(e by war;' but, at length, regular past participles were formed with the native suffix -ed, upon the general use of which these earlier participial adjectives generally lost their participial force, and either became obsolete or remained as simple adjectives, as in 'the desolate land,' 'a compact mass.' (But cf. situate adj. = situated adj.) So aspirate, moderate, prostrate, separate; and (where a verb has not been formed), innate, oblate, ornate, sedate, temperate, etc. As the French representation of Latin -atus is -é, English words in -ate have also been formed directly after French words in --é, e.g. affectionné, affectionate.


Ĥޤꡤ-ate ϡߤФषƻˤդ路Ȥ٤Ǥꡤưˤդ路ؤѲΤϡѸʹߤοȤȤˤʤ롥ʤ -ate ŵŪưȤʤäΤȤäƤϡʣŪ𤬤롥ˤĤƤϡ#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) 򻲾ȡʤޤεǤⰷͽˡ
-ate ˤĤƤϡ֤ȯʤɤδ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1])#3686. -ate -ment ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-31-1])#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) Ϥᡤ-ate εǼ夲ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿

Referrer (Inside): [2019-08-31-1] [2019-08-17-1]

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2019-05-31 Fri

#3686. -ate -ment ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 [gvs][vowel][spelling][spelling_pronunciation_gap][stress][suffix][latin][diatone][-ate]

ε#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1]) ˰³-ate ĸȯưǤ /eɪt/ Ȥʤ̾졦ƻǤ /ɪt/ ȤʤˤĤơ
Carney Ǥ⤳꤬ƽǰƤꡤä p. 398 ˤθݤ򼨤ñꥹȤ󤲤Ƥ롥ʲ˺ƸƤŪǤϤʤȻפ뤬ʰǤ롥

aggregate, animate, appropriate, approximate, articulate, associate, certificate, co-ordinate, correlate, degenerate, delegate, deliberate, duplicate, elaborate, emasculate, estimate, expatriate, graduate, importunate, incorporate, initiate, intimate, moderate, postulate, precipitate, predicate, separate, subordinate, syndicate


Carney ΥꥹȤ󤲤ƤΤϡʻˤäȯؤतñ줬ȤˤƤǤ롥¾μȤƤϡؤ̾ư (diatone) 󤲤Ƥ뤷 -ment ĸˤƤ롥̾ưȤݤȤŪطʤˤĤƤˤĤƤϡǤܥ֥Ǥ diatone γƵܳŪ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤʻˤäȯؤפȤݥȤ -ate ȤĤʤäƤȤΤϡȯä
-ment ˤĤƤϡưǤΤ첻 /-mɛnt/ Ȥʤ뤬̾졦ƻǤۣ첻 /-mənt/ Ȥʤ롥Carney (398) 곺ñΥꥹȤ󤲤Ƥcomplement, compliment, document, implement, increment, ornament, supplement.

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-08-16-1]

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2019-05-30 Thu

#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 [gvs][vowel][spelling][spelling_pronunciation_gap][stress][analogy][suffix][latin][sobokunagimon][-ate]

ɸˤĤƼ䤬󤻤ޤȤ appropriate ưȤƤϡֻѤ˶סƻȤƤϡŬڤʡפǤơȯ /əˈproʊpriˌeɪt/, /əˈproʊpriˌɪt/ Ȥʤޤ첻 /eɪt/ ̸ /ɪt/ ǰۤʤäƤޤϤʤǤ礦
ư /eɪt/ ȯϡֻȾȤ餷碌Ф狼褦ˡ첻 (gvs) θ̤Ƥޤ<-ate> Ȥֻɽ蘆ȯ /-aːt(ə)/ Ѹ첻ܤˤ /eɪt/ ؤѲǤޤƱֻ̾졦ƻ -ate ǤϡΤ褦ȯѲϵäƤޤ󡥤Ѳϡष첻μ岽Ǥꡤ/ɪt/ ؤȵ뤷Ƥޤ
ΰ㤤ϡ첻ܰζΤΰ㤤˵ޤŪˤСappropriate Τ褦Ĺñξ硤ưˤƤϸβ2֤ޤƻ졦̾ˤƤ֤ʤȤޤappropriate ˤĤƶŪˤСưȤƤ4 -ate ˡ2˶֤ޤ̾졦ƻȤƤϤ줬֤ʤȤȤˤʤޤ
ǻפФ٤ϡ첻ܤϡֶΤĹ첻פˤƺѤ벻ǤȤȤǤĤޤꡤ-ate ưˡˤƤϡ2ǤϤޤ˶֤Τǡξ˹פ /-aːt(ə)/ /eɪt/ ޤ̾졦ƻˡˤƤϡ֤ʤΤ첻ܤȤ̵طˤळȤˤʤޤ̾졦ƻˡǤϡ /-aːt(ə)/ ֻȤƤ <-ate> ݤʤ⡤ȤƤ϶򼺤ȤȤ /-at/ ؤû /-ət/ /-ɪt/ ؤۣ첻ΤǤ
Τ褦ʷаޤǡ-ate ʻˤäȯ㤨Ȥʤޤä󤳤ηޤꡤѥ󤬤Ǥȡθϼºݤȯ䶯֤ˤ餺ȤˤΩѥŪŬѤ褦ˤʤޤơ-ate ȯ롼뤬ΩΤǤ
Ϣơ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) ⤴Ȥ-age ʤɤ˴ؤƤ⡤ۤƱƤϤޤȻפޤ (310, 313) ׻ȡ

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-08-16-1] [2019-05-31-1]

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2016-10-18 Tue

#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 [suffix][conversion][latin][participle][analogy][adjective][verb][-ate]

ñˤ -ate ĤΤ¿ϥƥ1ưβʬθ˸ -atus, -atum ͳ褷ѸǤϸͽۤƻ̾ȤƵǽƤФ꤫ưȤƤⵡǽƤ롥ʻ줴ȤˡĤ󤲤褦ʤˤϡʣʻͤƤΤ⤢뤳Ȥ˵Ť

̾졧 advocate, legate, centrifugate, duplicate, mandate, vulcanizate; alcoholate, ferrate, acetate, carbonate; episcopate, pontificate, professorate, rabbinate
ƻ졧 consummate, degenerate, inanimate, Italianate, temperate; branchiate, chordate, foliate
ư졧 activate, assassinate, camphorate, capacitate, chlorinate, concentrate, domesticate, evaporate, fractionate, hyphenate, locate, negotiate, orchestrate, pollinate, pontificate, substantiate, triangulate, ulcerate, vaccinate, venerate

-ate ϥƥβʬͳ褹Τ顤ѸǤƻȤơ뤤Ϥ̾ˡͳ̾ȤѤȤΤ򤷤䤹ѸǤ -ate 줬ưȤѤ㤬¿ष-ate ıñȤСޤư㤬פ⤫֤ΤǤϤʤʤ -ate ưȤʤΤ
ͳˤĤƤϡƻ줬ưʻž (conversion) 뤳ȤϱѸˤʤ-ate ƻ⤽η˾äƼͳưؤʻžΤȸƤ롥ΤǤ white, warm, busy, dry, empty, dirty ʤɤǷƻ줫ưؤʻžϸ뤷ե󥹼ѸǤ clear, humble, manifest ʤɤ㤬롥顤ƥͳ褹 -ate ƻ⤽ΤޤưȤѤƻ졤ˤβ̲˵ڤǡȤȤΥƥ1ưϤȤˤ -ate ȼưȤƱѸ˼ޤȤ夷ΤȤ (see #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]))
嵭ϡBaugh and Cable (222) ǤѤƤꡤ˶ᤤΤȤʤäƤ롥OED -ate, suffix3 ǤƱܤƤ뤬κǸˡΤ褦ʥȤդդƤꡤ̣

(It is possible that the analogy of native verbs in -t, with the pa. pple. identical in form with the infinitive, as set, hit, put, cut, contributed also to the establishment of verbs like direct, separat(e, identical with their pa. pples.)


κǸθȴϢơ#1860. Ʊβʬ ([2014-05-31-1])#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) ȡ#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޤ-ate ̤¦̤#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1]) ǰäƤΤǡɤ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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2014-06-20 Fri

#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) [suffix][loan_word][french][register][anglo-norman][law_french][etymology][-ate][agentive_suffix][french_influence_on_grammar]

emplóyer ʸۤˤФ employée ʸۤƤ͡ˤȤڥϤ褯ΤƤ롥appóinter/appointée, exáminer/examinée, páyer/payée, tráiner/trainée ʤɤΥڥƱͤǡ줾Ȥ -er ԤǽưŪư-ee ĸԤưŪưɽ魯
absentee ʷʼԡ, escapee æԡ, patentee õͭԡ, refugee ̱, standee Ωҡˤʤɡ̣Ū˼ȤȤϲǤʤ¸ߤ롥ºݡstandee stander ƱǤϤʤȤƤ⡤ʤȤǤϤ롥-ee ȤƬƯϤɤΤ褦ʤΤ
-er ŪʸűѸ -ereˤ-ee ϥե󥹸줫ѤǤ롥ե󥹸 -é(e) ưβʬǤꡤ¾ư³мȤΰ̣Ȥʤä켫Τϥƥ1Ѥưβʬܼ -ātus ̤Τǡcommunicatee, dedicatee, educatee, legatee, relocatee ʤɤǤƱ2ĤղäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ-ate ˤĤƤϡ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
-ee δŪʵǽϡư촴ͤͭʪɽ魯ư̾뤳ȤǤ롥¾ħȤƤϡ -ee /ˈiː/ ˶뤳ȡջηǡȤ̣󤬤뤳ȡˡΧѸȤѤ뷹ȡʤɤ󤲤롥ˡΧȤѰ (register) ˤĤƤСAnglo-Norman ˡΧѸ apelour/apelé Ѹä appellor/appellee ʾʿ͡ʿ͡ˤʤɤΥڥȤʤꡤѸʹߡΤθ츻ˤ餺 -or (or -er) -ee ˤˡΧѸڥ³ޤ줿
ưȤҤȤˤäƤ⡤ŪˤϴΤưľŪ졤Ū졤ֻŪΡ˼Τ䡤ưȤľܤ˴ϢʤΤޤơ͡ʼब (Isozaki 5--6)examinee "someone who one examines" ľŪpayee "someone to whom one pays something" ǴŪlaughee "someone who one laughs at" ֻŪ standee attendee "someone who stands" "someone who attends something" Ǽ롥¾§ŪʼȤơamputee "someone whose limb was amputated" ʣط򼨤patentee, redundantee, biographee ̾ƻΤȤƤġ
ˤĤƸѸ줫鸽ѸؤƤ̻Ūܤߤȡޥ󥹷ϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡstandee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȤŦ롥ĬήˤĤƤϡεǡ

Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.

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2014-02-08 Sat

#1748. -er or -or [suffix][morphology][morpheme][phonotactics][spelling][word_formation][-ate][agentive_suffix]

#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ˤ -er -or ˤĤơξԤϤȤ˹԰ټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ȸƤФ빴«Ǥ̣֡ʬۤʤɤ˴ؤơߤˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤϡŪʻȤϸѸζŪʻ顤ξԤΰƱ
Carney (426--27), Huddleston and Pullum (1698) (170--73)ĤʤɡĤλʸäƤߤȤ󤹤ȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥

 -er-or
¿Ūʤ
ŪŪ
ܼ饹Class IIClass I
³Τθ츻Romance Ϥ˸¤ʤRomance Ϥ˸¤
³Τμͳͳ˸¤ͳ˸¤ʤ
ưʤ
Τؤζʤ
ʤղʤClass I դ


줾ιܤˤĤƤߤƤߤ褦-er θ˭٤ι⤵ˤĤƤϽҤ٤ɬפϤʤФ -or ϡ˼褦˿¤ƤꡤŪղä뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ܼ饹̤ϡθιܤˤͿƤ롥-er Class II ܼȤ졤ͳʴΤ³ʤɤ˱ƶͿʤĤޤñ˸ղäΤߤǤ롥ͳʴΤ³ȤȤǤСNew Yorker double-decker ʤɤΤ褦ʣδΤˤ³롥ͳʴΤؤ³㳰Τ褦˸Τˡbiographer, philosopher ʤɤ뤬 biography, philosophy 2ŪʷΤθ츻Ф fisher, runner ⤢С㤨Хޥ󥹷Ϥ dancer, recorder ⤢롥-or Class I ܼ˶᤯§ȤƴΤ Romance Ϥ׵᤹ʤsailor ʤɤ㳰Ϥˡޤ-or ˤϡalternator, confessor, elevator, grantor, reactor, rotator Τ褦˼ͳΤˤĤ⤢Сauthor, aviator, curator, doctor, predecessor, spectator, sponsor, tutor Τ褦˹«ΤˤĤ⤢롥ưˤĤƤϡ-or -er Ʊͤ˰ưȼʤΤˈexecute/exˈecutor Τ褦¸ߤ롥
Τ˶ǽˤĤƤϡ̾ -or -er Ʊ̵ͤ /ə/ Ȥʤ뤬θǤ /ɔː(r)/ 򼨤 (ex. corridor, cuspidor, humidor, lessor, matador) ä humidor, lessor ξˤϡƱ۵Ȥξͤ򤱤άȤͤ롥
ʤղäβǽˤĤƤϡambassador ? ambassadorial, doctor ? doctoral ʤɡ-or ξˤϡ Class I ³Ŧ롥
嵭¾ˤ⡤-or ˤĤƤϡĤħŦƤ롥㤨СˡΧ˴ؤѸ졤뤤ŪȤɽˤϡ-or ղä䤹Ȥ (ex. adjustor, auditor, chancellor, editor, mortgagor, sailor, settlor, tailor) ǡȤ˰̣ζ̤ʤ -er, -or ΤȤ adapter--adaptor, adviser--advisor, convener--convenor, vender--vendor Τ褦ߤ롥
ޤ (170) ϡΤκǸ [t] ǽΤ˶ˤ¿դ[s], [l] ǽΤˤ褯դȻŦƤ롥ˡ-or ³θβξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ (129) Walker εӱѤ夲ԤʤäƤ롥˷ǺܤƤ581 -or ΤפʴθĤΤϰʲ̤Ǥ롥Τ -ate ǽưˤĤơб԰ټ̾ -ator Ȥ䤹ȤȤϻŦƤ¤˲Ⱦ -ator ȤȤȽ

EndingWord typesExamples
-ator291indicator, navigator
-ctor63contractor, predictor
-itor29inheritor, depositor
-utor16contributor, prosecutor
-essor15successor, professor
-ntor14grantor, inventor
-stor12investor, assistor


Ǹˡ-er, -or Ȥ̤ˡ԰ټ -ar, -ier, -yer, -erer 󤲤Ƥbeggar, bursar, liar; clothier, grazier; lawyer, sawyer; fruiterer.

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
ͺرѸܼ١ԡ2006ǯ
֡?͡ΤΡϡפɽ -or ˤĤơסضѸ츦١25桤2009ǯ127--33ǡ

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2013-02-08 Fri

#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ [morphology][latin][loan_word][neo-latin][romancisation][-ate]

[2013-01-05-1]ε#1349. procrastination פǡƥñ줬Ѹ˼ޤݤŬѤֲ§ˤĤơBloomfield ˵äƵε§ϡѸޤǤ˻ƥȤĹ̤̻ܿŪ˰ޤ졤Ū夷ΤǤ롥§ȤȾмȯãƤȸƤ褤⤷ʤ򤢤ռŪꤷ§Ǥ뤫Τ褦˲⤷Ҥ롥Thomas Blount Glossographia (1656) ǤGlossographia ޤ൭򻲾ȡˡBrengelman (353) ˡ Blount εҤޤȤޤäƤΤǡƸ롥

LATINENGLISHEXAMPLES
-io-ioninquisition, ablution, abortion
-or-oragressor
-tura-tureabbreviature
-ista-istagonist
-isma, -ismus-istagonism, aphorism
Verb + o-ateabdicate, adumbrate
Verb + o (generally with long vowel)-#abduce, adjure, allude
Adj + is, us-#abject, abortive, angular, annual
-abilis-ablearable
-ibilis-ibleplausible
-us, -osus-ousabstemious, pernicious
Noun + a, um, us-#abysse, accent, alphabet
(rum, ra, rus)-eramber, alabaster
-ul--leangle
-i + us, um, a, as-yarbitrary, anatomy, adultery, acclivity
-entia-encyadolescency
-ans-antadjutant
-ens-entadjacent


ε§ϡBrengelman (353) ˤС3ǤȤ

(1) retain and Anglicize derivational endings; (2) delete purely inflectional endings; (3) leave prefixes and bases unchanged.


ε§˱ʤ㤬뤳Ȥ18ˤŦƤ뤬 (ex. explain, proceed, labour) Τ褦ʸϡǤ˼ˤƸ경ƤޤäƤΤ
ʤBlount ε§ϡ§Ū˸Ѹ Neo-Latin ¤ˤŬѤƤ롥Neo-Latin ¤ˤĤƤϡ#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽 ([2010-05-24-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.

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2012-12-30 Sun

#1343. ѸαƺʼȤȯȸá [ame_bre][pronunciation][stress][-ate]

ѸαƺˤĤƤ ame_bre ۤ¿εǿƤʸˡֻˤĤƤϡ#312. ʸˡαƺ ([2010-03-05-1]) ȡ#244. ֻαƺΥꥹȡ ([2009-12-27-1]) ǾޤȤ᤿ϼȤȯȸäˤѰۤˤĤơSchmitt and Marsden (185--92) ˽äưޤǤʤƺȤȤˤϡɸॢꥫѸɸ।ꥹѸѰۤǰƬ֤Ƥ롥

1. Pronunciation

Words spelled with the vowel a: /æ/ for AmE and /ɑː/ for BrE as in bath, class, last, mask, past, rather.
Words spelled with -er: /əː/ for AmE and /ɑː/ for BrE as in clerk, Derby (see #211. spelling pronunciation ([2009-11-24-1]))
Words ending with -ile: /(ə)l/ for AmE and /aɪl/ for BrE as in agile, docile, fertile, missile
Words spelled alike but typically pronounced differently (z ˤĤƤϡ#964. z ʸȯ (1) ([2011-12-17-1]) ӡ#965. z ʸȯ (2) ([2011-12-18-1]) 򻲾ȡ
WordAmEBrE
asthma/ˈæzma//ˈæsma/
clique/klɪk//kliːk/
vase/veɪs//vɑːz/
schedule/ˈskɛʤəl//ˈʃɛdjuːl/
leisure/ˈliːʒəː//ˈlɛʒəː/
lieutenant/luːˈtɛnənt//lɛfˈtɛnənt/
z (the letter)/ziː//zɛd/
tomato/tʌˈmeɪtəʊ//tʌˈmɑːtəʊ/


2. Word Stress

Words derived from French garage ˤĤƤϡ#1318. ˤݼŪȤϲ ([2012-12-05-1]) 򻲾)
AmEBrE
balLETBALlet
blaSÉBLAse
bufFETBUFfet
garAGEGARage
perFUMEPERfume
debuTANTEDEButante
vaLETVAlet

Three- and four-syllable words
AmEBrE
comPOSiteCOMposite
subALternSUBaltern
arIStocratARistocrat
priMARilyPRImarily

Words ending in -ary, -ery, -ory and -mony
WordAmEBrE
military/ˈmɪləˌtɛri//ˈmɪlɪtri/
arbitrary/ˈərbəˌtrɛri//ˈɑːbɪtri/
cemetery/ˈsɛməˌtɛri//ˈsɛmətri/
monastery/ˈmɒnəsˌtɛri//ˈmɒnəstri/
mandatory/ˈmændəˌtɔri//ˈmændətri/
category/ˈkætəˌgɔri//ˈkætəgri/
testimony/ˈtɛstəˌməʊni//ˈtɛstəməni/
matrimony/ˈmætrəˌməʊni//ˈmætrɪməni/

Days of the week
WordAmEBrE
Sunday/ˈsʌndɛɪ//ˈsʌndi/
Monday/ˈmʌndɛɪ//ˈmʌndi/
Tuesday/ˈˈtuːzdɛɪ//ˈtjuːzdi/
Thursday/ˈθəːzdɛɪ//ˈθəːzdi/
Friday/ˈfraɪdɛɪ//ˈfraɪdi/
Saturday/ˈsætəːdɛɪ//ˈsætəːdi/

Place-names
NameAmEBrE
Lancaster/ˈlæŋˌkæstər//ˈlæŋkəstə/
Rochester/ˈrɒʧɛstər//ˈrɒʧəstə/
Worcester/ˈwʊəsɛstər//ˈwʊstə/
Nottingham/ˈnɒtɪŋˌhæm//ˈnɒtɪŋəm/
Birmingham/ˈbəːmɪŋˌhæm//ˈbəːmɪŋəm/

Verbs ending in -ate ʡ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) 򻲾ȡ
AmEBrE
DICtatedicTATE
FIXatefixATE
ROtateroTATE
VIbratevibRATE

Miscellaneous word-stress differences ʡ#321. controversy over controversy ([2010-03-14-1]) 򻲾ȡ
WordAmEBrE
advertisement/ˈædvəːˌtaɪzmənt//ædˈvəːtəzmənt/
controversy/ˈkɒntrəˌvəːsi//kɒnˈtrɒvəsi/
corollary/ˈkʊrəˌlɛri//kɒˈrɒləri/
inquiry/ˈɪnkwəri//ɪnˈkwaɪri/
laboratory/ˈlæbrəˌtʊəri//ləˈbɒrətri/


3. Vocabulary ʡ#1331. äαƺ뤿νѸ ([2012-12-18-1]) 򻲾)

synonymic variables
AmEBrE
railroadrailway
engineerdriver
conductorguard
baggageluggage
trucklorry
hood (car)bonnet
trunk (car)boot
fender (car)bumper
gasolinepetrol
subwayunderground
counterclockwiseanticlockwise
thumbtackdrawing pin
flashlighttorch
elevatorlift
apartmentflat
mailpost
vacationholiday
garbage candustbin
barpub
druggistchemist
French frieschips
potato chipscrisps
cookiebiscuit
trailercaravan
round-trip ticketreturn ticket
one-way ticketsingle ticket

lexical classes of variables
AmEBrE
underwearpants
pantstrousers
vestwaistcoat
diapernappy
first floorground floor
second floorfirst floor
sidewalkpavement
pavementroad


4. Idioms

AmEBrE
a home away from homea home from home
leave well enough aloneleave well alone
sweep under the rugsweep under the carpet


5. Grammar

Prepositions
AmEBrE
on a streetin a street
fill out a formfill in a form
check out somethingchuck up on something
on the weekendat the weekend
of two mindsin two minds
to all tastesfor all tastes

Definite article
AmEBrE
in the hospitalin hospital
in the futurein future
go to the universitygo to university


Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.

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2012-09-20 Thu

#1242. -ate ưζܹ [frequency][lexical_diffusion][stress][suffix][-ate]

[2012-09-17-1]ε#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesisפǡ -ate ưζưƤƤȤѲ˿줿̾ư (diatone Ʊͤ˸ߤʹζܹԤǤꡤóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȤƤܤͤ롥
ΰܹԤˤĤƤ Phillips óȻδ鸦椷Ƥ뤬OED "contemplate, v" ˤޤȤޤä⤬ΤǡҲ𤷤褦Danielsson (271--72) Ǥ⡤OED Τβս꤬Ƥ롥

In a few rare cases (Shakes., Hudibras) stressed 'contemplate in 16--7th c.; also by Kenrick 1773, Webster 1828, among writers on pronunciation. Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson have both modes, but the orthoepists generally have con'template down to third quarter of 19th c.; since that time 'contemplate has more and more prevailed, and con'template begins to have a flavour of age. This is the common tendency with all verbs in -ate. Of these, the antepenult stress is historical in all words in which the penult represents a short Latin syllable, as ac'celerate, 'animate, 'fascinate, 'machinate, 'militate, or one prosodically short or long, as in 'celebrate, 'consecrate, 'emigrate; regularly also when the penult has a vowel long in Latin, as 'alienate, 'aspirate, con'catenate, 'denudate, e'laborate, 'indurate, 'personate, 'ruinate (L. aliēno, aspīro, etc.). But where the penult has two or three consonants giving positional length, the stress has historically been on the penult, and its shift to the antepenult is recent or still in progress, as in acervate, adumbrate, alternate, compensate, concentrate, condensate, confiscate, conquassate, constellate, demonstrate, decussate, desiccate, enervate, exacerbate, exculpate, illustrate, inculcate, objurgate, etc., all familiar with penult stress to middle-aged men. The influence of the noun of action in -ation is a factor in the change; thus the analogy of ,conse'cration, 'consecrate, etc., suggests ,demon'stration, 'demonstrate. But there being no remonstration in use, re'monstrate, supported by re'monstrance, keeps the earlier stress.


Ĥޤꡤ3ʾθˤƤϡŪˤ penult ι˱ƶ penult antepenult Ūˤϡpenult ˻ҲˤϡŪˤϤβ˶ȤḽѸˤơб̾ -ation ζѥˤȤŤ䤬Ưᤫζ˰ĺءantepenult ؤȰܹԤƤƤȤΤǤ롥
Danielsson OED ˤ3ʾθˤĤƤθڤʤPhillips 2ˤĤƤĴ̣Ȥˡ2 -ate ưʤ penult IJΤΡˤǤϡȿФζܹԤäƤȤfrustrate, dictate, prostrate, pulsate, stagnate, truncate ʤɤθǤϡŪˤ penult ˶Ѹˤ ultima ˶۷ƤƤʺǽ3ˤĤƤ夷ˡơζܹԤˤĤƤ⡤Phillips ٤ι⤤ΤѲƤƤȤ¤ͤߤ᤿ (226--28)
٤㤤ΤѲƤ Phillips μĥ̾ưȡΩ̤Ǥ롥٤ȸóȻοʹԽȤˡʰФꤸƤ롥

Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Danielsson, Bror. Studies on the Accentuation of Polysyllabic Latin, Greek, and Romance Loan-Words in English. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1948.

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2012-09-17 Mon

#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis [frequency][phonetics][language_change][lexical_diffusion][stress][diatone][-ate]

óȻ (lexical diffusion) ȤƿʹԤ벻Ѳƻڤ٤ؤƤ餷ȤϡŤ19ŦƤºݤˡPhillips (1984: 321) ˵󤲤Ƥ褦ˡ٤ι⤤줫Ѳ뤲ȤѲϿڤƤǡ٤㤤줫Ѳ뤲ǧƤꡤ٤ȸóȻνδطˤĤƤϡޤ˵䤬¿ˤĤơPhillips ϡꥫѸˤ glide deletion Ѹ unrounding Ѹ̾ưdiatonic stress shift; diatone ε򻲾ȡˤȤ٤㤤˿ʹԤȤ3ĤβѲ夲ơ"Frequency Actuation Hypothesis" 󾧤ϡ"physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first" (1984: 336) ȤΤǤԤ surface phonetic form ƯѲԤ underlying phonetic form ƯѲؤˡ
Phillips 1998ǯ -ate ǽưζ֤ΰư˴ؤ븦ˤơŪưŤƤʤѲͽۤ褦٤㤤ˤϿʤޤष٤ι⤤˿ʤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤǡ Frequency Actuation Hypothesis 򾧤

[F]or segmental changes, physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first. For suprasegmental changes, changes which require analysis (e.g., by part of speech or by morphemic element) affect the least frequent words first, whereas changes which eliminate or ignore grammatical information affect the most frequent words first. (1998: 231)


ĤޤꡤΰưΤ褦ĶʬβѲ˴ؤƤϡüԤˤʬϤ뤫ʤǡ٤ȽδطžȤ櫓Ǥ롥ʤʤΤˤĤơPhillips Bybee (117--19) "lexical strength" ȤͤФƤ롥
ɬ⤳εǼƤʤޤPhillips μĥȤϰۤʤꡤ̾ư夬٤ι⤤˿ʹԤȤ򼨤ǡȼƤ롥٤ѲνˤĤƤθϽ˽ФǤꡤ;Ϥ¿ʬ˻ĤƤ롥

Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Bybee, Joan L. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1985.

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2011-07-20 Wed

#814. ̾ưʤ̷ư [stress][diatone][statistics][derivation][prefix][suffix][phonaesthesia][-ate]

Ʊ֤ʻˤäƶ֤θؤ (diatone) ŵǤ̾ưפˤĤƤϡ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1], [2011-07-08-1], [2011-07-10-1], [2011-07-11-1]ΰϢεڤƤ̾ưκۤĴƤƻ⤳ε˴ؤäƤ[2011-07-07-1]εǤϴϢ˸ڤˡ֤ˤĤơƻϸ§Ȥ̾Ʊ񤤤򼨤ư֤롥СַưפǤ롥
ưλ¤ϡޤŪ˻ٻ롥Bolinger (156--57) ˤС3ζѸýΥץĴˤȡ¿ˤĤơƻ91% non-oxytonic ʺǽʳ˶ˤư63% oxytonic ʺǽ˶ˤǤȤñˤĤƤϡΰ֤뤳ȤϤǤʤΰ̣ʤñưȷƻθĿΨư줬60.7%롥ñζ̾ oxytonic ȲᤵΤǡΨϷƻ椷ư oxytonic ʷٻͤȤ褦
ưȤ֤ʬۤ˴ϢơBolinger ξʻθκۤ˸ڤƤ롥ƻˤäΤ¿ (ex. -ant, -ent, -ean, -ial, -al, -ate, -ary, -ory, -ous, -ive, -able, -ible, -ic, -ical, -ish, -ful) ưƬˤ¿ (ex. re-, un-, de-, dis-, mis-, pre-) 㳰Ūˤ켫Ȥ˶ -ose Τ褦ʷƻ⤢뤬㳰ŪǤ뤳ȤˤäƤäƺΩ (phonaesthesia) ʤ ( augmentative ) ȤƤεǽ碌ĤȤˤʤäƤ缭ˤĤƤ[2009-08-30-1]εɼפ⻲ȡˡbellicose, grandiose, jocose, otiose, verbose ʤɤǡǤ롥
ΤȤʤ顤Τʤˤ줿¿ηƻɬ non-oxytonic Ȥʤ뤷ΤʤƬˤ줿¿ư϶2ܰʹߤ֤뤳Ȥˤʤ oxytonic Ȥʤǽ⤤εȯŸˤϡܼμθɬפ뤬ܼˤѥ㤬ưνи˹׸ȤȤǤ礤˶̣ޤ̾⡤ƻƱͤˡƬǤϤʤ¿Ѥ뤳ȤͤС̾ưˤƱΩĤΤǤϤʤ

Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-06-29-1]

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2011-07-07 Thu

#801. ̾ưε (3) [stress][diatone][germanic][-ate]

[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1]εǡ̾ưפε˴ϢơޥȤƤطʤϢϡ[2011-04-15-1]εֱѸζѥѸѼפǤⰷä
Ѹ¿¿ʼȤƥƥ󡦥ե󥹼ѸˤǶʬۤ̾ưȤʤ뤳θݤˤĤơBolinger ̾ʤӷƻˤưʸǤΰ֤κۤȤƤ롥ʲ˴ϢսѤ롥

. . . stress patterns are apt to congeal in the way position in the sentence may predispose them, which means that nouns and adjectives will tend to be forestressed, verbs to be end-stressed, and ultimately, in many cases, to carry this stress with them regardless of position. (164)

English seems to be more averse to postponing the first of the two major accents than to anticipating the second. While nouns and adjectives are certainly free to occur in terminal positions, their somewhat greater frequency early in the sentence brings them under the influence of this more consistent pull to the left. The pull to the right at the end is weaker, except in emphatic utterances, but since verbs are less free to roam they are more apt to it. (164fn)


Bolinger ε­ʤȯŸȼΤ褦ˤʤŪ12¿ϡǥեȤǤϸƬ1ۤ롥ϡѸʤȤ⥲ޥˤζʤȿǤΤǤ (see [2009-10-26-1]) ä̾ƻ줬ʤ򶯤ȿǤΤϡʸŪᤤʳǸΨ⤤Ǥ롥̾ƻ¾θ٤ʸǤΰ֤¤ξʤǤꡤʸˤƸ뤳ȤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨ư٤ʸƬˤƸ뤳Ȥ¿ȤȤǤ롥
ưϾҤʤŪ˽ˤưʸǤΰ֤̾ƻۤɼͳǤϤʤʸˤΨ⤤ѸȥѥǤʸκǸˤ붯᤬ˤȤʤΤǡʸ֤䤹ưθۤ2岽Ψ㤤̾ƻФơ2ݤ䤹ΤϤΤǤ롥 associate, duplicate, estimate ʤɤ -ate ĸ¿ϡ̾ǤϺǽ첻ۣ첻Ȥʤ뤬ưǤ2ݤƤ뤳Ȥա
ʸΤɤΰ֤Ū˸䤹ȤǤ̾졦ƻưκۤ줾ʻˤ2ο񤤤κۤˤĤʤäƤȤ϶̣ޤǤεȤС̾ưʬۤˤɤĤޤǤȰǤ롥̾ζǸǤޤäưϤޤ2ĤäƤ롥줬1˳ʾ夲줵СưפȤʤ롥Ǥϡγʾ夲ưŤϲäΤBolinger ϤޤǤϽҤ٤Ƥʤ

Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.

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2010-07-09 Fri

#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž [conversion][suppletion][comparison][-ate]

Ѹʻž ( see [2009-11-03-1] ) ˤϡ͡롥ư좪̾졤ƻ좪̾졤̾좪ư졤ƻ좪ư졤̾좪ƻ㤬Ū¿ƻ좪ưǤϡ?ˤפ뤤ϡ?ˤʤפΰդؤž calm, dirty, humble; dry, empty, narrow ʤɤ󤲤롥̣Ǥϡƥưβʬ -atus ͳ褹 -ate ¿μѸư⡤ƻ좪ưžȹͤ뤳ȤǤ ( ex. assassinate, fascinate, separate )
ȤDZʸƥȤɲˡƻӵȤѤƤ lower ưȤɤ߰㤨ȤǵŤΤӵη֤ưžȤΤǤϤʤ㤯פȤưžΤǤСӵǤϤʤΤޤޤ low ǤϤʤΤ¤ΤȤOED ˤưΤȤƤ low ϸߤǤѤ1200ǯ˸졤18ޤǻȤƤǡưȤƤ lower ϡֲפΰ̣17˽ƸƤ롥
ƻӵ餫ưž¾õȤ顤better פĤϸűѸ줫ȤƤ롥worse űѸ줫ưȤƻȤƤ19ѤȤʤäƤưĤƤΤžǤϤʤ13˽Ф worsen Ӥ褦ˡɤ佼ˡ ( suppletion ) ˤԵ§ӵפܤĤ OED 򤵤˰Ƥ椯ȡless ⸽ߤѤ13?17ޤưȤѤƤȤ狼ämore 14?15˻㤬ä
佼ˡˤӵϡб븶ȤηŪʷӤĤ夤Τǡ̸ĤθȤƸäΤʤϿƤ롤ĤޤòƤȹͤ롥㤨 better good ȤֲˤäΤǤϤʤgood ΩäȤϿƤ뤫餳ưؤžꤦΤǤϤʤդˤС佼ˡˤʤ̤ηƻ -er ӵ֤ϡ֤ȶӤĤƤΤǡž򵯤ˤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤβΤ lower 㳰ȤʤäƤޤ
ͤƤߤȷƻ lower ñʤ low ӵǤϤʤȤ˵Ťlower ϡ֤㤤פȤ than ³Ǥʸ̤ΰ̣¾ˡ֡ʬ˲̤ΡסäפȤŪȯỴ̈äƤ롥Ԥΰ̣ǤνФ1590ǯǡκ lower low Ȥ̸ĤθȤƸòȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤlow lower Ϸ֤ -er ̵ͭˤ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ뤬̣ξǤϾֵΥפȹͤ롥ϡžˤư lower 17˸Ϥ᤿ȤȻŪˤ礹褦˻פ롥

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