Poutsma ѥѥäƤȡ̣ñĤ롥㤨Сƻ줫̾ʻž (conversion) ꥹȤ⤷ (Chapter XXIX, 1--3; pp. 368--76) ޤΥꥹȤʬѤ褦
A large group is made up by such as end in certain suffixes belonging to the foreign element of the language. Some of these seem to be (still) more or less unusual in their changed functions. In the following illustrations they are marked by † . . . . The suffixes referred to above are chiefly: a b l e, al, an, a n t, a r, a r y, a t e, end, e n t, (i) a l, (i) a n, ien, ible, i c, ile, ine, ior, ist, ite, i v e, ut, among which especially those printed in paced type afford many instances. (368)
ĤΤ¿ȤϡʲΥꥹȤζįȤ褯ʬʤPoutsma 1914ǯǤ뤳Ȥաˡ
adulterant
aggressive
alien
annual
astringent
barbarian
captive
casual
ceremonial
classic
cleric
clerical
confidant
consumptive
constituent
contemporary
cordial
corrective
†degenerate
dependant
†detrimental
dissuasives
domestic
†eccentric
ecclesiastic
†electric
†effeminate
elastic
†epileptic
†exclusive
†expectant
†exquisite
†extravagant
familiar
fanatic
†fashionable
†flippant
†fundamental
gallants
†human
illiterate
†imaginative
imbecile
immortal
†incapable
†incidental
†incompetent
†inconstant
incurable
†indifferent
†inevitable
†infuriate
innocent
†inseparable
†insolent
†insolvent
†intellectual
†intermittent
intimate
†irreconcilable
†irrepressible
juvenile
†legitimate
lenitive
mandatory
mercenary
†miserable
†militant
moderate
mortal
†national
native
†natural
necessary
negative
†neutral
†notable
†obstructive
ordinary
orient
oriental
original
particular
peculiar
†pragmatic
†persuasive
†pertinent
†politic
†political
preliminary
private
proficient
progressive
reactionary
†regular
†religious
requisite
reverend
revolutionary
rigid
†romantic
†royal
†solitary
specific
stimulant
†ultimate
†undesirable
unfortunate
unseizable
†unusual
vegetable
visitant
voluntary
voluptuary
†vulgar
ƻ줫ʻž̾ΰ̣ˤʤäƤȤηƻΰ̣ŪħƶƤΤΤͿƤ
Poutsma, H. A Grammar of Late Modern English. Part II, The Parts of Speech, 1A. Groningen: P. Noordhoff, 1914.
ϢεɽθᤰҲ𤷤Ƥ롥Ρ#5581. -ster ʬۤȵ ([2024-08-07-1])ӺΡ#5582. -ster Ͻɽ魯ǤϤʤä --- Jespersen ([2024-08-08-1]) ˰³ϽѸ (by-name) Ĵ Fransson ˤҲ𤷤Fransson ϡ-ster ȤȽɽ魯äȤȿ Jespersen ФäƺȿƤ롥
Fransson ԤʤäΤϼ̤ꡥޤĴоݤȤʤ塦̾ -ester η̡ӤӤ͡Τ77̾242̾Ƚ⤽̾˸˽ΨƱǤϤʤ̾˸ǽ⤺ä㤯ºݤ˽12:1κȤˡ⤷̾ؤνи˽ƱǤäȲꤹȡ-ester λ79%ޤǤȤʤꡤ21%ˤȤɤޤ롥Ĥޤꡤ -ester Ͻ礭ФäƤȤߤʤ롥
ϰ躹⤢褦Saxon Ǥ -ester ϤȤ櫓ФäƤ뤬Anglia Ǥ⾯ʤʤǤ⡤ΤȤƤʤ餷ƤߤС-ester ȽӤĤƤȤȤϸǤ롥Fransson ϤޤǵȤǡٻŪʷ˻롥βսѤ褦 (44)
With regard to the nature of the suffix -ester some elucidation can be obtained from the significations of the present surnames, especially of those that occur most frequently. The most common of them are the following (ranged after frequency; the figure denotes the number of persons that have been found bearing the surname): Bakestere 63, Litester 60, Webbester 47, Brewstere 33, Huckestere 10, Heustere 9, Blextere 8, Kembestere 7, Deyster 7, Sheppestere 7, Bleykestere 6, Thakestere 5, Combestere 5, Dreyster 5. All the trades denoted by these names --- with the only exception of Thakestere --- are of such a character that they can very well be supposed to have originally been carried out only (or almost only) by women. I think, therefore, that we are entitled to conclude that the words in -ester were at first used only of women, and that the old and general theory holds true. This ending, however, was also applied to men in OE, but that this happened so often as it really did, may be due to the fact that women do not appear as frequently as men in the OE sources.
θ塤Fransson (45) ϡĴ̤줿ηϷŪʤΤǤϤʤǰƤ롥
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
ε#5581. -ster ʬۤȵ ([2024-08-07-1]) ˰³-ster εˤĤơȤȤϽɽ魯äȤФJespersen ϶ۤ¤10ڡˤ錄ȿʸƤΤ¿ˤ錄뤬Τ2ĤѤ롥
The transition of a special feminine ending to one used of men also is, so far as I can see, totally unexampled in all languages. Words denoting both sexes may in course of time be specialized so as to be used of one sex only, but not the other way. Can we imagine for instance, a word meaning originally a woman judging being adopted as an official name for a male judge? Yet, according to N.E.D., deemster or dempster, ME dēmestre, is 'in form fem. of demere, deemer.' Family names, too, would hardly be taken from names denoting women doing certain kinds of work: yet this is assumed for family names like Baxter, Brewster, Webster; their use as personal names is only natural under the supposition that they mean exactly the same as Baker, Brewer, Weaver or Web, i.e., some one whose business or occupation it is to bake, brew or weave. (420)
There is one thing about these formations which would make them very exceptional if the ordinary explanation were true: in all languages it seems to be the rule that in feminine derivatives of this kind, the feminine ending is added to some word which in itself means a male person, thus princess from prince, waitress from waiter, not waitress from the verb wait. But in the OE words -estre is not added to a masculine agent noun; we find, not hleaperestre, but hleapestre, not bæcerestre, but bæcestre, thus direct from the nominal or verbal root or stem. This fact is in exact accordance with the hypothesis that the words are just ordinary agent nouns, that is, primarily two-sex words. (422)
⤫ Jespersen ⤫ɤ餬ʤΤƤˤϡܺ٤ĴɬפȤʤ롥μ꤬ŪΤϡʸ̮ˤθĸλؼоݤȤäơθ˽ΰ̣ޤޤƤȸڤʤˤ롥ˤϤȤξΰ̣ޤޤƤꡤʸ̮ǤϤޤؼоݤäȤǤƤޤΤ
δ餤СʸΡֽפפؤƤ褤Ĥޤꡤʸ̮ˤθĸλؼоݤȤäơθΰ̣ޤޤƤȸڤʤȤΤϡˤϤȤξΰ̣ޤޤƤꡤʸ̮ǤޤؼоݤäȤΤȤ⤷ʤ
¿λᡤλѤȡλؼоݤ˽ʬۤȤشطõȤäĴɬפºݤ Jespersen Ȥ⡤Τ褦ʼݤǻƤΤ̤Ƥ褦˻פ롥
Jespersen, Otto. "A Supposed Feminine Ending." Linguistica. Copenhagen, 1933. 420--29.
webster, baxter ʤɤο̾䡤spinster, youngster ʤɤο̾˸ (agentive_suffix) ˤĤơʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#2188. spinster, youngster ʤɤˤߤ -ster ([2015-04-24-1])
#3791. ټ -er, -ster ϥƥͳ褹롩 ([2019-09-13-1])
#5520. -ester Ѹο̾١ ([2024-06-07-1])
Ѹο̾˸ -ster ʬۤõȡڤʬۤ뤬ꥢˤǹ٤ǤȤϰʬۤȤ碌ơ⤽εǤ뤫Ȥ褬ĤƵäߤͭϤˤĤƤϡ嵭βǼ夲Ƥ̤ Fransson ˤаޤɤǤߤ褦 (42)
It is true that the surnames in -ester occur in the whole of England, but with regard to their frequency there is a distinct difference. The case is that they chiefly belong to the Anglian counties; most instances have been found in Nf (over 100 inst.), Li, Y, La, and St, but many also in Wo and Ess. In the WS counties (Sx, Ha, So) these surnames occur very seldom; thus I have only found 3 inst. in So, 5 in Ha, and 11 in Sx.
We now come to the difficult question whether the suffix -ester is a feminine ending or not. There has been no difference of opinion about this until recently, when Jespersen propounded an entirely new theory (Linguistica 420--429). According to the general view, -ester was originally a special feminine ending, which, however, was later applied to men as well as to women. This transition from fem. to masc. is usually explained through the supposition that the work that was at first done only by women, was later performed by men, too, and that the fem. denominations were transferred on men at the same time.
ʤƤפ̾ʱѸ˸Ԥ Jespersen ˤäȽ졤⤬줿ΤȤ켫Τ1930ǯäʤΤΤ褦ϻˤȤä繥ʪǤ롥ǤϡJespersen οȤϡ
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
Jespersen, Otto. "A Supposed Feminine Ending." Linguistica. Copenhagen, 1933. 420--29.
ܲ䤬ܤȤƷǤܤƤ1ĤѸϢʤѸ by-name Ǥ롥Ǥ̾ͳ褹˴ؿƤ롥
Fransson (14--15) ˤȡ̾١ʣȤʤѸǤ¸ߴƤ롥Ūˤʣ2Ǥ̤Ƥ롥Ūˤ -maker, -man, -monger-, -wright तŵĴ٤Ƥߤ¾ˤ⤿롥ʣ2ǤȤŵŪʤΤ Fransson ΰƷǤ褦
-BATOUR: Orbatour.
-BETER: Coperbeter, Flaxbeter, Goldbeter, Ledbeter, Wodebetere, Wolbetere.
-BIGGERE: Fetherbycger, Shoubiggere.
-BYNDER: Bokbynder.
-BREDERE: Haryngbredere.
-BREYDER: Lacebreyder.
-BRENNER: Askebrenner, Lymbrener.
-BREWERE: Alebrewere.
-BROCHER: Ploghbrocher.
-KARTERE: Heryngkartere.
-KERNERE: Smerekernere.
-CLEVER: Burdclever.
-DRAGHER: Wirdgragher.
-DRAPER: Lyndraper.
-FEUERE: Baiounsfeuere, Orfeuere.
-GRAVER: Orgraver, Selgraver.
-HEWERE: Bordhewere, Fleshhewere, Marlehewer, Silverhewer, Stonhewere, Vershewere.
-HOPER: Goldehoper.
-YETERE: Belleyetere, Bligeter, Brasyetere, Ledyetere, Pannegetter.
-LEGGER: Streulegger.
-LETER: Blodleter.
-LITTSTER: Corklittster.
-MAKER: Aketonmaker, Aruwemakere, Aunseremakere, Belgmakere, Bokmakere, Bordmakere, Botelmaker, Bowemakere, Callemaker, Candelmaker, Kelmaker, Chalunmaker, Chapemaker, Chesemakere, Clokkemaker, Cordemaker, Cottemakere, Delmaker, Dofkotemakere, Elymaker, Flourmakere, Gourdmaker, Hayremaker, Hodemaker, Lepmaker, Maltmakere, Medemaker, Meysemakere, Melemakere, Moldemaker, Netmaker, Oylemaker, Paniermaker, Potmaker, Pouchemaker, Pundermaker, Quyltmaker, Saucemaker, Seggemaker, Sheldmakere, Strengmakere, Walmakere.
-MAKESTERE: Kallemakestere.
-MAN: Butterman, Candelman, Capman, Chapman, Cheseman, Clothman, Elyman, Fetherman, Flaxman, Flekeman, Glasman, Hauerman, Honyman, Laxman, Lekman, Lynman, Meleman, Mustardman, Oilman, Pakeman, Panierman, Redman, Sakman, Saltman, Sherman, Syveman, Slayman, Smeremay, Tailman, Wademan, Waxman, Werkman.
-MARTER: Bukmarter.
-MONGERE: Bukmongere, Ketmongere, Chesemonger, Clothmangere, Cornmongere, Fethermongere, Fishmongere, Flaxmongere, Fleshmongere, Garlekmongere, Gosmanger, Heymongere, Henmongere, Heryngmongere, Hermonger, Horsmongere, Irmongere, Lusmonger, Madermanger, Maltmongere, Melemongere, Otmongere, Sklatemanger, Smeremongere, Taylmongere, Tymbermongere, Waxmongere, Whelmonger, Wolmongere, Wudemonger.
-MONGESTERE: Bredmongestere.
-POLLARE: Felpollare.
-SELLER: Clothseller.
-SLIPER: Swerdsliper.
-SMITH: Ankersmyth, Arowesmith, Balismith, Blakesmyth, Bokelsmyth, Boltsmith, Botsmith, Brounsmyth, Knyfsmith, Copersmith, Exsmyth, Goldsmyth, Hudsmyth, Ledsmyth, Lokersmyth, Loksmyth, Orsmyth, Schersmyth, Shosmyth, Watersmyth, Whelsmyth, Whitesmyth.
-SNITHER: Lakensnither.
-TAWYERE: Whittewere.
-TEWERE: Whittewere.
-THEKER: Ledtheker.
-TOWERE: Whittowere.
-WASHERE: Skynwashere.
-WEBBE: Poghwebbe, Sakwebbe.
-WIFE: Flaxwife, Silkwife.
-WYNDER: Flekewynder.
-WOMAN: Silkwoman.
-WRIGHT: Arkewright, Bordwright, Bowewright, Brandwright, Briggwright, Cartwright, Chesewright, Kystewright, Kittewright, Culewright, Detherwright, Glaswright, Hayrwright, Lattewright, Limwright, Nawright, Orewright, Ploghwright, Shipwright, Syvewright, Slaywright, Tywelwright, Tunwright, Waynwright, Whelwright, Whicchewright.
-WRYNGERE: Chesewryngere.
Ϣơ#5520. -ester Ѹο̾١ ([2024-06-07-1]) ʤɤε⻲Ȥ줿
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
ܲ䤬ܤȤƷǤܤƤ1ĤѸϢʤѸ by-name Ǥ롥Ǥ̾ͳ褹˴ؿƤ롥
Fransson (14--15) ˤȡ̾١ʣȤʤѸǤ¸ߴƤ롥Ūˤʣ2Ǥ̤Ƥ롥Ūˤ -maker, -man, -monger-, -wright तŵĴ٤Ƥߤ¾ˤ⤿롥ʣ2ǤȤŵŪʤΤ Fransson ΰƷǤ褦
-BATOUR: Orbatour.
-BETER: Coperbeter, Flaxbeter, Goldbeter, Ledbeter, Wodebetere, Wolbetere.
-BIGGERE: Fetherbycger, Shoubiggere.
-BYNDER: Bokbynder.
-BREDERE: Haryngbredere.
-BREYDER: Lacebreyder.
-BRENNER: Askebrenner, Lymbrener.
-BREWERE: Alebrewere.
-BROCHER: Ploghbrocher.
-KARTERE: Heryngkartere.
-KERNERE: Smerekernere.
-CLEVER: Burdclever.
-DRAGHER: Wirdgragher.
-DRAPER: Lyndraper.
-FEUERE: Baiounsfeuere, Orfeuere.
-GRAVER: Orgraver, Selgraver.
-HEWERE: Bordhewere, Fleshhewere, Marlehewer, Silverhewer, Stonhewere, Vershewere.
-HOPER: Goldehoper.
-YETERE: Belleyetere, Bligeter, Brasyetere, Ledyetere, Pannegetter.
-LEGGER: Streulegger.
-LETER: Blodleter.
-LITTSTER: Corklittster.
-MAKER: Aketonmaker, Aruwemakere, Aunseremakere, Belgmakere, Bokmakere, Bordmakere, Botelmaker, Bowemakere, Callemaker, Candelmaker, Kelmaker, Chalunmaker, Chapemaker, Chesemakere, Clokkemaker, Cordemaker, Cottemakere, Delmaker, Dofkotemakere, Elymaker, Flourmakere, Gourdmaker, Hayremaker, Hodemaker, Lepmaker, Maltmakere, Medemaker, Meysemakere, Melemakere, Moldemaker, Netmaker, Oylemaker, Paniermaker, Potmaker, Pouchemaker, Pundermaker, Quyltmaker, Saucemaker, Seggemaker, Sheldmakere, Strengmakere, Walmakere.
-MAKESTERE: Kallemakestere.
-MAN: Butterman, Candelman, Capman, Chapman, Cheseman, Clothman, Elyman, Fetherman, Flaxman, Flekeman, Glasman, Hauerman, Honyman, Laxman, Lekman, Lynman, Meleman, Mustardman, Oilman, Pakeman, Panierman, Redman, Sakman, Saltman, Sherman, Syveman, Slayman, Smeremay, Tailman, Wademan, Waxman, Werkman.
-MARTER: Bukmarter.
-MONGERE: Bukmongere, Ketmongere, Chesemonger, Clothmangere, Cornmongere, Fethermongere, Fishmongere, Flaxmongere, Fleshmongere, Garlekmongere, Gosmanger, Heymongere, Henmongere, Heryngmongere, Hermonger, Horsmongere, Irmongere, Lusmonger, Madermanger, Maltmongere, Melemongere, Otmongere, Sklatemanger, Smeremongere, Taylmongere, Tymbermongere, Waxmongere, Whelmonger, Wolmongere, Wudemonger.
-MONGESTERE: Bredmongestere.
-POLLARE: Felpollare.
-SELLER: Clothseller.
-SLIPER: Swerdsliper.
-SMITH: Ankersmyth, Arowesmith, Balismith, Blakesmyth, Bokelsmyth, Boltsmith, Botsmith, Brounsmyth, Knyfsmith, Copersmith, Exsmyth, Goldsmyth, Hudsmyth, Ledsmyth, Lokersmyth, Loksmyth, Orsmyth, Schersmyth, Shosmyth, Watersmyth, Whelsmyth, Whitesmyth.
-SNITHER: Lakensnither.
-TAWYERE: Whittewere.
-TEWERE: Whittewere.
-THEKER: Ledtheker.
-TOWERE: Whittowere.
-WASHERE: Skynwashere.
-WEBBE: Poghwebbe, Sakwebbe.
-WIFE: Flaxwife, Silkwife.
-WYNDER: Flekewynder.
-WOMAN: Silkwoman.
-WRIGHT: Arkewright, Bordwright, Bowewright, Brandwright, Briggwright, Cartwright, Chesewright, Kystewright, Kittewright, Culewright, Detherwright, Glaswright, Hayrwright, Lattewright, Limwright, Nawright, Orewright, Ploghwright, Shipwright, Syvewright, Slaywright, Tywelwright, Tunwright, Waynwright, Whelwright, Whicchewright.
-WRYNGERE: Chesewryngere.
Ϣơ#5520. -ester Ѹο̾١ ([2024-06-07-1]) ʤɤε⻲Ȥ줿
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
ɸιټ (agentive_suffix) ˤĤơ#2188. spinster, youngster ʤɤˤߤ -ster ([2015-04-24-1]) #3791. ټ -er, -ster ϥƥͳ褹롩 ([2019-09-13-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ-ster ϤȤȽιټäȤ뤬¤ϤˤĤƤ⤢ꡤޤߤηǤǤ (Fransson 42--45)
Ѹο̾١ϤĴ Fransson ⤳ηˤĤƵƤ롥γ˿ˤϡޤϵҤפǤȤơFransson ϥɳϤ -ester 42ĤȰʲ̤ (41)
Bakestere, Blacchester, Blakestere, Bleykestere, Blextere, Bredmongestere, Brewstere, Kallemakestere, Capiestere, Cardestere, Kembestere, Combestere, Corklittster, Cuppestere, Deyster, Dreyster, Fullester, Girdelester, Heustere, Huckestere, Litester, Lokyestere, Madster, Maltestere, Mongestere, Quernestere, Ridelestere, Ropestere, Scherestere, Semester, Sewstere, Sheppestere, Sopestere, Tannestere, Thakestere, Touestre, Upholdestere, Wadester, Webbester, Whelster, Wyggester, Wollestere
֤Ϥ줫ʤΤʬۤϰˤäưۤʤäƤꡤ̾μ礬ΨۤʤäƤȤ𤬤褦ñʤ츻äˤȤɤޤ餺ȤȤҲŪʼΥȥԥåؤŸƤץץƤߤˤϤޤʤ褦դʤФȼȤĤġ
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
-er ŵŪټ (agentive_suffix) 1ĤǤ롥̤ưδΤղä뤳ȤǡбټԤ̾ȤƤȤ館Ƥ롥
ϡ̾δΤˤĤơ~˴ط͡פۤɤ̣ټ̾Τä㤨 fisher ʵաˤϡư fish -er ĤΤȻפ뤫⤷ʤ츻Ūˤ̾ fish -er ĤΤʤΤǤ롥
رѸ츻ŵ٤ -er1 ˤȡȤȤ̾ˤΤղä줿ޤѲưˤĤ褦ˤʤꡤ˶ѲưˤĤ褦ˤʤäȤʤŬϰϤưˤȤäȤСޤ˾˵ fish Τ褦̾ưͤΤϤȤʤꡤʬ (reanalysis) ¥Τȹͤ롥
Fertig (35) μκʬϤȤơޤ -er 夲Ƥ롥
An even more striking example is the English/German/Dutch agentive suffix -er (< proto-Germanic *-ārjo-z). Originally, this suffix could only be attached to nouns to produce new nouns with the meaning 'person having something to do with X' (where X is the meaning of the base noun). This use can still be seen in Modern English words such as hatter and is highly productive with place names, e.g. English New Yorker; Dutch Amsterdammer; German Pariser, etc. In the older languages, we see this original use clearly in examples such as Gothic bôkareis/Old English bócere 'scribe', derived from the noun corresponding to Modern English book. As this example suggests, the construction was used especially to designate professions and occupations, and there was very often also a related denominal verb. In Gothic, for example, we find the basic noun dôm- 'judgment', the derived verb dômjan 'to judge' and the noun dômareis 'judge (i.e. person who judges)'. Nouns like dômareis were then reanalyzed as being derived from the verbs rather than directly from the basic nouns.
ˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥ¿夲Ƥʲεʤɤȡ
#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])
#3791. ټ -er, -ster ϥƥͳ褹롩 ([2019-09-13-1])
#5392. Ѹȿ̾ ([2024-01-31-1])
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
̾ץȡ (name_project) ȤδϢǡѸο̾ (personal_name)Ȥ櫓 (last name) "by-name" 뤤 "family name" ˴ؿƤ롥űѸѸˤߤ by-name εϡClark (567) ˤ4ढʤѸ˸¤餺褽Ūʬˡ
(a) familial ones, viz. those defining an individual by parentage, marriage or other tie of kinship
(b) honorific and occupational ones (categories that in practice overlap)
(c) locative ones, viz. those referring to present or former domicile
(d) characteristic ones, often called 'nicknames'
Τ (b) ̾̾̾ȤȤ館뤬Ѹˤ뤳̾ȤƤλѡ by-name ȤžѤ줿ܤƤ롥Ѹο̾¿뤬Clark (570--71) ȤĤġ츻ŪŪʬहȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ
1. եʤ뤤ϥƥ졩ˤμѸ (French loanword)
barber, butcher, carpenter, cordwainer/cordiner, draper, farrier, mason, mercer, tailor; fourbisseur, pestour
2. (native word)
A. ñ (simplex)
cok, herde, smith, webbe, wrighte
B. ʣǸ (complex)ʤʣ
a. ư١
bruere/breuster, heuere, hoppere/hoppestre; bokebynder, bowestrengere, cappmaker, lanternemaker, lymbrenner, medmowere, rentgaderer, sylkthrowster, waterladestre
b. ̾١
bureller, glovere, glasier, madrer, nailere, ropere, skinnere; burelman, candelwif, horseknave, maderman, plougrom, sylkewymman; couherde, swynherde, madermongere, stocfisshmongere, ripreve, bulleward, wodeward, wheelewrighte
Ѹο̾ᤰˤĤƤϡʲ hellog Ǥ夲ƤΤȡ
#590. last name ϤĤ̳Ūˤʤä ([2010-12-08-1])
#2365. ΥޥαѸ̾κѡ ([2015-10-18-1])
#5231. űѸο̾ˤϲȷϤɽ魯 (family name) Ϥʤäɡ ([2023-08-23-1])
#5297. űѸ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-28-1])
#5338. Ѹ˿̾ˤ⤿餵줿2ĤοȤλ ([2023-12-08-1])
#5346. Ѹ˱Ѹ̾Ƴ줿طʡ ([2023-12-16-1])
#5299. Ѹ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-30-1])
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. Olga Fischer. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 542--606.
ܥ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)Ǥϡ-er, -or, -ee ʤɤΡ~͡ʤΡˡפֹ̣̾ټ (agentive_suffix) ˤĤơȼ夲Ƥ
#214. -er -or ¤äȤΥҥȡ (heldio)
#215. ټ -ster (heldio)
#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])
#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1])
#1881. -ee εȯŸ (2) ([2014-06-21-1])
#3791. ټ -er, -ster ϥƥͳ褹롩 ([2019-09-13-1])
#4056. deme, demere, demande ([2020-06-04-1])
#4222. ټ -eer ([2020-11-17-1])
#4302. ټ -ar ([2021-02-05-1])
ޤǡ (suffix) ˤĤƿͤˡֹټ (agentive_suffix) ȸƤӡΤΥꤷƤBauer (285--86) εɤߡषּʼԡ (subject suffix) 餤Ѹ줬ȵŤԤϰ̣Ū̾դǡԤŪ̾դǤ롥
There is a class of nominalizations which is sometimes given the name 'agentive nominalization' in the literature . . . . This class is made up mainly of forms such as baker, examiner, killer, where the suffix -er is added to a verbal base. 'Agentive nominalization' is actually a misnomer because such forms do not always denote agents, in any normal sense of the term 'agent'. In words like curler, opener, synthesizer the derivative in -er denotes an instrument; in words like lover the derivative denotes an experiencer or patient. These various semantic effects, however, can be given a unitary explanation if it is said that the derivative is a lexeme which is a typical subject of the verb used in the base: a curler curls, an opener opens, a lover loves, and so on. A better name for this group of nominalizations, therefore, is subject nominalization, although this label will cover more than just -er suffixation.
ʵǤ롥ټ (agentive suffix) ȤѸ⤽ʤ夷ƤꡤˤϼΤƤȤ³ˤƤ⡤Bauer λŦռĤĻȤȤˤ褦
Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
ټˤĤƤϡ#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) ϤȤ agentive_suffix ΤĤεǼ夲Ƥ-ar ˤĤƤϤޤܤƤʤäΤǡε#4300. åݥ LAGAR ȯ䤵ޤ ([2021-02-03-1]) ȤϢơǿƤ
Ѹιټ -ar ϡ-or (< L -ōrem, -or) Ӥ褦ˡƥιټ -ārius, -āris ˤΤܤ롥-āris ϥƥǤϷƻǤ⤢ꡤ䤳𤬤롥
ƻȤƤ -āris ϡ#3940. ƻ -al -ar ([2020-02-09-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡΤ l ޤޤˡ۲ (dissimilation) Τ -ālis äѤ줿ΤǤ롥scholar ⤽Ȥʤ뤬ȤȤθϡ̾ sc(h)ola ʳعˤ -āris äΤǤꡤֳع°פۤɤΰդäηƻ줬ֳع°ԡפۤɤΰ̣̾첽Τscholar ȤƸޤäƤȤ櫓ͳΤʤο͡scholar ˤߤ -ar 餫ο͡Τɽ魯ȤƺƲᤷΤ
ѸǤ -er -or ټȤʻ¸ƤΤǡʤΤ -ar ⤽1ѼˤʤȤޤä褦顤¿ʤΤ beggar, burglar, liar, pedlar Τ褦˼ͳ˹ټ̾줬뤳ȤȤʤä̾ burglar ư burgle (back_formation) 줿ȤΤϱѸ˾褯Τ줿 -ar ټȤưռƤ뤫餳ǽȤʤäǤcf. #107. ܼѷ ([2009-08-12-1])ˡ
-ar ټ̾θ촴 l ޤޤƤΤ¿ȤϡҤΥƥΰ۲ʿŪǤ궽̣̣Ūˤ֤褫̹ԤʤԡפȤͥƥʴߤäƤΤ¿뤤ֻˤäƤߺѤʤ롥äȤ scholar, vicar, pillar ˤΤ褦ʴߤϤʤäȤƤˤˤʤȻפ뤬
ε#4300. åݥ LAGAR ȯ䤵ޤ ([2021-02-03-1]) ˤlagar ʤ̡lager ˤĤơ饬ʥӡˤϡ¤ˤƤǮݤ¢ǽӡؤǤϤʤֿץӡȤΤݥȤǤ롥
/ɡ/ ȯ鼨ȤꡤθαñǤϤʤɥĸ Lager(bier) μѸǤ롥OED ˤȡѸǤνФϡʣ lager beer ȤƤ1853ǯñΤ lager ȤƤ1855ǯȤʤäƤ롥
ɥĸ Lager ϡ¢פ̣롥ȸ츻Ū˴ϢΤϡѸǤ lair ʤͤ顤ˤǤ롥űѸǤ leġer ʿꡤ٥åɡˤη֤ʸڤ롥
Ǥ˵Ť⤷ʤθ캬ΰ̣ϡֿ롤ˤʤפǤ롥ѸǤ lie ʲˤ롥lie -- lay -- lain ȾƳФ¿롤μư lie Ǥ롥ʤߤˡб¾ưγѤ lay -- laid -- laid äcf. #3682. ư lie ¾ư lay Ʊ (1) ([2019-05-27-1])#3683. ư lie ¾ư lay Ʊ (2) ([2019-05-28-1])ˡ
Ȥ櫓ǡ츻Ūˤ lager beer Ϥޤˡ֤ͤǿƤӡפȤȤˤʤ롥
ĤǤˡư lie ˤϡֲפ¤ǡƱʤ̸츻ΡֱĤפ⤢롥ټĤȡԤ lier ʲ͡ˤǡԤ liar ʱĤˤȤʤΤlager *lagar δط˻ƤƤ⤷åݥ LAGAR ϡֱФפΥ饬ӡ롩
Υԥ졼ǡɸιټ (agentive_suffix) ˴ؿĸϥեͳΤΤۤȤɤǤꡤȿǤơȤ˶Ȥħߤ롥Ĥޤȯ /ˈɪə(r)/ Ȥʤ롥engineer, pioneer, volunteer ϤȤơauctioneer, electioneer, gazetteer, mountaineer, profiteer ʤɤ롥츻Ūˤ -ier ⤽ηȤ٤Ǥꡤcachier, cavalier, chevalier, cuirassier, financier, gondolier ʤɤ -eer Ʊħͭ롥ե餷ʤѸˤƤΥեηȯֻˤ夷ΤȤǶ̣cf. #594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħ ([2010-12-12-1])#1291. եѸμѻκ ([2012-11-08-1])ˡ
Jespersen (15.51; 243) ꡤ-eer, -ier ˴ؤѤ롥
15.51 Words in -eer, -ier (stressed) -[ˈɪə] are mostly originally F words in -ier (generally from L -arius). Most of the OF words in -ier were adopted in ME with -er, and the stress was shifted to the first syllable . . . , as also in a few in which the i was kept . . . .
A few words borrowed in ME times kept the final stress, and so did nearly all the later loans (many from the 16th and 17th c.). The established spelling of most of these, and of nearly all words coined on English soil, is -eer, as in auctioneer, cannoneer, charioteer (Keats 46), gazetteer, jargoneer (NED from 1913), mountaineer, muffineer, 'small castor for sprinkling salt or sugar on muffins' (NED 1806), muleteer [mjuˑliˈtiə], musketeer, pioneer, pistoleer (Carlyle Essays 251), routineer (Shaw D 54), and volunteer, but many of them preserved the F spelling, e.g. cavalier and chevalier, cuirassier, and finanicier.
The recent motorneer, is coined on the pattern of engineer.
Sh in some cases has initial-stressed -er-forms instead of -eer, e.g. ˈenginer, ˈmutiner (Cor I. 1.244), and ˈpioner.
β˽С-eer ϻ䤿褯Τټ -er ΰѤäȤƤȤ館Ƥ褵
-eer ˤϰ̣ŪŪܤ٤롥ޤ줿ټ̾ϡŪʰ̣ӤӤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¤롥crotcheteer, garreteer, pamphleteer, patrioteer, privateer, profiteer, pulpiteer, racketeer, sonneteer ʤɤǤ롥
⤦1Ĥϡټ̾줬Τޤưʻž (conversion) 㤬ߤ뤳Ȥelectioneer, engineer, pamphleteer, profiteer, pioneer, volunteer ʤɤǤ롥Ͼ嵭ηŪʸȤ̩ܤ˴طƤ뤫⤷ʤʤcommandeer ϡưȤƤѤʤȤ̯ -eer Ǥ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
رμȤǽѸƥ Sawles Warde ɤƤ롥3Ĥμܤ˳ǧ1200ǯΥƥȤǡMS. Bodley 34 Ȥ˹줿 Bennett and Smithers Ǥɤ߿ʤƤ뤬ܴӤΤ Tanabe and Scahill ǤΥѥ롦ǥ˻ȤƤ롥3ܤȤϰʲ̤ꡥ
B: Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley 34
R: London, British Library, Royal 17 A.xxvii
T: London, British Library, Cotton Titus D.xviii
ܴӤʤɤǤơȤƤⶽ̣˽вäΤǾҲ𤷤ƤֿȽԡפ̣۷ζǤ롥λʤΤˤѤƤʣιټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ζˤĤƲ鼨ͿƤܴ֤κۤǤ롥
B 73r14, R 2r17, T 106rb12
B sit on hest as deme . & beateð þeo þe aȝul/teð .
R sit on hest . as demere . & beateð þeoa-/gulteð.
T sit hon nest as de-/mande . Beateð þaagulteð /
Ƭ sit μϡ˼Ƥʤľ˽ФƤ (B) þe feorðe suster rihtwis/nesse (the fourth sister Riteousness) Ǥ롥ȽԤȤƹߤ˺¤äƤ櫓ΡֿȽԡפɽ魯줬 B Ǥ deme, R Ǥ demere, T Ǥ demande ȤʤäƤ롥촴 dēm- ˳ơ -e, -ere, -ande Ȥդ줿֤Ǥ롥űѸ줫Ѥ줿ټǤʸűѸϳơ -a, -ere, -end dēma, dēmere, dēmendˡ
1ܤθűѸιټ -a ϡѸǤϲŪ˼岽ŵŪ -e ֤롥䤬ƾüƤȤƤϥȤʤäƤޤʤˤϻĤʤä˴Ȥ٤Τ playwright, wheelwright ʤɤ wright (<OE wyrhta) Τʤ˻¸Ƥcf. #2117. playwright ([2015-02-12-1]))
2Ĥ -ere ϡѸǺǤŪʹټ -er ķǤꡤ¿פʤʤ#3791. ټ -er, -ster ϥƥͳ褹롩 ([2019-09-13-1]) εȡˡMED ʸȽǤ¤ꡤѸ˾äƤä嵭 deme ȤоŪˡdemere ¸ߴƤä褦
3Ĥ -end ϸʬͳ褹롥ʤ"the deeming (one)" ۤɤɽ路ΤȤƹټԤɽ魯̾Ȥʤ롥θѸǤŪޤä褦ǡˤѤʤä
Ѹ˾塤3Ĥθ¸Τϡ餯 Sawles Wardes 줿ޤû֤ȿ¬롥Ǥ˿ӤˤĤƤ deme demande ȡǤ˥㡼ȤʤäƤȤܤ demere ܴ֤Ƕ礷ƤȤΤϡճȤܤˤʤ쥢ʸʤäꤹΤ⤷ʤ
Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Tanabe, Harumi, and John Scahill, eds. Sawles Warde and the Wooing Group: Parallel Texts with Notes and Wordlists. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2015.
ɸ2Ĥιټ (agentive suffix) ˤĤơ줾#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#2188. spinster, youngster ʤɤˤߤ -ster ([2015-04-24-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
-er ϸűѸǤ -ere ȤƸ졤ޥˤƱ줬ǧ롥饲ޥĸ *-ārjaz, *-ǣrijaz ƷƤ뤬̤ȤȵȽȤʤDurkin (114) ˤСƥ -ārius, -ārium, -āria μѤȤΤȤʤΥƥӱѸ˷ƻ -ary ȤäƤƤꡤbudgetary, discretionary, parliamentary, unitary ʤɤˤߤˡ
ȤȽιټԤɽ魯űѸ -estre, -istre Ūʤ⤤ĤΥޥˤߤ졤ޥĸ *-strjōn ƷƤϤ뤬ϤꤽεǤ롥Durkin (114) ϡƥ -istria ͳ褹ΤǤϤʤȵäƤ롥
⤷ιټƥ줫Ѥ줿Ρʤ餯ΦΡǤȤСαѸˤˤơۤɹ⤤ȤˤʤäƥͳηǤϤʤä -er ˤĤƤϤǤ롥줬¤ʤС#3788. űѸΥƥѸΰճ ([2019-09-10-1]) ǽҤ٤ȤꡤǽΥƥǤΤŪʤ⤦ĤλȤʤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ؤαѸ˥ߤǤϡ̾ǥߥĴԤʤ֥롼פϤƤޤ5ĤΥ롼ơޤߤƤޤƸμóݤȤơĤλͻʸޤ˽äƤȻפäƤޤΤǡ߳ϤޤƤߥ˽ǤϤޤäʤΤǥ֥ǥץˤƤޤĴƤޤޤǡּóݤפΤνǤ鸦ƤƤäƤ
0.
ֻȯߺѤˤĤơ#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) #2407. margarine ȯ ([2015-11-29-1]) ǿƤƱߺѤδ顤adviser advisor κ۲ä McDavid ˤ뵭ߤĤΤǾҲ𤷤
adviser advisor ϡ#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) 㼨褦ˡۤʤټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ĥڥǤ롥̣ϡadviser ŪʽԤؤΤФơadvisor ä˥ꥫѸؤλƳؤξۤʤȤϤäƤ⡤ֻΤߤǤꡤȯˤƤ̾襤 /ədˈvaɪzɚ/ Ȥʤ롥ʲ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡMcDavid ͤȯɽ1942ǯȤʳǤϡadvisor Ф /ədˈvaɪzˌɔɚ/ Τ褦ȯʹ줿餷
McDavid ϡadvisor ֻȯȯãΤ褦ʬϤƤ롥ޤŪʰ̣Ǥ adviser Τߤ¸ߤƤȤˡؤˤֻƳפ̣ΤȤ <advisor> ʤֻ߽Ф줿ϡadjustor, auditor, chancellor, editor, mortgagor, sailor, settlor, tailor ʤɡ-or ĸ¿Ū俦Ȥɽ路Ƥˡ˾褸ƽκ۲߽ФȤ̤ޤadvisory supervisor Τ褦ֻؤäƤ⤷ʤΤ褦ֻζ̤߽Ф줿Ȥˡadvisor ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) θˤꡤǽ /ɔɚ/ ȯ褦ˤʤä
Ĥޤꡤadvisor Ϥޤ줿̣Ȥ̿ơֻˤƿ˺Ф졤ƺǸȯѷȤˤäơ adviser ΩǤȤΩȤȤˤʤ롥θϾҤ̤ adviser ƱȯؤȲƤäΤǤꡤߤǤ advisor ϻŪΩ (cf. #2432. Bolinger λŪǡ ([2015-12-24-1])) ȤƵǽƤȲ᤹٤
McDavid, Raven I., Jr. "Adviser and Advisor: Orthography and Semantic Differentiation." Studies in Linguistics 1 (1942).
ֻȯߺѤˤĤơ#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) #2407. margarine ȯ ([2015-11-29-1]) ǿƤƱߺѤδ顤adviser advisor κ۲ä McDavid ˤ뵭ߤĤΤǾҲ𤷤
adviser advisor ϡ#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) 㼨褦ˡۤʤټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ĥڥǤ롥̣ϡadviser ŪʽԤؤΤФơadvisor ä˥ꥫѸؤλƳؤξۤʤȤϤäƤ⡤ֻΤߤǤꡤȯˤƤ̾襤 /ədˈvaɪzɚ/ Ȥʤ롥ʲ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡMcDavid ͤȯɽ1942ǯȤʳǤϡadvisor Ф /ədˈvaɪzˌɔɚ/ Τ褦ȯʹ줿餷
McDavid ϡadvisor ֻȯȯãΤ褦ʬϤƤ롥ޤŪʰ̣Ǥ adviser Τߤ¸ߤƤȤˡؤˤֻƳפ̣ΤȤ <advisor> ʤֻ߽Ф줿ϡadjustor, auditor, chancellor, editor, mortgagor, sailor, settlor, tailor ʤɡ-or ĸ¿Ū俦Ȥɽ路Ƥˡ˾褸ƽκ۲߽ФȤ̤ޤadvisory supervisor Τ褦ֻؤäƤ⤷ʤΤ褦ֻζ̤߽Ф줿Ȥˡadvisor ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) θˤꡤǽ /ɔɚ/ ȯ褦ˤʤä
Ĥޤꡤadvisor Ϥޤ줿̣Ȥ̿ơֻˤƿ˺Ф졤ƺǸȯѷȤˤäơ adviser ΩǤȤΩȤȤˤʤ롥θϾҤ̤ adviser ƱȯؤȲƤäΤǤꡤߤǤ advisor ϻŪΩ (cf. #2432. Bolinger λŪǡ ([2015-12-24-1])) ȤƵǽƤȲ᤹٤
McDavid, Raven I., Jr. "Adviser and Advisor: Orthography and Semantic Differentiation." Studies in Linguistics 1 (1942).
ε#2431. դμΩ˴ؤ Bolinger ε ([2015-12-23-1]) ǡBolinger λŪ (visual morpheme) ȤѸФˤȡΰˤϡ𤷤ʤľŪɽ㤬ȤBolinger (335--38) ϸѸˡֻȤơĤμʬƻҲ𤷤Ƥ롥¾䤤ʤ⤷褦
(1) Ʊָ (homonyms) 㤨С"Sea is an ocean and si is a tone, as you can readily see." ȤͷӤ˸褦Ǥʸ̮ΥҥȤͿƤ뤬3줬ñΤȯж̤ĤʤˤƤ3ԤΤ˶̤롥äơܤ˸Ƕ̤ǤȸƤǤ褤⤷ȤǤϡ"The big clock tolled (told) the hour." "The danger is safely passed (past)." Τ褦ˡñФλȤʬۤȤɰ̣ΰ㤤˷ӤĤʤ褦⤢롥
(2) ֻΰ̣ȯã (semantic evolution of spellings) ŪˤƱñֻۤʤ餻뤳Ȥˤꡤ̣ǽ㴳㤨륱롥let us let'sgood and good ʤɤǤ롥gray grey ǤϡԤ She has lovely gray eyes. ʤɤΤ褦˹ŪѤ뷹ΤФơԤ It was a grey, gloomy day. ʤɤΤ褦ŪѤȤ롥check/cheque, controller/comptroller, compliment/complement ʤɤȤȤ館뤫⤷ʤʤHall (17) ϡ (2) μֻ "semantic representation" ȸƤǤꡤʸإȤƤ fantasy ȸۤȤƤ phantasy ΰ㤤䡤Ye Olde Gifte Shoppe ʤɤˤ;Ū final_e θ̤ܤƤ (cf. #13. ѹΥѥ֤ ye äƤ椷 ([2009-05-11-2])#1428. ye = the ([2013-03-25-1])) (1) (2) ΰ㤤ϡԤ homonymy ǡԤ polysemy бȹͤФ褤
(3) (constellations) ֻĸ췲˶̣ͭĤȤֻỌ̇̄ӤĤ褦ʾ롥㤨Сټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) -or ϡadjustor, auditor, chancellor, editor, mortgagor, sailor, settlor, tailor ʤɤ˼褦ˡ-er ٤ҿι⤵ްդ褦Ǥ (see #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])) ޤ -y -ie ǤϡԤΤۤؾ (diminutive) ȤƤʤ褦˴롥Τ褦ʻ㤫顤ˤ phonaesthesia νǤȤ "graphaesthesia" ʤѸäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
(4) Ūʳݻ (visual paronomasia) ŪϸȤơ˰Ƥ City Haul ǤȤտŪʸֻȤƸŤᤫ The Compleat Military Expert ʤɡֳ±ʣ <z> ([2011-07-05-1]) #825. "pronunciation spelling" ([2011-07-31-1]) ⻲ȡ
(5) ֻǤϤʤ (punctuation) ѤΤ⤢롥the dog's masters the dogs' masters ϸߤ˰ۤʤ̣ɽ魯the longest undiscovered vein the longest-undiscovered vein ۤʤ롥#1772. greengrocer's apostrophe ([2014-03-04-1]) ⡤μ˿
ʾ "visual morpheme" ϡˤΤͿƤ뵡ǽǤ롥
Bolinger. "Visual Morphemes." Language 22 (1946): 333--40.
Hall, Robert A., Jr. "A Theory of Graphemics." Acta Linguistica 8 (1960): 13--20.
ε#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1]) ³θѸˤƤμŪѲŪȯŸˤĤơIsozaki ˵ʤͤ롥
Isozaki ϡOED ۤλͻꡤѸ줫500Ķ -ee ơǯ塤졦̣μ̡촴θ츻ˤʬϤѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤĬή2ͤߤενǽҤ٤(1) ޥϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡ (2) standee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȡ2ĤǤ롥
(1) ˤĤƤϡOED ѤĴ̤ղȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Isozaki 7)

ե촴³뷹ӤƶȤ餫Ǥ롥촴³㤬긽ƤȤܤͤ롥ʤ19ȯθ20̣˸ΤϡOED θüϿħˤȤ礭⤷ʤ
(2) ˤĤƤƱ OED Ѥơʰ̣Ūʴʬष̤ϰʲ̤Ǥ (Isozaki 6) դΤʤǡDO ưľŪ졤IO ϴŪ졤PO ֻŪ졤S ϼ졤Anom. ưȤľܤ˴طʤ§ŪʤΤǤ롥

跿 DO פͥǤ³Ƥ뤳ȤǤꡤS פγĥäΩʤ褦ˤߤ롥OED Υơ1900--2005ǯμܤ仲ͿǤνиθȡDO 117㡤IO 23㡤PO 4㡤S 32㡤Anom. 18ȡS ʼ쥿סˤοĥ (Isozaki 6)
-ee ŪʻȤ¿졤Ѱΰ̲ʤǤ褦˻פ롥ϸŪĴɬפȤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤܼ (productivity) Ȥ⡤ƥʤĥäƤǤ롥
Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.
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