Ȥ̾դˤɸʣʷֲФƷ줿ư줬롥˶С t graft hoist ΤȤ
ε#3777. set, put, cut Τۤˤ⤢ä̵ѲѤư ([2019-08-30-1]) Ȥط뤷#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1])#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1])#3763. ƻ -ate εȯã ([2019-08-16-1])#3764. ư -ate εȯã ([2019-08-17-1]) Ȥ̩ܤ˴ؤ롤θǤ롥
graft ܤڤ롤ܿˤϥե grafe ̤ꡤȤȸ t ϤʤäѸ˼Ѥƺ줿ʬ graft 餯 set, put, cut ʤɤθ촴 -t ̵ѲưǥȤơΤޤȤƲᤵ줿Ȥ櫓ꥸʥ˶ᤤ graff ȤԸդǤϤ뤬˳ǧ롥
Ʊͤ hoist Ȥ롤夲ˤ⡤ hyssen ѤΤѸƳ줿ǡ t դȺƲᤵ줿ȹͤ롥ꥸʥ˶ᤤ hoise ⡤ߡȤ¸ߤ롥
ʾ Jespersen (38) ľܰѤƤ
graft: earlier graft (< OF grafe). The ptc. graft was mistakenly interpreted as the unchanged ptc of an inf graft. Sh has both graft and graft; the latter is now the only form in use; it is inflected regularly. || hoist: originally hoise (perhaps < Middle Dutch hyssen). From the regular ptc hoist a new inf hoist sprang into use. Sh has both forms; now only hoist as a regular vb. The old ptc occurs in the well-known Shakespearean phrase "hoist with his own petard" (Hml III. 4.207).
Ƭ̾դˤֲȽҤ٤ʬ (metanalysis) Ȥʬ (reanalysis) ΰȤƸƤФ褤
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
set, put, cut त̵ѲѤưˤĤơ#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1]) εǼ夲ƤǤϡưοѸβˤ˾Ȥ餻СϤΤͿ뤳Ȥߤ
촴 t d ñǤ롤ȤΤưζ̹ŪˤϡξƤ¤ˤơۤưƱ̵ͤѲѤƤȤäȤСfast, fret, lift, start, waft ʤɤǤ롥Jespersen (36) Ƹ褦
4.42. The influence of analogy has increased the number of invariable verbs. Especially verbs ending in -t tend in this direction. The tendency perhaps culminated in early ModE, when several words now regular had unchanged forms, sometimes side by side with forms in -ed:
fast. Sh Cymb IV. 2.347 I fast and pray'd for their intelligense. || fret. More U 75 fret prt. || lift (from ON). AV John 8.7 hee lift vp himselfe | ib 8.10 when Iesus had lift vp himselfe (in AV also regular forms) | Mi PL 1. 193 With Head up-lift above the wave | Bunyan P 19 lift ptc. || start. AV Tobit 2.4 I start [prt] vp. || waft. Sh Merch. V. 1.11 Stood Dido .. and waft her Loue To come again to Carthage | John II. 1.73 a brauer choice of dauntlesse spirits Then now the English bottomes haue waft o're.
Jespersen Τ褦ˡŪˡ뤤ϲѲˤäǤ륿פ̵ѲưȤϡޤ set ʤɴ¸Ū̵Ѳư˿ȯ줿 (analogy) η̤Ȥ̵ѲưȤߤ٤Ǥ2Ū̵ѲưȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤϸޤǤˤɸѸ줫ϾäȤϤʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤΤϡ餬ΥǥȤʤäơʤƤǽ⤢뤫Ĥޤꡤ촴 -t ǽ뤬θΤ褦ñǤʤХޥͳǤʤΤˤ顤Ʊݤĥܤ뤫ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡεǤꤢ -ate ưʤɤǤʡ#3764. ư -ate εȯã ([2019-08-17-1]) ȡˡ
Ʊ Jespersen (36--37) ꡤλݤ˴ؤսѤ褦
4.43. It was thus not at all unusual in earlier English for a ptc in -t to be = the inf. The analogy of these cases was extended even to a series of words of Romantic origin, namely such as go back to Latin passive participle, e. g. complete, content, select, and separate. These words were originally adopted as participles but later came to be used also as infinitives; in older English they were frequently used in both functions (as well as in the preterit), often with an alternative ptc. in -ed; . . . A contributory cause of their use as verbal stems may have been such Latin agent-nouns as corruptor and editor; as -or is identical in sound with -er in agent-nouns, the infinitives corrupt and edit may have been arrived at merely through subtraction of the ending -or . . . . Finally, the fact that we have very often an adj = a vb, e. g. dry, empty, etc . . ., may also have contributed to the creation of infs out of these old ptcs (adjectives).
ѤθȾǡΥǥ뤬ۤˤ2Ĥ˿ƤΤפǤ롥corruptor, editor פε (back_formation) dry, empty פư졦ƻѤñ¸ߤǤ롥#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ε#3763. ƻ -ate εȯã ([2019-08-16-1]) ˰³ -ate ꡥư -ate ˤĤƤϡ#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) Ǽ夲ϤεȯãˤĤơOED -ate, suffix1 Ȥʤ顤⤦ܺ٤˹ͤƤߤ褦
Ҥ٤褦ˡ-ate ϥƥ1ưβʬܼ -ātus, -ātum, -āta ̤뤫顤ưθȤϡʲʬ˷ƻθȤ٤ΤǤ롥ư -ate εȤƤΤϡ-ate ˴ؤƷƻ줫ưؤʻž (conversion) äȤȤǤ롥ƻ줫ưؤʻž¿θǧ졤ºݤ˸űѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤˤȤޤʤȤСűѸǤ hwít hwítian, wearm wearmian, bysig bysgian, drýge drýgan 졤줾Ԥư϶ѸˤƶԤȷŪͻ礷Ȥаޤ롥
ƥǤƱͤˡƻ줫ưؤʻžӤäȤСsiccus siccāre, clārus clārāre, līber līberāre, sacer sacrāre ʤɤ줿˥եǤǡsec sècher, clair clairer, content contenter, confus confuser ʤɤ줿Ѹϥƥե줫餳θѤηƻưϤοˤ15ޤǤͻ礷
ήΤʤǡ16ˤϥƥβʬƻΤޤưȤѤ륿פʻžŪˤߤ褦ˤʤädirect, separate, aggravate ʤɤ㤬롥ѸǤΤ褦㤬Ƥȡƥ -ātus ŪˤϲʬбƤϤŪˤϤФбѸưθˤҤŤ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤʬƻŪʵǽβߤʤˡ-ate ľܤưθȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
ηդޤȡƥʤեˤư촴ڤƤơ -ate ĤСѸ¦ǿưñƳǤȤ1θˡȯã16ˤ fascinate, concatenate, asseverate, venerate ޤɴ -ate ư줬߽Ф줿
äˡΩƤޤСºݤ˥ƥʤեˤ¸ߤɤ鷺֥ƥʤեŪǡפǤСäƤ -ate դ뤳ȤˤꡤȤ⤿䤹ưǤ褦ˤʤä櫓ˤ nobilitate, felicitate, capacitate, differentiate, substantiate, vaccinate ʤ¿ -ate ư줬ḽ߽Ф줿
ΤȤ -ate ȯãϡȤ̤ȤƤ -ate ư췲Ȥδ֤Ρ䤨֤ʤѤȵ§ĥˤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ѸŵŪư1ĤȹͤƤ -ate ϡ¤ϤĤηƻˤߤ롥aspirate, desolate, moderate, prostrate, sedate, separate ưȤƤˡ⤢뤬ƻǤ⤢롥 innate, oblate, ornate, temperate ʤɤϾ˷ƻǤ롥ƻȤƤ -ate εȯãɤäƤߤ褦
ϥƥ1ưβʬܼ -ātus, -ātum, -āta ̤롥եϤˤߤܼ -us, -um, -a æѸƥݤˤæδޤƥեΤ̤ȤơѸ1400ǯ餤顤ƥ -atus ʤɤ -at ʤΤԤ첻ĹȤ e ź -ate) ȤƼཬƤä
嵭Τ褦 -ate εưβʬǤ뤫顤ѸǤʸ̤ưβʬΤۤƻȤƤⵡǽƤȤ̵ʤǤ -ate ưθʬϤ˵ڤǡŪʲʬϡ¿˵§Ū˺줿 -ated Ȥ֤˼ä졤ʬʷƻˤȤƤ -ate ¿ѤȤʤäƤޤäƻȤƼŪ˻ĤäΤ⤢äƬ˵ -ate ƻϡΤ褦ʷаޤǡĤäפΤǤ롥
ʾή⤷սOED -ate, suffix2
Forming participial adjectives from Latin past participles in -ātus, -āta, -ātum, being only a special instance of the adoption of Latin past participles by dropping the inflectional endings, e.g. content-us, convict-us, direct-us, remiss-us, or with phonetic final -e, e.g. complēt-us, finīt-us, revolūt-us, spars-us. The analogy for this was set by the survival of some Latin past participles in Old French, as confus:--confūsus, content:--contentus, divers:--diversus. This analogy was widely followed in later French, in introducing new words from Latin; and both classes of French words, i.e. the popular survivals and the later accessions, being adopted in English, provided English in its turn with analogies for adapting similar words directly from Latin, by dropping the termination. This began about 1400, and as in -ate suffix1 (with which this suffix is phonetically identical), Latin -ātus gave -at, subsequently -ate, e.g. desolātus, desolat, desolate, separātus, separat, separate. Many of these participial adjectives soon gave rise to causative verbs, identical with them in form (see -ate suffix3), to which, for some time, they did duty as past participles, as 'the land was desolat(e by war;' but, at length, regular past participles were formed with the native suffix -ed, upon the general use of which these earlier participial adjectives generally lost their participial force, and either became obsolete or remained as simple adjectives, as in 'the desolate land,' 'a compact mass.' (But cf. situate adj. = situated adj.) So aspirate, moderate, prostrate, separate; and (where a verb has not been formed), innate, oblate, ornate, sedate, temperate, etc. As the French representation of Latin -atus is -é, English words in -ate have also been formed directly after French words in --é, e.g. affectionné, affectionate.
Ĥޤꡤ-ate ϡߤФषƻˤդ路Ȥ٤Ǥꡤưˤդ路ؤѲΤϡѸʹߤοȤȤˤʤ롥ʤ -ate ŵŪưȤʤäΤȤäƤϡʣŪ𤬤롥ˤĤƤϡ#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) ȡʤޤεǤⰷͽˡ
-ate ˤĤƤϡ֤ȯʤɤδ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1])#3686. -ate -ment ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-31-1])#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) Ϥᡤ-ate εǼ夲ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿
ε#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1]) ˰³-ate ĸȯưǤ /eɪt/ Ȥʤ̾졦ƻǤ /ɪt/ ȤʤˤĤơ
Carney Ǥ⤳꤬ƽǰƤꡤä p. 398 ˤθݤñꥹȤƤ롥ʲ˺ƸƤŪǤϤʤȻפ뤬ʰǤ롥
aggregate, animate, appropriate, approximate, articulate, associate, certificate, co-ordinate, correlate, degenerate, delegate, deliberate, duplicate, elaborate, emasculate, estimate, expatriate, graduate, importunate, incorporate, initiate, intimate, moderate, postulate, precipitate, predicate, separate, subordinate, syndicate
Carney ΥꥹȤƤΤϡʻˤäȯؤतñ줬ȤˤƤǤ롥¾μȤƤϡؤ̾ư (diatone) Ƥ뤷 -ment ĸˤƤ롥̾ưȤݤȤŪطʤˤĤƤˤĤƤϡǤܥ֥Ǥ diatone γƵܳŪ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤʻˤäȯؤפȤݥȤ -ate ȤĤʤäƤȤΤϡȯä
-ment ˤĤƤϡưǤΤ첻 /-mɛnt/ Ȥʤ뤬̾졦ƻǤۣ첻 /-mənt/ Ȥʤ롥Carney (398) 곺ñΥꥹȤƤcomplement, compliment, document, implement, increment, ornament, supplement.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ɸˤĤƼ䤬ޤȤ appropriate ưȤƤϡֻѤ˶סƻȤƤϡŬڤʡפǤơȯ /əˈproʊpriˌeɪt/, /əˈproʊpriˌɪt/ Ȥʤޤ첻 /eɪt/ ̸ /ɪt/ ǰۤʤäƤޤϤʤǤ礦
ư /eɪt/ ȯϡֻȾȤ餷碌Ф狼褦ˡ첻 (gvs) θ̤Ƥޤ<-ate> Ȥֻɽ蘆ȯ /-aːt(ə)/ Ѹ첻ܤˤ /eɪt/ ؤѲǤޤƱֻ̾졦ƻ -ate ǤϡΤ褦ȯѲϵäƤޤѲϡष첻μ岽Ǥꡤ/ɪt/ ؤȵ뤷Ƥޤ
ΰ㤤ϡ첻ܰζΤΰ㤤˵ޤŪˤСappropriate Τ褦Ĺñξ硤ưˤƤϸβ2֤ޤƻ졦̾ˤƤ֤ʤȤޤappropriate ˤĤƶŪˤСưȤƤ4 -ate ˡ2˶֤ޤ̾졦ƻȤƤϤ줬֤ʤȤȤˤʤޤ
ǻפФ٤ϡ첻ܤϡֶΤĹ첻פˤƺѤ벻ǤȤȤǤĤޤꡤ-ate ưˡˤƤϡ2ǤϤޤ˶֤Τǡξ˹פ /-aːt(ə)/ /eɪt/ ޤ̾졦ƻˡˤƤϡ֤ʤΤ첻ܤȤ̵طˤळȤˤʤޤ̾졦ƻˡǤϡ /-aːt(ə)/ ֻȤƤ <-ate> ݤʤ⡤ȤƤ϶ȤȤ /-at/ ؤû /-ət/ /-ɪt/ ؤۣ첻ΤǤ
Τ褦ʷаޤǡ-ate ʻˤäȯ㤨ȤʤޤäηޤꡤѥǤȡθϼºݤȯ䶯֤ˤ餺ȤˤΩѥŪŬѤ褦ˤʤޤơ-ate ȯ롼뤬ΩΤǤ
Ϣơ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) ⤴Ȥ-age ʤɤ˴ؤƤ⡤ۤƱƤϤޤȻפޤ (310, 313) ȡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ñˤ -ate ĤΤ¿ϥƥ1ưβʬθ˸ -atus, -atum ͳ褷ѸǤϸͽۤƻ̾ȤƵǽƤФ꤫ưȤƤⵡǽƤ롥ʻ줴ȤˡĤ褦ʤˤϡʣʻͤƤΤ⤢뤳Ȥ˵Ť
̾졧 advocate, legate, centrifugate, duplicate, mandate, vulcanizate; alcoholate, ferrate, acetate, carbonate; episcopate, pontificate, professorate, rabbinate
ƻ졧 consummate, degenerate, inanimate, Italianate, temperate; branchiate, chordate, foliate
ư졧 activate, assassinate, camphorate, capacitate, chlorinate, concentrate, domesticate, evaporate, fractionate, hyphenate, locate, negotiate, orchestrate, pollinate, pontificate, substantiate, triangulate, ulcerate, vaccinate, venerate
-ate ϥƥβʬͳ褹Τ顤ѸǤƻȤơ뤤Ϥ̾ˡͳ̾ȤѤȤΤ䤹ѸǤ -ate 줬ưȤѤ㤬¿ष-ate ıñȤСޤư㤬פ⤫֤ΤǤϤʤʤ -ate ưȤʤΤ
ͳˤĤƤϡƻ줬ưʻž (conversion) 뤳ȤϱѸˤʤ-ate ƻ⤽η˾äƼͳưؤʻžΤȸƤ롥ΤǤ white, warm, busy, dry, empty, dirty ʤɤǷƻ줫ưؤʻžϸ뤷եѸǤ clear, humble, manifest ʤɤ㤬롥顤ƥͳ褹 -ate ƻ⤽ΤޤưȤѤƻ졤ˤβ̲˵ڤǡȤȤΥƥ1ưϤȤˤ -ate ȼưȤƱѸ˼ޤȤ夷ΤȤ (see #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]))
嵭ϡBaugh and Cable (222) ǤѤƤꡤ˶ᤤΤȤʤäƤ롥OED -ate, suffix3 ǤƱܤƤ뤬κǸˡΤ褦ʥȤդդƤꡤ̣
(It is possible that the analogy of native verbs in -t, with the pa. pple. identical in form with the infinitive, as set, hit, put, cut, contributed also to the establishment of verbs like direct, separat(e, identical with their pa. pples.)
κǸθȴϢơ#1860. Ʊβʬ ([2014-05-31-1])#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) ȡ#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޤ-ate ̤¦̤#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1]) ǰäƤΤǡɤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
emplóyer ʸۤˤФ employée ʸۤƤ͡ˤȤڥϤ褯ΤƤ롥appóinter/appointée, exáminer/examinée, páyer/payée, tráiner/trainée ʤɤΥڥƱͤǡ줾Ȥ -er ԤǽưŪư-ee ĸԤưŪưɽ魯
absentee ʷʼԡ, escapee æԡ, patentee õͭԡ, refugee ̱, standee Ωҡˤʤɡ̣Ū˼ȤȤϲǤʤ¸ߤ롥ºݡstandee stander ƱǤϤʤȤƤ⡤ʤȤǤϤ롥-ee ȤƬƯϤɤΤ褦ʤΤ
-er ŪʸűѸ -ereˤ-ee ϥե줫ѤǤ롥ե -é(e) ưβʬǤꡤ¾ư³мȤΰ̣Ȥʤä켫Τϥƥ1Ѥưβʬܼ -ātus ̤Τǡcommunicatee, dedicatee, educatee, legatee, relocatee ʤɤǤƱ2ĤղäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ-ate ˤĤƤϡ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) ȡˡ
-ee δŪʵǽϡư촴ͤͭʪɽ魯ư̾뤳ȤǤ롥¾ħȤƤϡ -ee /ˈiː/ ˶뤳ȡջηǡȤ̣뤳ȡˡΧѸȤѤ뷹ȡʤɤ롥ˡΧȤѰ (register) ˤĤƤСAnglo-Norman ˡΧѸ apelour/apelé Ѹä appellor/appellee ʾʿ͡ʿ͡ˤʤɤΥڥȤʤꡤѸʹߡΤθ츻ˤ餺 -or (or -er) -ee ˤˡΧѸڥ³ޤ줿
ưȤҤȤˤäƤ⡤ŪˤϴΤưľŪ졤Ū졤ֻŪΡ˼Τ䡤ưȤľܤ˴ϢʤΤޤơ͡ʼब (Isozaki 5--6)examinee "someone who one examines" ľŪpayee "someone to whom one pays something" ǴŪlaughee "someone who one laughs at" ֻŪ standee attendee "someone who stands" "someone who attends something" Ǽ롥¾§ŪʼȤơamputee "someone whose limb was amputated" ʣطpatentee, redundantee, biographee ̾ƻΤȤƤġ
ˤĤƸѸ줫鸽ѸؤƤ̻Ūܤߤȡޥϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡstandee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȤŦ롥ĬήˤĤƤϡεǡ
Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.
#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ˤ -er -or ˤĤơξԤϤȤ˹ټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ȸƤФ빴«Ǥ̣֡ʬۤʤɤ˴ؤơߤˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤϡŪʻȤϸѸζŪʻ顤ξԤΰƱ
Carney (426--27), Huddleston and Pullum (1698) (170--73)ĤʤɡĤλʸäƤߤȤȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥
| -er | -or | |
|---|---|---|
| ¿ | Ūʤ | |
| Ū | Ū | |
| ܼ饹 | Class II | Class I |
| ³Τθ츻 | Romance Ϥ˸¤ʤ | Romance Ϥ˸¤ |
| ³Τμͳ | ͳ˸¤ | ͳ˸¤ʤ |
| ư | ʤ | |
| Τؤζ | ʤ | |
| ʤղ | ʤ | Class I դ |
| Ending | Word types | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -ator | 291 | indicator, navigator |
| -ctor | 63 | contractor, predictor |
| -itor | 29 | inheritor, depositor |
| -utor | 16 | contributor, prosecutor |
| -essor | 15 | successor, professor |
| -ntor | 14 | grantor, inventor |
| -stor | 12 | investor, assistor |
[2013-01-05-1]ε#1349. procrastination פǡƥñ줬Ѹ˼ޤݤŬѤֲ§ˤĤơBloomfield ˵äƵε§ϡѸޤǤ˻ƥȤĹ̤̻ܿŪ˰ޤ졤Ū夷ΤǤ롥§ȤȾмȯãƤȸƤ褤⤷ʤռŪꤷ§Ǥ뤫Τ褦˲⤷Ҥ롥Thomas Blount Glossographia (1656) ǤGlossographia ޤ൭ȡˡBrengelman (353) ˡ Blount εҤޤȤޤäƤΤǡƸ롥
| LATIN | ENGLISH | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|
| -io | -ion | inquisition, ablution, abortion |
| -or | -or | agressor |
| -tura | -ture | abbreviature |
| -ista | -ist | agonist |
| -isma, -ismus | -ist | agonism, aphorism |
| Verb + o | -ate | abdicate, adumbrate |
| Verb + o (generally with long vowel) | -# | abduce, adjure, allude |
| Adj + is, us | -# | abject, abortive, angular, annual |
| -abilis | -able | arable |
| -ibilis | -ible | plausible |
| -us, -osus | -ous | abstemious, pernicious |
| Noun + a, um, us | -# | abysse, accent, alphabet |
| (rum, ra, rus) | -er | amber, alabaster |
| -ul- | -le | angle |
| -i + us, um, a, as | -y | arbitrary, anatomy, adultery, acclivity |
| -entia | -ency | adolescency |
| -ans | -ant | adjutant |
| -ens | -ent | adjacent |
(1) retain and Anglicize derivational endings; (2) delete purely inflectional endings; (3) leave prefixes and bases unchanged.
ε§˱ʤ㤬뤳Ȥ18ˤŦƤ뤬 (ex. explain, proceed, labour) Τ褦ʸϡǤ˼ˤƸ경ƤޤäƤΤ
ʤBlount ε§ϡ§Ū˸Ѹ Neo-Latin ¤ˤŬѤƤ롥Neo-Latin ¤ˤĤƤϡ#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ첽 ([2010-05-24-1]) ȡ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
ѸαƺˤĤƤ ame_bre ۤ¿εǿƤʸˡֻˤĤƤϡ#312. ʸˡαƺ ([2010-03-05-1]) ȡ#244. ֻαƺΥꥹȡ ([2009-12-27-1]) ǾޤȤϼȤȯȸäˤѰۤˤĤơSchmitt and Marsden (185--92) ˽äưޤǤʤƺȤȤˤϡɸॢꥫѸɸ।ꥹѸѰۤǰƬ֤Ƥ롥
1. Pronunciation
Words spelled with the vowel a: /æ/ for AmE and /ɑː/ for BrE as in bath, class, last, mask, past, rather.
Words spelled with -er: /əː/ for AmE and /ɑː/ for BrE as in clerk, Derby (see #211. spelling pronunciation ([2009-11-24-1]))
Words ending with -ile: /(ə)l/ for AmE and /aɪl/ for BrE as in agile, docile, fertile, missile
Words spelled alike but typically pronounced differently (z ˤĤƤϡ#964. z ʸȯ (1) ([2011-12-17-1]) ӡ#965. z ʸȯ (2) ([2011-12-18-1]) ȡ
| Word | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| asthma | /ˈæzma/ | /ˈæsma/ |
| clique | /klɪk/ | /kliːk/ |
| vase | /veɪs/ | /vɑːz/ |
| schedule | /ˈskɛʤəl/ | /ˈʃɛdjuːl/ |
| leisure | /ˈliːʒəː/ | /ˈlɛʒəː/ |
| lieutenant | /luːˈtɛnənt/ | /lɛfˈtɛnənt/ |
| z (the letter) | /ziː/ | /zɛd/ |
| tomato | /tʌˈmeɪtəʊ/ | /tʌˈmɑːtəʊ/ |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| balLET | BALlet |
| blaSÉ | BLAse |
| bufFET | BUFfet |
| garAGE | GARage |
| perFUME | PERfume |
| debuTANTE | DEButante |
| vaLET | VAlet |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| comPOSite | COMposite |
| subALtern | SUBaltern |
| arIStocrat | ARistocrat |
| priMARily | PRImarily |
| Word | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| military | /ˈmɪləˌtɛri/ | /ˈmɪlɪtri/ |
| arbitrary | /ˈərbəˌtrɛri/ | /ˈɑːbɪtri/ |
| cemetery | /ˈsɛməˌtɛri/ | /ˈsɛmətri/ |
| monastery | /ˈmɒnəsˌtɛri/ | /ˈmɒnəstri/ |
| mandatory | /ˈmændəˌtɔri/ | /ˈmændətri/ |
| category | /ˈkætəˌgɔri/ | /ˈkætəgri/ |
| testimony | /ˈtɛstəˌməʊni/ | /ˈtɛstəməni/ |
| matrimony | /ˈmætrəˌməʊni/ | /ˈmætrɪməni/ |
| Word | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| Sunday | /ˈsʌndɛɪ/ | /ˈsʌndi/ |
| Monday | /ˈmʌndɛɪ/ | /ˈmʌndi/ |
| Tuesday | /ˈˈtuːzdɛɪ/ | /ˈtjuːzdi/ |
| Thursday | /ˈθəːzdɛɪ/ | /ˈθəːzdi/ |
| Friday | /ˈfraɪdɛɪ/ | /ˈfraɪdi/ |
| Saturday | /ˈsætəːdɛɪ/ | /ˈsætəːdi/ |
| Name | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| Lancaster | /ˈlæŋˌkæstər/ | /ˈlæŋkəstə/ |
| Rochester | /ˈrɒʧɛstər/ | /ˈrɒʧəstə/ |
| Worcester | /ˈwʊəsɛstər/ | /ˈwʊstə/ |
| Nottingham | /ˈnɒtɪŋˌhæm/ | /ˈnɒtɪŋəm/ |
| Birmingham | /ˈbəːmɪŋˌhæm/ | /ˈbəːmɪŋəm/ |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| DICtate | dicTATE |
| FIXate | fixATE |
| ROtate | roTATE |
| VIbrate | vibRATE |
| Word | AmE | BrE |
|---|---|---|
| advertisement | /ˈædvəːˌtaɪzmənt/ | /ædˈvəːtəzmənt/ |
| controversy | /ˈkɒntrəˌvəːsi/ | /kɒnˈtrɒvəsi/ |
| corollary | /ˈkʊrəˌlɛri/ | /kɒˈrɒləri/ |
| inquiry | /ˈɪnkwəri/ | /ɪnˈkwaɪri/ |
| laboratory | /ˈlæbrəˌtʊəri/ | /ləˈbɒrətri/ |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| railroad | railway |
| engineer | driver |
| conductor | guard |
| baggage | luggage |
| truck | lorry |
| hood (car) | bonnet |
| trunk (car) | boot |
| fender (car) | bumper |
| gasoline | petrol |
| subway | underground |
| counterclockwise | anticlockwise |
| thumbtack | drawing pin |
| flashlight | torch |
| elevator | lift |
| apartment | flat |
| post | |
| vacation | holiday |
| garbage can | dustbin |
| bar | pub |
| druggist | chemist |
| French fries | chips |
| potato chips | crisps |
| cookie | biscuit |
| trailer | caravan |
| round-trip ticket | return ticket |
| one-way ticket | single ticket |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| underwear | pants |
| pants | trousers |
| vest | waistcoat |
| diaper | nappy |
| first floor | ground floor |
| second floor | first floor |
| sidewalk | pavement |
| pavement | road |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| a home away from home | a home from home |
| leave well enough alone | leave well alone |
| sweep under the rug | sweep under the carpet |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| on a street | in a street |
| fill out a form | fill in a form |
| check out something | chuck up on something |
| on the weekend | at the weekend |
| of two minds | in two minds |
| to all tastes | for all tastes |
| AmE | BrE |
|---|---|
| in the hospital | in hospital |
| in the future | in future |
| go to the university | go to university |
[2012-09-17-1]ε#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesisפǡ -ate ưζưƤƤȤѲ˿줿̾ư (diatone Ʊͤ˸ߤʹζܹԤǤꡤóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȤƤܤͤ롥
ΰܹԤˤĤƤ Phillips óȻδ鸦椷Ƥ뤬OED "contemplate, v" ˤޤȤޤä⤬ΤǡҲ𤷤褦Danielsson (271--72) Ǥ⡤OED Τβս꤬Ƥ롥
In a few rare cases (Shakes., Hudibras) stressed 'contemplate in 16--7th c.; also by Kenrick 1773, Webster 1828, among writers on pronunciation. Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson have both modes, but the orthoepists generally have con'template down to third quarter of 19th c.; since that time 'contemplate has more and more prevailed, and con'template begins to have a flavour of age. This is the common tendency with all verbs in -ate. Of these, the antepenult stress is historical in all words in which the penult represents a short Latin syllable, as ac'celerate, 'animate, 'fascinate, 'machinate, 'militate, or one prosodically short or long, as in 'celebrate, 'consecrate, 'emigrate; regularly also when the penult has a vowel long in Latin, as 'alienate, 'aspirate, con'catenate, 'denudate, e'laborate, 'indurate, 'personate, 'ruinate (L. aliēno, aspīro, etc.). But where the penult has two or three consonants giving positional length, the stress has historically been on the penult, and its shift to the antepenult is recent or still in progress, as in acervate, adumbrate, alternate, compensate, concentrate, condensate, confiscate, conquassate, constellate, demonstrate, decussate, desiccate, enervate, exacerbate, exculpate, illustrate, inculcate, objurgate, etc., all familiar with penult stress to middle-aged men. The influence of the noun of action in -ation is a factor in the change; thus the analogy of ,conse'cration, 'consecrate, etc., suggests ,demon'stration, 'demonstrate. But there being no remonstration in use, re'monstrate, supported by re'monstrance, keeps the earlier stress.
Ĥޤꡤ3ʾθˤƤϡŪˤ penult ι˱ƶ penult antepenult Ūˤϡpenult ˻ҲˤϡŪˤϤβ˶ȤḽѸˤơб̾ -ation ζѥˤȤŤ䤬Ưᤫζ˰ĺءantepenult ؤȰܹԤƤƤȤΤǤ롥
Danielsson OED ˤ3ʾθˤĤƤθڤʤPhillips 2ˤĤƤĴ̣Ȥˡ2 -ate ưʤ penult IJΤΡˤǤϡȿФζܹԤäƤȤfrustrate, dictate, prostrate, pulsate, stagnate, truncate ʤɤθǤϡŪˤ penult ˶Ѹˤ ultima ˶۷ƤƤʺǽ3ˤĤƤ夷ˡơζܹԤˤĤƤ⡤Phillips ٤ι⤤ΤѲƤƤȤ¤ͤߤ (226--28)
٤㤤ΤѲƤ Phillips μĥ̾ưȡΩ̤Ǥ롥٤ȸóȻοʹԽȤˡʰФꤸƤ롥
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Danielsson, Bror. Studies on the Accentuation of Polysyllabic Latin, Greek, and Romance Loan-Words in English. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1948.
óȻ (lexical diffusion) ȤƿʹԤ벻Ѳƻڤ٤ؤƤ餷ȤϡŤ19ŦƤºݤˡPhillips (1984: 321) ˵Ƥ褦ˡ٤ι⤤줫Ѳ뤲ȤѲϿڤƤǡ٤㤤줫Ѳ뤲ǧƤꡤ٤ȸóȻνδطˤĤƤϡޤ˵䤬¿ˤĤơPhillips ϡꥫѸˤ glide deletion Ѹ unrounding Ѹ̾ưdiatonic stress shift; diatone εȡˤȤ٤㤤˿ʹԤȤ3ĤβѲ夲ơ"Frequency Actuation Hypothesis" ϡ"physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first" (1984: 336) ȤΤǤԤ surface phonetic form ƯѲԤ underlying phonetic form ƯѲؤˡ
Phillips 1998ǯ -ate ǽưζ֤ΰư˴ؤ븦ˤơŪưŤƤʤѲͽۤ褦٤㤤ˤϿʤޤष٤ι⤤˿ʤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤǡ Frequency Actuation Hypothesis
[F]or segmental changes, physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first. For suprasegmental changes, changes which require analysis (e.g., by part of speech or by morphemic element) affect the least frequent words first, whereas changes which eliminate or ignore grammatical information affect the most frequent words first. (1998: 231)
ĤޤꡤΰưΤ褦ĶʬβѲ˴ؤƤϡüԤˤʬϤ뤫ʤǡ٤ȽδطžȤ櫓Ǥ롥ʤʤΤˤĤơPhillips Bybee (117--19) "lexical strength" ȤͤФƤ롥
ɬ⤳εǼƤʤޤPhillips μĥȤϰۤʤꡤ̾ư夬٤ι⤤˿ʹԤȤǡȼƤ롥٤ѲνˤĤƤθϽ˽ФǤꡤ;Ϥ¿ʬ˻ĤƤ롥
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Bybee, Joan L. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1985.
Ʊ֤ʻˤäƶ֤θؤ (diatone) ŵǤ̾ưפˤĤƤϡ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1], [2011-07-08-1], [2011-07-10-1], [2011-07-11-1]ΰϢεڤƤ̾ưκۤĴƤƻ⤳ε˴ؤäƤ[2011-07-07-1]εǤϴϢ˸ڤˡ֤ˤĤơƻϸ§Ȥ̾Ʊư֤롥СַưפǤ롥
ưλ¤ϡޤŪ˻ٻ롥Bolinger (156--57) ˤС3ζѸýΥץĴˤȡ¿ˤĤơƻ91% non-oxytonic ʺǽʳ˶ˤư63% oxytonic ʺǽ˶ˤǤȤñˤĤƤϡΰ֤뤳ȤϤǤʤΰ̣ʤñưȷƻθĿΨư줬60.7%롥ñζ̾ oxytonic ȲᤵΤǡΨϷƻ椷ư oxytonic ʷٻͤȤ褦
ưȤ֤ʬۤ˴ϢơBolinger ξʻθκۤ˸ڤƤ롥ƻˤäΤ¿ (ex. -ant, -ent, -ean, -ial, -al, -ate, -ary, -ory, -ous, -ive, -able, -ible, -ic, -ical, -ish, -ful) ưƬˤ¿ (ex. re-, un-, de-, dis-, mis-, pre-) 㳰Ūˤ켫Ȥ˶ -ose Τ褦ʷƻ⤢뤬㳰ŪǤ뤳ȤˤäƤäƺΩ (phonaesthesia) ʤ 缭 ( augmentative ) ȤƤεǽ碌ĤȤˤʤäƤ缭ˤĤƤ[2009-08-30-1]εɼפ⻲ȡˡbellicose, grandiose, jocose, otiose, verbose ʤɤǡǤ롥
ΤȤʤ顤Τʤˤ줿¿ηƻɬ non-oxytonic Ȥʤ뤷ΤʤƬˤ줿¿ư϶2ܰʹߤ֤뤳Ȥˤʤ oxytonic Ȥʤǽ⤤εȯŸˤϡܼμθɬפ뤬ܼˤѥ㤬ưνи˹ȤȤǤ礤˶̣ޤ̾⡤ƻƱͤˡƬǤϤʤ¿Ѥ뤳ȤͤС̾ưˤƱΩĤΤǤϤʤ
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1]εǡ̾ưפε˴ϢơޥȤƤطʤϢϡ[2011-04-15-1]εֱѸζѥѸѼפǤⰷä
Ѹ¿¿ʼȤƥƥեѸˤǶʬۤ̾ưȤʤ뤳θݤˤĤơBolinger ̾ʤӷƻˤưʸǤΰ֤κۤȤƤ롥ʲ˴ϢսѤ롥
. . . stress patterns are apt to congeal in the way position in the sentence may predispose them, which means that nouns and adjectives will tend to be forestressed, verbs to be end-stressed, and ultimately, in many cases, to carry this stress with them regardless of position. (164)
English seems to be more averse to postponing the first of the two major accents than to anticipating the second. While nouns and adjectives are certainly free to occur in terminal positions, their somewhat greater frequency early in the sentence brings them under the influence of this more consistent pull to the left. The pull to the right at the end is weaker, except in emphatic utterances, but since verbs are less free to roam they are more apt to it. (164fn)
Bolinger εʤȯŸȼΤ褦ˤʤŪ12¿ϡǥեȤǤϸƬ1ۤ롥ϡѸʤȤ⥲ޥˤζʤȿǤΤǤ (see [2009-10-26-1]) ä̾ƻ줬ʤȿǤΤϡʸŪᤤʳǸΨ⤤Ǥ롥̾ƻ¾θ٤ʸǤΰ֤¤ξʤǤꡤʸˤƸ뤳ȤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨ư٤ʸƬˤƸ뤳Ȥ¿ȤȤǤ롥
ưϾҤʤŪ˽ˤưʸǤΰ֤̾ƻۤɼͳǤϤʤʸˤΨ⤤ѸȥѥǤʸκǸˤ붯ˤȤʤΤǡʸ֤䤹ưθۤ2岽Ψ㤤̾ƻФơ2ݤ䤹ΤϤΤǤ롥 associate, duplicate, estimate ʤɤ -ate ĸ¿ϡ̾ǤϺǽ첻ۣ첻Ȥʤ뤬ưǤ2ݤƤ뤳Ȥա
ʸΤɤΰ֤Ū˸䤹ȤǤ̾졦ƻưκۤ줾ʻˤ2οκۤˤĤʤäƤȤ϶̣ޤǤεȤС̾ưʬۤˤɤĤޤǤȰǤ롥̾ζǸǤޤäưϤޤ2ĤäƤ롥줬1˳ʾ夲줵СưפȤʤ롥Ǥϡγʾ夲ưŤϲäΤBolinger ϤޤǤϽҤ٤Ƥʤ
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
Ѹʻž ( see [2009-11-03-1] ) ˤϡ͡롥ư좪̾졤ƻ좪̾졤̾좪ư졤ƻ좪ư졤̾좪ƻ㤬Ū¿ƻ좪ưǤϡ?ˤפ뤤ϡ?ˤʤפΰդؤž calm, dirty, humble; dry, empty, narrow ʤɤ롥̣Ǥϡƥưβʬ -atus ͳ褹 -ate ¿μѸư⡤ƻ좪ưžȹͤ뤳ȤǤ ( ex. assassinate, fascinate, separate )
ȤDZʸƥȤɲˡƻӵȤѤƤ lower ưȤɤ߰㤨ȤǵŤΤӵη֤ưžȤΤǤϤʤ㤯פȤưžΤǤСӵǤϤʤΤޤޤ low ǤϤʤΤ¤ΤȤOED ˤưΤȤƤ low ϸߤǤѤ1200ǯ˸졤18ޤǻȤƤǡưȤƤ lower ϡֲפΰ̣17˽ƸƤ롥
ƻӵ餫ưž¾õȤ顤better פĤϸűѸ줫ȤƤ롥worse űѸ줫ưȤƻȤƤ19ѤȤʤäƤưĤƤΤžǤϤʤ13˽Ф worsen Ӥ褦ˡɤ佼ˡ ( suppletion ) ˤԵ§ӵפܤĤ OED ˰Ƥ椯ȡless ⸽ߤѤ13?17ޤưȤѤƤȤ狼ämore 14?15˻㤬ä
佼ˡˤӵϡб븶ȤηŪʷӤĤ夤Τǡ̸ĤθȤƸäΤʤϿƤ롤ĤޤòƤȹͤ롥㤨 better good ȤֲˤäΤǤϤʤgood ΩäȤϿƤ뤫餳ưؤžꤦΤǤϤʤդˤС佼ˡˤʤ̤ηƻ -er ӵ֤ϡ֤ȶӤĤƤΤǡžˤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤβΤ lower 㳰ȤʤäƤޤ
ͤƤߤȷƻ lower ñʤ low ӵǤϤʤȤ˵Ťlower ϡ֤㤤פȤ than ³Ǥʸ̤ΰ̣¾ˡ֡ʬ˲̤ΡסäפȤŪȯỴ̈äƤ롥Ԥΰ̣ǤνФ1590ǯǡκ lower low Ȥ̸ĤθȤƸòȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤlow lower Ϸ֤ -er ̵ͭˤ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ뤬̣ξǤϾֵΥפȹͤ롥ϡžˤư lower 17˸ϤȤȻŪˤ礹褦˻פ롥
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