١#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1]) Ǽ夲ǵ10˿Ԥ櫓ǤϤʤCarney ɤǤʬäȤɲûब롥ޤ Carney ϢսѤ (42)
Empty letters are naturally a target for the spelling reformers, but one should not rush in with the scissors too hastily. A favourite target is final <-e>. The instances of <-e> at the end of copse, bottle, file, giraffe, are often referred to as 'silent' letters, but they are very different. The <-e> of copse marks the word as different from the plural cops. The word bottle cannot sensibly be spelt as *<bottl>, since syllabic consonants are always spelt with a vowel letter and a consonant letter, except for <sm> in sarcasm, prism. Similarly it might be thought that file could be spelt *<fil>. It would still be different from fill, as it is in filing, filling. However, some degree of redundancy is essential to human language and that justifies taking the unit of correspondence to be <i..e>/aɪ/. Even the <-e> at the end of giraffe has something to be said in its favour. It can be said to mark the unusual final stress of the noun as in the <-CCe> of brunette, cassette, corvette, largesse, bagatelle, gazelle.
bottle ˴ؤ⤬ˤȤäƤܿΤäñβ粻 l ˤĤơ粻ŪҲѤȤˤϡɬ <e> տ魯Ȥ㳰Ȥ <-sm> Ƥ뤬ʳϤɤ <e> ɬܤΤ褦
⤦1Ķ̣Τ giraffe θ <e> Ǥ롥brunette, cassette, corvette ʤɤ㤫狼̤ꡤ <-VCCe> ֻȤʤˤϡ<V> ޤ˶롥ϡ<e> ǤȤ <CCe> ΤǼȤ٤Τΰ˻ͿƤȤǡ <e> 1ĤȲ᤹뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥
ۤˤ eye θ <e> Τ褦ˡ3ʸ§ (three-letter_rule) 뤿Υߡ <e> ⡤1ĤȤƥꥹȤ˲äƤ褤
ͤ³Ƥȡ<e> ϤäȵäƤܵƱݤǡ330 heldio ˤ#1765. Ѹֻˤ <e> ۿƤΤǡ⤪İС
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
#4384. goodbye ȡ֤褦ʤס ([2021-04-28-1]) ǡɽ goodbye θ츻夲ĤޤߤɽǤ뤳Ȥߤֻδϡʤ e դƤΤˤʤ롥
Carney (153) Ǥϡe 켫ΤȤ ye ȤȤ߹碌ܤĤġΤ褦ʲ⤬ä
Final <-ye> occurs irregularly in a few §Basic words. Dye, lye ('soda'), rye, compared with sky, dry, wry, etc. are bulked up with <e> to three letters (the 'short word rule', p. 131). Similarly lexical bye is differentiated from the function word by. Dye and lye are differentiated from the much more common die and lie in present-day spelling, but in earlier centuries there was some free variation between the <ie> and <ye> spellings.
Carney θˤȡbye θ e ղäϡѸˡˤ#2235. 3ʸ§ ([2015-06-10-1]) ȤƸϺ3ʸ֤ʤФʤʤȤ롼ɽˤ bye ñȤǤθ츻̣ǤȤ⡤good ȤƻθƤǤˤ̾餷ʤƸ餷Ʊ۵ by ֻǤꡤǽǤ롥κФˤ⡤ԤˤĤ3ʸ§ʤˤ⡤Ԥ˥ߡ e դΤŬڤʲȤʤ롥
뤤ϡΰɽθȤ God be with you/ye. ye ˴ bye ˱ƤĤޤƤߤǤΤϼͳdzڤǤ͡
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.

10ϤޤޤؤοشⳫϤޤΤǡơhel (helkatsu) ФƤȻפޤ9ܤˤϡμͭӥ Mond ˤ10αѸ˴ؤ˲ƤޤϡѸˤ˴ؤѤʵ (sobokunagimon) ˤȤɤޤ餺ʳ̤ʤɤޤΤ̤äƥĥꡤդޤ
(1) ʤѸˤϥݥƥ֤ʷƻ¿Τ˥ͥƥʷƻ줬ʤΡ
Ѹˤϥݥƥʷƻͥƥʷƻ˭٤ˤޤŪθҲŪװˤꡤŪʱѸؽǤϥݥƥʷƻ˿뵡¿ʤ뷹ꤽǤºݤθѡä˥ɽǤϡͥƥʷƻ¿¸ߤޤ
(2) ̾ȷƻδطˤĤơGermany German Τ褦˸ʪޤ
̱̾²̾̾ʤɤδطʣǡɤ餬ΤǤɤ餬줫ϾˤäưۤʤޤŪѲ伫Ρ¾Τΰ㤤ʤɤƶŪʷŦΤϺǤ
(3) ߴλ I have been to б븽߷ *I am to ʤΤϤʤ
have been to 18о줷Ūɽǡб븽߷ϸ¸ߤޤǤbe ưξֻ to ưפͳΰĤǤָߴλΤʸˡ̤ȯŸƤޤ
(4) ɤޤʤƬʳ h ˤĤƤθˤϡ
桦 h Ū2Ż2ǤȤƤh䡤<wh> бȯѸˤ /h/ ʬ۳ʤɡ͡ʴ鸦椬ʤƤޤh ꤵѸȯֻȯŸ˴ͿƤܤǤ
(5) ˤֽħѲˤĤ
ˤäƸǤֽͭηꡤϸ硤ֹ¤¤ʤ͡¦̤˸ޤħŪʤΤǤϤʤŪѲ뤳Ȥ⤢ޤ㤨бѸ䥲ޥδܸ SOV SVO ؤĹ֤ѲƤޤ
(6) ʤ come some ˤ "magic e" Υ롼뤬ŬѤʤΡ
comesome ʤɤñϡ"magic e" Υ롼Ȥ̵طˤǤޤñֻϡ餷ɤߤ䤹뤿ˡޤ줿ΤǤѸֻˤ¿Υ롼뤬¸ߤ"magic e" ϤΤ1Ĥ˲ޤ
(7) Let's ˤߤ us s ξάϤ롩ޤ̣Ѳͳϡ
us ξάȤƤ -'s ȤƤϡshall's shall us ޤäΡˤޤlet's ϷŪˤ us μ岽ޤޤǽŪˤϡֵĤΰפִͶפؤȯŸˡ֤ʤ¥ǽޤϸμѲּѲȤޤ
(8) ѸˤܸΡ~פΤ褦1;ΤܤɽϤ롩
Ѹˤ⸬ɽϤޤܸۤηŪǤϤޤ㤨 in my humble opinion my modest prediction ʤɤɽ¾εĤɽԤؼ the present author ʤɤɽޤθ䴷ɽˤȤɤޤꡤܸΤ褦ηŪԶɽƥ¸ߤޤ
(9) Ѹ˸Ԥܻؤ4ǯ
´ȸ˼ҲиѤǤر˿ʳؤ륭ꥢѥޤ鸽Ǥηиϸ˥ˡʻ⤿餹ǽޤԤˤʤ뤫ɤ¤¿οͤΤǤǤפʤΤϻ³ؿõ濴ʤǮǤ䥻ߥʡؤλä³ؤӤΥ١ݤäƤ
(10) Ѹο;̾ˤ̶ʬͳȿ̾βǽϡ
1;Ρ2;̾ϲäθ̤ȽǤǤ뤿ᶦŪǤ3;ñ̾ϲäθˤʤͤؤᡤŪ̾դƤǤǤ¿ؤǧ顤3;ñ̾줬ƤƤޤƤΤ singular they ǤܤǤ
ʾǤ10 Mond ꡤѸʻˡˤ˴ؤѤʵ
ϡδñѸ in English٤12ȯǤϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפ21Ǥϡ֥֡ޥå eפäƲפȤ夲Ƥޤ

ֻ mate mat ϸ <e> 뤫ʤΰ㤤ǤȯϤ줾 /meɪt/, /mæt/ 첻礭ۤʤޤ첻ۤʤΤǤСֻǤ <a> ʬ˺ۤƤ٤Ǥºݤˤ <a> ʬѤ餺ष <e> ̵ͭݥȤȤʤäƤ櫓Ǥ⡤ <e> 켫Τ̵Ȥ㥯֤ΥƥǤ¿αѸؽԤؤӻϤκ˰٤ϤʤȴȤΤʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦
츫ȥ㥯Τ褦Ǥ¿ޤPete/pet, bite/bit, note/not, cute/cut ʤɤ첻ӤƤߤƤˤϲ餫λȤߤꤽǤͤƤߤȡ <e> ̵ͭ塼ȤʤꡤԤ첻βޤȤȤߤˤʤäƤޤˡΤ褦ʡֱפԤʤƤ櫓ǡ magic e θƾΤޤޤ
ϢܵǤϡʤ magic e ȤŪʻȤߤ¸ߤΤˤƤλȤߤˤβޤƤΤפ⤷ޤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӼ夲ƤǤϤޤϢܵǤϸ¤ʤץƤޤһ˼äƤߤƤ
Ϣưʲ hellog ȡ
#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1])
#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1])
#1827. magic <e> Ȥ̵ط <-ve> ([2014-04-28-1])
#1344. final -e ˡ ([2012-12-31-1])
#2377. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (1) ([2015-10-30-1])
#2378. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (2) ([2015-10-31-1])
#3954. 첻Ĺûʬ褦ȤѸο ([2020-02-23-1])
#4883. magic e ȤƾΡ ([2022-09-09-1])
take, meme, fine, pope, cute ʤɤθ -e ϡ켫ΤȯʤԤ첻ĹפɤޤޤȤƵǽ롥Τ褦ˡ e magic e ʥޥå eˤȸƤФ롥ˡΤ褦¾첻ȯƤޤѸ춵顦ؽѸȤƤ褯ΤƤ롥
magic e Ưˤξܺ٤ hellog ʲεȤ줿
#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1])
#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1])
#1827. magic <e> Ȥ̵ط <-ve> ([2014-04-28-1])
#1344. final -e ˡ ([2012-12-31-1])
#2377. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (1) ([2015-10-30-1])
#2378. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (2) ([2015-10-31-1])
#3954. 첻Ĺûʬ褦ȤѸο ([2020-02-23-1])
magic e ȤƾΤΤΤ˾ƤOED magic, adj. (and int.) ΤȤɤ߸ФΩƤƤ롥
magic e n. (also with capital initials) (chiefly in primary school literacy teaching) a silent e at the end of a word or morpheme following a consonant, which lengthens the preceding vowel and consequently appears to transform its sound; as the e in hope, lute, casework, etc.
Cf. silent adj. 3c.
1918 Primary Educ. Mar. 183/2 Let us see how the a will sound after magic e is fastened on mat. (Write mate on board. Pronounce.) You see what trick he did. He changed short a into long a.
2005 L. Wendon & L. Holt Letterland: Adv. Teacher's Guide (2009) ii. 58 It was recommended that children play-act the Magic e's function in tap and tape.
Ф100ǯۤζػȤʤäƤ롥1918ˤ̤ʤŪɽǤϤʤͽۤƤä褦
嵭 Cf. ȤƵƤ silent, adj. and n. ȤƤߤȡ3c ι "silent e" ˴ؤ뵭Ҥä
c. Of a letter: written but not pronounced. Cf. mute adj. 4b, magic e n. at magic adj. Compounds.
Sometimes designating a letter whose absence would have no impact on the pronunciation of the word, as b in doubt, and sometimes designating a letter that has a diacritic function, as final e indicating the length of the vowel of a preceding syllable, as in mute or fate.
1582 R. Mulcaster 1st Pt. Elementarie xvii. 113 Som vse the same silent e, after r, in the end, as lettre, cedre, childre, and such, where methink it were better to be the flat e, before r, as letter, ceder, childer.
1775 J. Walker Dict. Eng. Lang. sig. 4Ov Persuade, whose final E is silent, and serves only to lengthen the sound of the A in the last syllable.
1881 E. B. Tylor Anthropol. vii. 179 The now silent letters are relics of sounds which used to be really heard in Anglo-Saxon.
2017 Hispania 100 286 The letter 'h' is silent in Spanish and is often omitted by those who are not familiar with the spelling of a word.
magic e "silent e" ƱͤǤϤʤԤϸԤüǤ롥ΰѤ Mulcaster ν magic e ΤȤҤ٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤդɬפǤ롥2ܤ Walker ϡΤ magic e ΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥
mute, adj. and n.3 4b ιƤߤ "mute e" ȤƤ⤢ʬ롥 "silent e" ƱͤǤ롥θƾΤνϼ̤ǡǤϼ¼Ū magic e ΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥
1840 Proc. Philol. Soc. 3 6 It gradually was established..that when a mute e followed a single consonant the preceding vowel was a long one.
Ѹ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ϡ12--13ˤȤפ첻Ѳ1ĤǤ롥ŵŪ2ˤơû첻ǽ볫Τû첻Ĺ첻ѲǤ롥#2048. ƱﲻĹĹIJû ([2014-12-05-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡnama nāma, beran bēran, ofer ōfer ʤɤ㤬ŵǤ롥
βѲʹԤƤѸǤθȸѸǤθ¤٤뤳ȤǡŪʻǧƤʲRitt (12) ꡥ
| EME | ModE |
| labor | labour |
| basin | basin |
| barin | bare |
| whal | whale |
| waven | wave |
| waden | wade |
| tale | tale |
| starin | stare |
| stapel | staple |
| stede | steed |
| bleren | blear |
| repen | reap |
| lesen | lease |
| efen | even |
| drepen | drepe |
| derien | dere |
| dene | dean |
| -stoc | stoke (X-) |
| sole | sole |
| mote | mote (of dust) |
| mote | moat |
| hopien | hope |
| cloke | cloak |
| smoke | smoke |
| broke | broke |
| ofer | over |
| EME | ModE |
| adlen | addle |
| aler | alder |
| alum | alum |
| anet | anet |
| anis | anise |
| aspen | aspen |
| azür | azure |
| baron | baron |
| barrat | barrat |
| baril | barrel |
| bet(e)r(e) | better |
| besant | bezant |
| brevet | brevet |
| celer | cellar |
| devor | endeavour |
| desert | desert |
| ether | edder |
| edisch | eddish |
| feþer | feather |
| felon | felon |
| bodig | body |
| bonnet | bonnet |
| boþem | bottom |
| broþel | brothel |
| closet | closet |
| koker | cocker |
| cokel | cockle |
| cofin | coffin |
| colar | collar |
| colop | collop |
ѸŪ첻ĹûɽʬΤǤ롥ȤطʤˤĤƤϡʲεʤɤƤ
#1826. 첻ĹûľܼȤǤʤ ([2014-04-27-1])
#2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1])
#2887. Ϣ3֤ʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤס ([2017-03-23-1])
#2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1])
#2075. 첻첻Ĺû ([2015-01-01-1])
첻Ĺûʬ褦Ȥưʤä櫓ǤϤʤޤǽʬäȤǡʬˡϺƤΤ˸űѸǤϤΤ褦ʻߤϤۤܤʤʤäѸˤʤȤĤοƳ졤ʤˤϸޤǼѤ줿Τ⤢롥Minkova (189--90) ꡤΤ褦ʿ5褦
(1) ³λҲŤͤû첻ɽ魯
Ormulum ǺѤ줿ˡfollc (folk), þiss (this), þennkenn (think) ʤɤȤ롥Ĺ첻ˤϡӤƤ櫓ǤϤʤfó (for), tīme (time) Τ褦˥ȵդˡΤ뤳ȤääȤ⡤ο Ormulum ʳǤϤߤ줺ޤǸΩñȯλߤǤcf. #2712. ѸθŪ֤ꤿ ([2016-09-29-1])ˡ
(2) 첻ŤͤĹ첻ɽ魯
aa (aye), see (sea), stoone (stone(s)), ook (oak) ʤɡʬ䤹ˡȤʬŪˤϸޤ³Ƥ롥Ϣơ#3037. <ee>, <oo> ϤΤ <aa>, <ii>, <uu> ϤʤΤϤʤ ([2017-08-20-1]) ȡ
(3) Ҳθ <e> äơ첻ĹȤɽ魯
"magic <e>" ȾΤĹ첻ɽwife, stone, hole ʤɡѸ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ̩ܤ˴ϢɽοǤ롥ܳŪ˵§Τ16ΤȤθѸΩƤ뤳Ȥաcf. #2377. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (1) ([2015-10-30-1])#2378. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (2) ([2015-10-31-1])ˡ
(4) ۤʤ첻2Ȥ߹碌2Ż (digraph) Ĺ첻ɽ魯
<ie> [eː], <eo> [eː] ʤɡΤ褦2ŻϸűѸˤ⤢ä첻Ĺûɽ魯˻ȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäѸǤ2ŻĹ첻ɽ魯ΤѤ줿ǡȤ롥Ѹ beat, boat, bound ʤɤȡ
(5) 첻 <i/y> źĹ첻ɽ魯
䥹åȥʬۤФ뤬baith/bayth (both), laith/layth (poath), stain/stayn (stone), keip (keep), heid (head), weill (well), bluid (blood), buik (book), guid (good), puir (poor) ʤɤȤĹ첻ɽ路
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ε#3879. ե٥åʸηϤΡ11θס ([2019-12-10-1]) ˰³ե٥åʸηϡʤ뤤ϲʸηϡˤˤˡο¬뤿2Ĥμ礿ɸΤ⤦1ĤΡθ (linearity principle) Ҳ𤷤褦ʲCook (13) ˰͵롥
θϡʸ¤Ӥϲ¤ӤȰפƤʤФʤʤפȤΤǤ롥Ȥ mat Ȥñ /m/, /æ/, /t/ 3Ǥν¤ȯΤ顤бֻ⡤ơβǤбʸ <m>, <a>, <t> Ʊ¤ <mat> ǤʤФʤʤȤΤ<amt> <tam> ʤɤǤϥȤȤǤ롥
ޤǤʤΤȤǡˤХХʹ븶ʤΤ¤ϤۤɥХХʤȤ name, take ʤɤ˸ magic <e> ͤƤߤ褦Τ褦 <e> ϡβ˸ʶŪˤϤǤ2ʸʬΡ첻û /æ/ ǤϤʤĹ /eɪ/ ȯ뤳ȤȤǤ롥̤θС<e> ϸΤۤΤۤȯλؼФԤʤäƤΤǤ롥̾ξήФƵչŪǤꡤıŪǤ⤢뤫顤θæ롥"Fairy e waves its magic wand and makes the vowel before it say its name." ȤȤꡤmagic <e> ϼǤϤʤˡʤΤ
ۤ ?5 ɽȤϵս "five pounds" ɤޤ뤳Ȥ狼褦ˡθȿƤ롥1, 10, 100, 1000 ȤˤƤ⡤<1> αˤ <0> ³ˤäɤޤȤǡƱæ롥ޤŪ̵ w 2Ż <wh> ֤뽬ѸΩƤ뤬ष2ʸս֤äűѸֻ <hw> ΤۤŪˤϤΤȤ⤤ΤǡֻŪǤȵ롥
ϤƤ⡤Devanagari ʸǤϡҲθ³첻ʸϻҲ֤봷Ȥ /bɪt/ <ibt> ֤뤫ǡǤ롥θפɬХХۤΤȤǤϤʤ褦
ǿ줿 magic <e> ˤĤƤϡ#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1])#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1])#1344. final -e ˡ ([2012-12-31-1])#2377. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (1) ([2015-10-30-1])#2378. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (2) ([2015-10-31-1]) ȡ
Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.
17Ⱦαʸؤε John Dryden (1631--1700) 3ۤ Chaucer αΧǤƤʤäȤϡ褯ΤƤ롥Ѹ줫ѸˤƤΤλˤϡ"final e" ɽ˸̵첻˾üֶޤοʿפȸƤФѸ˾ΰѲ뤵줿ѲθλƤ Dryden ϡѲΤˤС꤫Ƥ˻ Chaucer β䱤Χ뤳ȤǤʤäΤǤ롥Dryden ϡChaucer λ˸ final e 17αѸ줵ʤ¸ߤʤΤƤ̤ȤơChaucer αΧ Dryden ζ˿뤳ȤϤʤä
嵭ΤȤϡDryden Ȥ Chaucer ɾ狼롥Cable (25) ͳǡDryden (Essays II: 258--59) ɾѤ褦
The verse of Chaucer, I confess, is not harmonious to us . . . there is the rude sweetness of a Scotch tune in it, which is natural and pleasing, though not perfect. It is true, I cannot go so far as he who published the last edition of him; for he would make us believe the fault is in our ears, and that there were really ten syllables in a verse where we find but nine. But this opinion is not worth confuting; it is so gross and obvious an errour, that common sense (which is rare in everything but matters of faith and revelation) must convince the reader, that equality of numbers in every verse which we call heroic, was either not known, or not always practiced in Chaucer's age.
Dryden Ƥ褦ʸϡθ2ۤɤʸؤοŸˤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤΡfinal -e ȤŪˤϾǤѸˤˤƤʸػˤˤƤ⡤礭¸ߤǤäΤ빥
Cable, Thomas. "Restoring Rhythm." Chapter 3 of Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Introduction. Ed. Mary Heyes and Allison Burkette. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 21--28.
Dryden, John. Essays. Ed. W. P. Ker. Oxford: Clarendon, 1926.
ɸ2Ĥιٸֻˤϡ˰츫פȻפ e դƤ롥ʤ e ΤȤȡʤʤǤ롥ŪˤⶦŪˤ <o> ɽ路Ƥ첻û첻Ǥꡤ"magic <e>" νФϤʤäϤcf. #1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1])ˡ
Ȥ one, none, done 줽#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŪĹ첻äƤȤ㤤롥θ <e> ϡĹ첻ȿǤ magic <e> Ǥ뤳ȤǤ뤬come, some Ϥ⤤ʤޤؤäƤΤ <-me> ǤΤǡ#1827. magic <e> Ȥ̵ط <-ve> ([2014-04-28-1]) Ǥߤ <-ve> Ȥ𤬰ۤʤ롥
̡ <e> ϤƤ<o> = /ʌ/ ʬܤСϡ#2450. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤѡ ([2016-01-11-1]) #2453. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤ (2) ([2016-01-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ˭٤٤ŪǽǤ롥 "minim avoidance" Carney (148) ˤ⡤<o> = /ʌ/ ˴ؤƼΤ褦ʵҤ롥
The use of <o> spellings [for /ʌ/] seems to be dictated by minim avoidance, at least Romance words (Scragg 1974: 44). Certainly, TF [= text frequency] 90 per cent, LF [= lexical frequency] 76 per cent of /ʌ/ <o> spellings occur before <v>, <m> or <n>. Typical <om> and <on> spellings are:
become, come, comfort, company, compass, somersault, etc.; conjure, front, frontier, ironmonger, Monday, money, mongrel, monk, monkey, month, son, sponge, ton, tongue, wonder, etc.
On the other hand there are equally common words with <u> spellings before <m> and <n>:
drum, jump, lumber, mumble, mumps, munch, mundane, number, pump, slum, sum, thump, trumpet, etc.; fun, fund, gun, hundred, hunt, lunch, punch, run, sun, etc.
There are also a few <o> spellings where adjacent letters do not have minim strokes: brother, colour, colander, thorough, borough, other, dozen. In the absence of context-based rules, such spelling can only be taught by sample lists . . . .
<e> Ϥޤ褵ʤޤޤǤ롥
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
Ѹˤ礭Ĭή1Ĥˡɸθݤ롥ĬήϡޥĸΤ鸽ѸˤĹ³Ƥ뷹Ǥꡤdrift ήˤȤƾΤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Ȥ櫓ʹԤΤϸűѸ줫ѸˤƤλǤ롥Baugh and Cable (154--55) βüŪƤս
Decay of Inflectional Endings. The changes in English grammar may be described as a general reduction of inflections. Endings of the noun and adjective marking distinctions of number and case and often of gender were so altered in pronunciation as to lose their distinctive form and hence their usefulness. To some extent, the same thing is true of the verb. This leveling of inflectional endings was due partly to phonetic changes, partly to the operation of analogy. The phonetic changes were simple but far-reaching. The earliest seems to have been the change of final -m to -n wherever it occurred---that is, in the dative plural of nouns and adjectives and in the dative singular (masculine and neuter) of adjectives when inflected according to the strong declension. Thus mūðum (to the mouths) > mūðun, gōdum > gōdun. This -n, along with the -n of the other inflectional endings, was then dropped (*mūðu, *gōdu). At the same time, the vowels a, o, u, e in inflectional endings were obscured to a sound, the so-called "indeterminate vowel," which came to be written e (less often i, y, u, depending on place and date). As a result, a number of originally distinct endings such as -a, -u, -e, -an, -um were reduced generally to a uniform -e, and such grammatical distinctions as they formerly expressed were no longer conveyed. Traces of these changes have been found in Old English manuscripts as early as the tenth century. By the end of the twelfth century they seem to have been generally carried out. The leveling is somewhat obscured in the written language by the tendency of scribes to preserve the traditional spelling, and in some places the final n was retained even in the spoken language, especially as a sign of the plural.
ѸʸˡηϤ¿ʱƶͿǤꡤαѸ˾ȵڸ̤ȥ꤬ʤۤɤָ캬פȯʡ#655. ޤο캬ξ ([2011-02-11-1])ˡ礫ʬϤؤĬή (synthesis_to_analysis)ƻޤξü (ilame) -e (final_e) ʤɡѸ˾¿طʤˡֶοפؤäƤ롥θݤθ̤ǫСDZѸ̻ˤٵҤȤˤʤΤǤϤʤȤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Ѹˤơ-ly ʤΤñ flat_adverb ȷƻζ̤֡졦̣ΤˤƤ⡤ĤˤˤĤơ#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1])#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1])#1354. ƻܿ ([2013-01-10-1]) εʤɤǼ夲üŪˤСThe sun shines bright. Ȥʸˤơbright ʤΤηƻʤΤȤǤ롥
¤ϡѸɤݤˤƱ꤬롥ϡѸˤƻζ -e ξüˤĤƸ椷ƤȡäǺޤܤƤ줬ǤϤʤƻǤ뤳ȤǧǽƸ -e ˤĤ櫓ŪˤϤƱȤʤäƸʬĤʤ̣δŪȽǤʤȤ롥ȡäФ路ˤ⤫餺㤯㤯֤ʻ줫פȤ٥ŽäƤꤹȤˤʤΤ
Chaucer ηƻޤ椷Ƥ Burnley ʸɤǡǺߤ1ͤΤΤǤʤȤΤꡤȤBurnley (172) ⡤ޤäƱͤäƤ롥
Chaucer's grammar requires that adverbs be marked either by -ly or final -e, so that in some contexts this latter type may be indistinguishable from adjectives. In my analysis I have taken both the following to be adverbs, but there is room for disagreement on this point, and these are not the only cases of their kind:
That Phebus which that shoon so cleer and brighte (3.11)
In motlee, and hye on hors he sat. (1.273)
This uncertain boundary between adverbs and adjectives is inevitably responsible for some uncertainty in statistics, but it must be accepted as a feature of the structure of Chaucer's language and not a weakness of analysis. In the following, for example, the form of the word hye suggests an adverbial, but the sense and syntax both imply an adjectival use:
He pleyeth Herodes vpon a scaffold hye (1.3378)
It is probable, however, that this usage is actually adverbial. The adjectival form in the next example also seems to occur in a syntax which requires that it be understood adverbially:
Yclothed was she fressh for to deuyse. (1.1050)
ʸǤŪʰ֤ŪͳʤᡤȽǤ뤿θʤ龯ʤʤ롥षξŪѤ뤳ȼΤܻؤƤΤǤϤʤȴꤿʤۤɤˤϡѸˤĤʤξʻ֤롥
Burnley, J. D. "Inflection in Chaucer's Adjectives." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 83 (1982): 169--77.
2֡#2434. ƻѲޤ -e ѸޤǻĤäͳ ([2015-12-26-1]) ȡ#2435. eurhythmy 뤤 "buffer hypothesis" ŬѲǽ ([2015-12-27-1]) εǡInflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English (ilame) ˤĤƹͻ#2434εˤΤϡ¤ϷƻΡñפμѲޤȤ -e ΤȤǤäơƱ褦 -e ٤ޤǤ褯ݤƤƻΡʣפζޤˤĤƤϿƤʤä#532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1]) ˵ɽʬ褦ˡʣˤƤϡѲȶѲζ̤ʤ§ȤƤĶˤơñƻ -e äΤǤ롥#2435εǰä "eurhythmy" "buffer hypothesis" ϡƻѤĶκۤȤäʣξˤϾ嵭Τ褦ĶȤʤΤǡʤʣޤ -e 褯ݻ줿ΤˤĤƤϡ̤ȤưʤФʤʤ
ФơŪˤϡñʣ̤ (number) Ȥʸˡ (category) ѸθηϤˤƤ褯ݼ餵ƤǤ롤Ƥ̾̾ˤƤϡĸ줫űѸФƸѸ˻ޤǰӤƿζ̤ݤƤưΰ (concord) ˤƤ⡤ȤƤϾ˴ͿŪǤ³ƤƻǤϡŪ˶ѸʹߡɸʤʤäȤϻ¤Ѹη㤷οʿȾüĬήΤʤӡѸޤʣ -e 褯ݤäƤȤȤϡѸθηϤˤƿȤƤ夷ƤȤΤǡϰʲ Minkova (329) θƱդ롥
My analysis assumes that the status of the final -e as a grammatical marker is stable in the plural. Yet in maintaining the syntactically based strong-weak distinction in the singular, it is no longer independently viable. As a plural signal it is still salient, possibly because of the morphological stability of the category of number in all nouns, so that there is phrase-internal number concord within the adjectival NPs. Another argument supporting the survival of plural -e comes from the continuing number agreement between subject NPs and the predicate, in other words the singular-plural opposition continues to be realized across the system.
ǤϡʤѸǤϿȤʸˡƤޤǺĤȤʤƸߤǤĤäƤˤΤϸˤʸˡƤΰŪǤꡤˤȤ٤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤεϡ "Syntactic Agreement" ꤹ6.6 (141--44) ǿƤΤǻȤ줿
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." Papers from the 5th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Cambridge, 6--9 April 1987. Ed. Sylvia Adamson, Vivien Law, Nigel Vincent, and Susan Wright. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990. 313--36.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
ѸˤǤϡ̾졤ư졤ƻΤ褦ʼ礿ʻˤơ -e ؿʿˤüƤäȤаޤ롥-e ξü®٤ (cf speed_of_change, schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤƤϡʻ֤Ǻä̾ưζˤƤϾüŪᤫäƻˤüϤä٤Chaucer ɽѸǤ⽽ʬݤƤ (Minkova 312) ϡʤƻѲޤ -e ٤ޤǾüΤˤĤƹͤ
Minkova ηꤷƤСäñηƻμѲޤˤ -e ϡݻ䤹ΧưŤäȤȤǤ롥㤨Сthe goode man Τ褦ʡ괧ܷƻ̾פȤ칽¤ˤƤϡñƻ˶ -e դȤˤäơ嶯嶯ιΧ (eurhythmy) ݤ䤹Ĥޤꡤ֤ȱΧפˡŪ -e ŪפȤ줿Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
դ٤2Ĥ롥1ĤϡűѸѸŪᤵƤ -e eurhythmy ݤĤ٤üȤ줿ȤΤǤꡤ-e eurhythmy 餿˳٤ŪˤʤĶ줿櫓ǤϤʤȤȤeurhythmy θ̤ϡѶŪȤöŪʸ̤ȤȤˤʤ롥
2ܤˡ-e ݻȤ eurhythmy θ̤Ĺ³15--16ʹߤˤϷ̤ȤƸüζϤĬή˶ʤäȤ¤롥λ¤ϡeurhythmy Ф뵿ǰ뤫⤷ʤeurhythmy θ̤켫ΤˤäϤꤷȤϡʬˤ뤳Ȥeurhythmy ϡŪ˱ѸȤηϤ˹夯ѤƤװǤǧƤ褤ηǺѤƤ¾νװȤδطˤŪ˵ǽƤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥äơ15--16˷ƻޤ -e ṳ̈Ȥ "dysrhythmy" ȤƤ⡤ eurhythmy ưŤ¾νװκϤäΤȹͤФ褯λ˴ؤ eurhythmy ⼫ΤѤɬפϤʤMinkova (322--23) ϡƻ -e ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . the claim laid on rules of eurhythmy in English can be weakened and ultimately overruled by other factors such as the expansion of segmental phonological rules of final schwa deletion, a process which depends on and is augmented by the weak metrical position of the deletable syllable. The 15th century reversal of the strength of the eurhythmy rules relative to other rules is not surprising. Extremely powerful morphological analogy within the adjectives, analogy with the demorphologization of the -e in the other word classes, as well as sweeping changes in the syntactic structure of the language led to what may appear to be a tendency to 'dysrhythmy' in the prosodic organization of some adjectival phrases in Modern English. . . . The entire history of schwa is, indeed, the result of a complex interaction of factors, and this is only an instance of the varying force of application of these factors.
ѸˤˤƻˤĤƤϡ#532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])#688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1]) ۤilame (= Inflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English) γƵȡ
ʤ伫Ȥ⤳ˤĤʸ2ܤۤɽƤޤ[1] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Levelling of Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science 73 (2012): 255--73. [2] Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Decreasing Relevance of Number, Case, and Definiteness to Adjectival Inflection in Early Middle English: A Diachronic and Dialectal Study with the LAEME Corpus."إ硼įơ٥硼20ǯǰʸԡˡǡ2014ǯ273--99ǡˡ
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." ''Papers from the 5th International
ε#2424. digraph (2) ([2015-12-16-1]) ǤϡŻ (digraph) 뤤ʣʸ (compound grapheme) ȤƤ <th> ȤƼ夲2ʸ <h> ȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1]) ȤѤƤȤҲ𤷤ޤŪˡܸեΥ夲ξǡ䥢ޤǸɤŪǤΤФơѸ <h> Ϥ켫ΤñʸǤȤƤѤȤۤŦ줫ˡȤƤ櫓ǤƤ櫓Ǥʤˤäơ褦ȯ̵ǽ̤٤ۤʤʤѰդƤΤȤȤĥäǤ롥
ˤĤʤƹͤƤߤû첻 /e/ Ĺ첻 /eː/ ̤ˡɤΤ褦ˡ뤫˼ޤ⤽ζ̤ʤȤ褬롥ƥû첻 edo (I eat) Ĺ첻 edo (I give out) Ǥ롥ƥʤɤǤϡؼԤȽ䤹褦Ԥ edōԤ ēdō ɽ뤳ȤϤ뤬¤θŵƥƥȤˤƤϤΤ褦Ĺ (macron) ϸʤ첻ĹûƤñǤ뤫ϡʸ̮ȽǤΤƥήäƱͤˡܸΡֱסʤˤȡֱʼסʤؤˤˤֱҡפˤƤ⡤첻ĹûŪ˼Ƥʤ
ˡȯѤơĹǤ뤳ȤȤˡ롥ҤΥƥؼѤĹ椬ޤˤѸʤɤǤ첻ξ˥դȤǡĹȤԤƤޤѸ Richard Hodges ˤ붵Ūֻˤ⥦饦ȵ椬ƳƤ (see #2002. Richard Hodges ֻפʤֻ ([2014-10-20-1])) Ȼ褦ȤơҲ̾ˤ֥פФ֥פ˸Ĺʲˤ롥֡פϡ֥פƱͤˤä1ʸʬΥڡȤǡʤȤ⸫ɤϥƥĹ䥢ۤŪǤϤʤǤϡIPA International Phonetic Alphabet; ݲɸʸˤĹ /ː/ ֡פ˻ƤȤ롥ǵƼϡñȤǤϰ̣ʤɬǽŪ˥ᥤʸ˽°뤫ѤƤ뤳Ȥդ
³ơʿ̾Ρ֤פΤ褦ˡƱʸ֤Ȥˡ롥ѸǤѸǤ met /met/ Ф meet /meːt/ ʤɤʸ֤Ȥ̤˸줿
ޤ#2423. digraph (1) ([2015-12-15-1]) Ǥ夲褦ʡϢ³ʣʸ (discontinuous compound grapheme) λѤ롥Ѹ줫ѸˤƹԤ줿red /red/ rede /reːd/ Τ褦ʽΩǤ롥rede 2ܤ <e> 1ܤ <e> ĹˤƷꤷƤ롥
ǸˡꥷǤϤޤäۤʤʸѤû첻 ǡĹ첻 ɽ魯
Τ褦ˡˤäƼʤۤʤ졤ۤƱǽ餫ˡǼƤʤ뤤ϡʤˤΤǤ롥
Ѹˤ <ai>, <ea>, <ie>, <oo>, <ou>, <ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <qu>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> 2ʸǤ1ñ̤ȤʤäβǤɽ魯Ż (digraph) ¸ߤ롥#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1])#2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1])#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]) ۤεǼ夲ƤϤΤ褦 digraph ˤĤbeautiful ˤ <eau> ʤɤλŻ (trigraph) 䤽ʾȤ߹碌⤢뤬ǽҤ٤ digraph ε trigraph ʤɤˤƤϤޤϤǤ롥
⤽⡤ƥΤˡ̤Хꥷ䥻ϤθΤȯãƤ alphabet ȤϲŪˤ礭ۤʤǤѸˡΤޤޤޤŬѤȤȤϡ褦ʤޥե٥åȤƼ줿űѸꡤǤοʸοϰפʤäΤǤ롥ǤΤۤ¿äΤǡ̤ʸɽ褦ȤСɤƤʣʸȤ߹碌1ĤβǤбȤ褦ˡɬפȤʤ롥㤨 /æːa/, /ʤ/, /ʃ/ ϳơ <ea>, <cg>, <sc> digraph ɽ줿 (see #17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1])) ĤޤꡤѸ줬ޥե٥åȤǽɽ뤳Ȥˤʤäǽʳ顤digraph Τ褦ʸȤ߹碌뤳ȤϡȾԲäȹͤ롥Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤϡ餫ѤĤġ¿ͤʲѤäʤѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸؤȯŸƤä
"digraph" ȤѸˤĤƤǤ롥θƾΤϤɤ餫ȤʸǤ2Ȥ߹蘆äȤŪ¦̤˾ƤƤ뤬2Ĥ1ĤβǤбȤǽŪ¦̤Ĵ硤"compound grapheme" (Robert 14) ȤѸ줬ŬڤRobert (14) ˼褦
We term ai in French faire or th in English thither, compound graphemes, because they function as units in representing single phonemes, but are further divisible into units (a, i, t, h) which are significant within their respective graphemic systems.
compound grapheme ʣʸǡˤϢ³2ʸǤɬפʤ"[d]iscontinuous compound grapheme" Ϣ³ʣʸǡˤ⤢ꤦ롥ѸΡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) Ǥꡤ<name> <site> ˤơ<a .. e> <i .. e> Ϣ³Ȥ߹碌ˤ2첻 /eɪ/ /aɪ/ ɽ蘆Ƥ롥
ʣʸǤˡϡˤ롥Robert ΰѤǼƤ褦ˡ<th> ȤʣʸǤϡñʸ <t> <h> Ȥ߹蘆äκۤƤʤ顤ñʸǤ뵡ǽ̤ƤȤ¤롥<t> <h> ñΤʸǤȤ1Ǥɽ魯ǽͭ뤬ƱˡΤˤϡͽۤ2ǤǤϤʤ̤1ǤˤбΤλŦϡʣʸǤȤϡΤΤΤ褦ʹ뤫⤷ʤǶĴΤϡʸ˥եåȤɽ븽ԤαѸˤƤϡ<th> ȤʸȤˡ(1) 2Ĥñʸ <t>, <h> ̤λʤǤν¤ΤʤΤ뤤 (2) 1Ĥʣʸ <th> ƤΤȽǤǤʤȤȤ(1) (2) ʸΥ٥뤬ۤʤäƤꡤ餫νʬäƤ褵ʤΤեåȤ th ɽ롥㤨С<catham> <catholic> ˤơƱɤ <th> ǤԤ (1)Ԥ (2) ȤƵǽƤ롥(*)<cat-ham>, *<ca(th)olic> ʤɤȡǫ˶̤ˡäƤ褵ŪˤϹԤƤʤʤɤʬɤϡʸŪȽǤˡǤζڤ꤬ɤǤ뤫ȤȽǡ뤤ϸȤƤǧΤ˺ѤޤƤΤǤ롥СѸ켰ʣʸǤλѤϡʬŪǤ졤ֻɽäƤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
ΡʣʸǤפϤۤˤ櫓ǤʤŪˤϤ礭ǤϤʤ⤷ʤκۤƱ <th> ˸ʤ⡤2Ĥΰۤʤ٥ǵǽƤǽȤȤϡʸαդ٤Ǥ뤳ȤǧʤФʤʤǽŪ˥٥ΰۤʤΤ̤ʤ˥եåȤ¤٤ȤפǤ롥
Hall, Robert A., Jr. "A Theory of Graphemics." Acta Linguistica 8 (1960): 13--20.
˰³ƤꡥCaon (297) ˤСԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> ǽƤΤϡҤ٤褦ˡ16Ⱦʹߤ Mulcaster ƱֻԤǤȿƤSalmon Ȥ Caon (297) ˤС¤ϤȾ̤ۤ16Ⱦ John Rastell ʤʪˤäƤƤȤ
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries linguists and spelling reformers attempted to set down rules for the use of final -e. Richard Mulcaster is believed to have been the one who first formulated the modern rule for the use of the ending. In The First Part of the Elementarie (1582) he proposed to add final -e in certain environments, that is, after -ld; -nd; -st; -ss; -ff; voiced -c, and -g, and also in words where it signalled a long stem vowel (Scragg 1974:79--80, Brengelman 1980:348). His proposals were reanalysed later and in the eighteenth century only the latter function was standardised (see Modern English hop--hope; bit--bite). However. according to Salmon (1989:294). Mulcaster was not the first one to recommend such a use of final -e; in fact, the sixteenth-century printer John Rastell (c. 1475--1536) had already suggested it in The Boke of the New Cardys (1530). In this book of which only some fragments have survived, Rastell formulated several rules for the correct spelling of English words, recommending the use of final -e to 'prolong' the sound of the preceding vowel.
® Salmon ʸꤷɤǤߤJohn Rastell (c. 1475--1536) ϡˡΧȡȡۼԡԻԡڰȡ̱ϤοʼԤʤɤͤ¿ͤʿʪä褦ǡɤ߽ˡˤؿƤȤξҤ The boke of the new cardys wh<ich> pleyeng at cards one may lerne to know hys lett<ers,> spel [etc.] Ȥ̾ǽƤꡤ褽1530ǯ Rastell ˤʤơ餯ˤ줿ȹͤƤ롥¸ΤҤΤߤͿս Salmon ʸ (pp. 300--01) ˺ƸƤ롥
Rastell ֻؤδؿϡΰüɬҲȤʤäƤطʤ̵ǤϤʤRastell ϡȤȤơɤߤ䤹ֻɬפƤꡤThe boke ˤֻߤΤRastell ϡMulcaster ʤɤơ16ȾȤᤤˡǤˡ (orthography) ȤȯۤäƤΤǤ롥
Rastell 첻ҲɽˤĤƤĤƤԤäƤ뤬ɸȴϢơSalmon (294) μλŦפǤ롥"[A]nother proposal which was taken up by his successors was the employment of final <e> (Chapter viii) to 'perform' or 'prolong' the sound of the preceding vowel, a device with which Mulcaster is usually credited (cf. Scragg 1974: 79)."
ᤤˡ˴ؿƤΤ Rastell ǤʤäƱ Thomas Poyntz ʤ륤ɾͤ첻ĹȤ diacritic <e> ƤƤ롥Poyntz ƤΤϡRastell Mulcaster ƤȤϰۤʤꡤ첻ľ <e> ³Ȥˡäʤ<saey>, <maey>, <daeys>, <moer>, <coers> ǡǤ (Salmon 294--95) Poyntz ˡϸˤʤäˤ16ȾˡؼԤǤϤʤ¶ȲȤƳDZѸˡΩưϤƤȤϡõƤƤ褤
Caon, Louisella. "Final -e and Spelling Habits in the Fifteenth-Century Versions of the Wife of Bath's Prologue." English Studies (2002): 296--310.
Salmon, Vivian. "John Rastell and the Normalization of Early Sixteenth-Century Orthography." Essays on English Language in Honour of Bertil Sundby. Ed. L. E. Breivik, A. Hille, and S. Johansson. Oslo: Novus, 1989. 289--301.
Ѹˤˤơ final /e/ ȡֻ final <e> ʬƹͤɬפ롥15ȡ֤ <e> ϡб첻˼äƤȹͤƤ뤬ֻϤθϢʤȽ³줿Ѹˡˤȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])) ȤƤ <e> εǽˤĤƤϡ#979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1]), #1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) طˡȯãˤĤƤ #1344. final -e ˡ ([2012-12-31-1]), #1939. 16ˡᤰ ([2014-08-18-1]) ǿƤϡѸˡˤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> ȯãƤȤ櫓κǽͻҤ˿줿
Scragg (79--80) ϡѸγĹ (meosl) ˸ڤӤʤ顤 <e> εǽε§ϡ16Ⱦβֻ Richard Mulcaster (1530?--1611) ˵ȤݤǵŸƤMulcaster ˤĤƤϡ#441. Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) ڤ mulcaster γƵȤ줿ˡ
One of the most far-reaching changes Mulcaster suggested was for the use of final unpronounced <e> as a marker of vowel length. Of the many orthographic indications of a long vowel in English, the one with the longest history is doubling of the vowel symbol, but this has never been regularly practised. . . . Use of final <e> as a device for denoting vowel length (especially in monosyllabic words such as mate, mete, mite, mote, mute, the stem vowels of which have now usually been diphthongised in Received Pronunciation) has its roots in an eleventh-century sound-change involving the lengthening of short vowels in open syllables of disyllabic words (e.g. /nɑmə/ became /nɑːmə/). When final unstressed /ə/ ceased to be pronounced after the fourteenth century, /nɑːmə/, spelt name, became /nɑːm/, and paved the way for the association of mute final <e> in spelling with a preceding long vowel. After the loss of final /ə/ in speech, writers used final <e> in a quite haphazard way; in printed books of the sixteenth century <e> was added to almost every word which would otherwise end in a single consonant, though the fact that it was then apparently felt necessary to indicate a short stem vowel by doubling the consonant (e.g. bedde, cumme, fludde 'bed, come, flood') shows that writers already felt that final <e> otherwise indicated a long stem vowel. Mulcaster's proposal was for regularisation of this final <e>, and in the seventeenth century its use was gradually restricted to the words in which it still survives.
Brengelman (347) ƱͤμݤǵƤ뤬<e> ε§ Mulcaster Τߤ˵ˡLevins Coote ʤƱˡ˴ؿĿ͡νŪʹȤƤȤ館Ƥ褦
It was already urged in the last quarter of the sixteenth century that final e should be used as a vowel diacritic. Levins, Mulcaster, Coote, and others had urged that final e should be used only to "draw the syllable long." A corollary of the rule, of course, was that e should not be used after short vowels, as it commonly was in words such as egge and hadde. Mulcaster believed it should also be used after consonant groups such as ld, nd, and st, a reasonable suggestion that was followed only in the case of -ast. . . . By the time Blount's dictionary had appeared (1656), the modern rule regarding the use of final e as a vowel diacritic had been generally adopted.
ˤ衤16ˤϡʤ餯15ˤˡǤ˸ŪֻѤΤʤ <e> ΤΤƤռŪ˻Ѥ§褦ȤΤMulcaster 濴Ȥ1600ǯβԤäȤȤˤʤºݡβװƤ17˺դƤȤˤʤꡤߤ "magic <e>" ε§ΤǤ롥
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
#2249. ֻ; ([2015-06-24-1]) Ǽ夲ꡥ̤δѸֻ;ͤƤߤ褦
Roman alphabet Τ褦ñʸηϤˤäƤϡ1ʸ1ǤбΤŪ˾ޤŪŪ¾λǡۤϤޤ¸ʤȤäƤ褤¤ۤ11æƤΤǤϡŪˤϤɤٰæƤΤ
ǡ#1159. MRC Psycholinguistic Database Search ([2012-06-29-1]) ѤơʸȲǤбٹ礤褽¬Ƥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥⤷̤ñʸηϤǤСñֻʸȡȯ벻ǿϰפѸäñˤĤơʸȲǿᡤΤʿͤʤɤͤФСŪʻɸϤֻ;Ū (redundancy) ǤȤȤϤޤǤεͽۤȤǤϤ뤬Ūˡʸвǿϡ2:1 ٤ʤΤ 3:1 ٤ʤΤɤʤΤ
ޤϡMRC Psycholinguistic Database Search ʲΤ褦˸ơñ줴ȤΡʸǿξԤʡ;λɸˤΰSQLʸ where ʲϡӽ뤿ξˡ
select WORD, NLET, NPHON, NLET/NPHON as REDUNDANCY, PHON from mrc2 where NPHON != "00" and WORD != "" and PHON != "";
ΰȤˡƼͤФ褤ʸȲǿʿͤϡ1.192025 ä0.2ߤˤȤäٿʬۿޤ

ʸ̤ʿͤȤäƤߤȡ̣Ȥ3ʸʲñǤ; 1.166174 ˤȤɤޤꡤΤʿͤ꾮ʤ롥4ʸ7ʸޤǤñǤʿѤ⤤ 1.231737 Ȥͤ8ʸʾˤʤȺƤ;Ͼʤꡤ1.157689 Ȥʤ롥ʸǿ٤Ĺñ;⤯ûñĹñǤϤषŪ;㤤褦ͳˤĤƤϾܤʬϤƤʤ#1160. MRC Psychological Database Ƽפв ([2012-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡñǺǤ¿8ʸ6ǤǤȤȤ䡤final_e ϤȤۻ (silent_letter) ʬۤȲ餫δط뤫⤷ʤ
ơΤʿ 1.192025 Ǽ;٤ɤ줯餤ΤΤʤΤۤоݤʤΤɾˤˤŪˤۤ 1.0 Ƴȳ֤äƤʤʤȤݤǤ롥ñˤʸȲǤδطϡ#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡȡ ([2015-08-06-1]) ȤǤС褯ĥ줿ûΥפǷФ줿طȤ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
οͤˤĤդ٤ϡñˤʸȲǤбĤҤȤľȤ餷碌ƤϤФΤǤϤʤϤäʣбϤξԤδط줾ĹȤͤȤäΤˤʤȤȤǽŪ˵ֻ;ΤΤǤϤʤ鼨ɸȤäۤ褤Ǥ⡤ܰ¤Ȥʤˤϰ㤤ʤ
<look>, <blood>, <dead>, <heaven>, ʤɤ첻ʬϡ2Ĥ첻֤뤬ȯȤƤϤ줾û첻Ǥ롥ϡѸˤͽ̤ۤ2äΤθ塤û1ȤʤäǤ롥<oo> ֻȯδطӤطʤˤĤƤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1])#1353. 첻Ĺû ([2013-01-09-1])#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1]) ǿ줿<ea> ˤĤƤϡ#1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1]) Ǵñ˿줿ˤʤΤǡȤƼ夲
Ҥ̤ꡤ<ea> Ĺ첻ɽ路ǤѸˤƤλ3Ҳ֤ûäƤꡤdream / dreamt, leap / leapt, read / read, speed / sped Τ褦첻̤Ω (cf. #1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])) ޤñҲ֤ˤƤ⡤ѸޤǤˤĤñˤûƤ (ex. breath, dead, dread, heaven, blood, good, cloth) ΰۤʤûβˤĤƤϡ#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1]) #2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) ǸȤǤꡤ˲Ūʴ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤä˽Ѹˤûϰθä˸¤ƤȤ𤬤ꡤޤǤ롥
Görlach (71) ϡεˡŪǤϤ뤬˷ŪʴǤ롥
Such short vowels reflecting ME long vowel quantities are most frequent where ME has /ɛː, oː/ before /d, t, θ, v, f/ in monosyllabic words, but even here they occur only in a minority of possible words. It is likely that the short vowel was introduced on the pattern of words in which the occurrence of a short or a long vowel was determined by the type of syllable the vowel appeared in (glad vs. glade). When these words became monosyllabic in all their forms, the conditioning factor was lost and the apparently free variation of short/long spread to cases like (dead). That such processes must have continued for some time is shown by words ending in -ood: early shortened forms (flood) are found side by side with later short forms (good) and those with the long vowel preserved (mood).
Ҳǽñ촴ηƻϡѸޤǡŪʾ˱ơƶ e ݤĤȤä (cf. #532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])) e ̵ͭϲṽ¤Ѳ촴첻Ĺûꤷ1Ĥηƻˤ뤳ĹûѰۤǥȤʤäơṽ¤¾δĶˤƤĹûѰۡʤƸûˤ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤȤ Görlach glad vs. glade ʤҤ٤ƤΤϡϡ˷ŪʵǽͭƤ -e Ū˾üƤǡεǽ촴첻Ĺûΰ㤤ˤκפĤΤߤȤʤäƤäȤаޤǤ (cf. #295. black Blake ([2010-02-16-1])) Ϣơ#977. ƻζο syntagma marking ([2011-12-30-1]) ǿ줿եꥫˤƻΡʸˡפλ㤬פФ롥
Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
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