űѸ sc ɽ蘆벻ŵŪˤ /ʃ/ Ȥ롥ʳ /sk/ (palatalisation) ȻΤΤŪǤ롥ñˤäƤϤβѲФ/sk/ ˤȤɤޤäƤΤ⤢СξΤɤΤ⤢롥/sk/ ˤȤɤޤäΤϡž (metathesis) ˤ /ks/ Τ⤢ꡤñˤäƤʣʰ۷֤Ȥˤʤ롥ˤĤơʲε濴˵Ƥ
#60. ž ( metathesis ) ([2009-06-27-1])
#1511. űѸ sc θ ([2013-06-16-1])
#5626. űѸ sc θ (2) ([2024-09-21-1])
ϡˤĤ Lass (58--59) θ˲äƤߤ
A different sort of palatalization contributes further to the new series: a change of */sk/ > /ʃ/. The mechanics are not clear, but one reasonable suggestion would be something like [sk] > [sc] > [sç], with a later 'compromise' articulation /ʃ/ emerging from the back-to-back alveolar and palatal. Or, the [k] may have weakened first to [x], as in modern Dutch, without palatalizing; in this case we could see at least three of the stages mirrored in modern Germanic, in the verbs meaning 'to write': Swedish skriva /skri:va/ representing the original, Dutch schrijven /sxrɛivə(n)/ a further development, and German schreiben /ʃraebən/ the final stage (cf. English shrive).
The reason for this palatalization is obscure; it occurs in both front and back environments, and before consonants, so it is not obviously assimilatory like the ones discussed above. The OE spelling <sh> for instance appears to represent /ʃ/ not only in scīnan 'shine' (cf. OIc skína), sc(i)eran 'shear' (OIc skera), but also in scofl 'shovel' (OSw skofl), scanca 'shank' (Dutch skank), scūr 'shower' (Go skūra).
There is however occasional failure in back environments, as shown by the spelling <x> = /ks/, which is due to metathesis (/sk/ > /ks/), in places where <sc> would be expected. This must have occurred while the cluster was still /sk/. Palatalized and nonpalatalized variants of one lexeme may even occur in the same text: the poem Andreas has for 'fish' (Go fisks) both gen sg fisces and dat pl fixum. Failures of palatalization (or dialectal variants: see below) also lead to doublets in later periods, even including ModE: hence ask (OE āscian, ācsian), now frequently with the nonstandard doublet ax (which was the norm in many pre-modern standard varieties). Another example is tusk (OE tūsc, pl tūscas, tūcas), where the nonpalatalized form has come down in most standard varieties, but there are so many dialects with tush.
žȤŪڵˤꡤäƤʤ֤뤳ȤǤȤΤ⤷۷ (variants) ϡ¿ʸŪˤĤƵŤʻǤ롥
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Ϣ crocodile θֻˤĤĴ٤Ƥ뤬βɽ˴ؿäꥷ κροκόδειλος 3ˤߤ ει 2Ż (digraph) ƥ˼ޤݤˤ crocodīlus Τ褦1Ĥ첻ݻƤ롥ѸֻǤ⡤Τ crocodile i 1ʸΤߤɽ
Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡꥷñ줬Ū뤤ľŪ˱Ѹ˼ޤݤˤϡĤΥѥȤǤϤ뤬Upward and Davidson (220--21) ˤСѸֻ˴ؤƴˤʤŪʿˤߤ롥
Gr EI transliterated as E or I
Although a digraph, Gr EI perhaps represented a simple vowel sound rather than a diphthong, and was liable to misspelling in classical Gr as just iota or eta.
Latin transliterated Gr EI as either E or I, not as EI. Direct transliteration from Gr to Eng giving EI, as in eirenic, kaleidoscope, pleistocene, seismic, protein, Pleiades typically date from the 19th or 20th centuries, and have therefore not come via Lat. The contrast between such modern transliterations and the older Lat-derived ones is seen in pairs such as apodeictic/apodictic 'demonstrably true' (< Latin apodicticus < Gr apodeiktikos), cheiropractic/chiropractic, Eirene/Irene.
Lat gave Eng an arbitrary spelling variation by tending to transliterate Gr EI as E before a vowel and as I before a consonant: thus panacea, truchea (< Gr panakeia, tracheia) but icon, idol, lichen (< Gr eikōn, eidōlon, leichēn), and similarly with crocodile, dinosaur, empirical, idyll, pirate. Note, however, angiosperm (< Gr aggeion) with I before O, and hygiene (< Gr hugieinē) with E before N preventing a repetition of I in *hygiine.
Underlying the Y of therapy, idolatry is Gr -EIA (Gr latreia 'worship', therapeia) whereas Gr -IA underlies the Y of theory, history (< Gr theōria, historia).
ۤñʷǤʤʬ뤬Ⱦˤäơꥷ줫ľܼѤʤΤƥͳƤδܼѤʤΤ뤳ȤȤΤ϶̣#3373. ּáס ([2018-07-22-1]) ۵롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
530ʶˡYouTube ʸ麽սPLUS ͥˤơԤ2ˤ錄ꡤֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפʤѸˤƳȡޤեʥζƣᤵȤȤˡ60ʬۤɤäƤޤ
Ԥ֡know K ϤʤȯʤֱѸˡפDZѸΥʥ狼۹ͣɬܡøѸϤϤ̸500̤ʾ֤꤬ñ"ƴ""ҿ"ѸѲꤷơ35ʬۤɤäޤưѤ֤ʤΤˡʲʸϤȤƤϤޤ
ΥȡȡԡˤǤϡѸˤ̥ϤؤӤΤ⤷ä˸Ѹ줬͡ʵʤ顤ƳŪ˲⤷Ƥޤhellog ɼԤγˤ⡤äȳڤǤƤȻפޤ
⤽ѸˤȤϡñ˱ѸȤˤɤǤϤޤθäƤ͡μҲʸˡĤޤˤ̩ܤ˷ӤĤ¤˱ʬǤϱѸˤϡֱѸפȡˡפǤȹͤƤޤ
ʤѸˤؤ֤ΤǤ礦ϡѸؽʤï⤬Ѥʵ䡤ȤСʤ3ñ -s ĤΤʤԵ§ưϤʤˤ¿ΤƤȤ櫓֤ʤѸֻȯϤۤɤޤǤ˿㤦ΤפȤä䤤ФơŪʻ¤䤫ͿƤ뤫Ǥ伫ȡˤΡ祤״Ф̥λ졤Ѹ˸ƻؤȿʤळȤˤʤޤȤǤϡΤ⤷ΰüǤ⤪ǤФȻפäƤޤ
ơȤ濴ŪȤʤäΤϡѸֻȯЪΥǤѸˤ1600ǯ֤ۤɤꡤޤ˸űѸ449--1100ǯˡѸ1100--1500ǯˡѸ1500--1900ǯˡѸ1500--ߡˤ4˶ʬޤѸǤСѤѸͥƥ֤ʤʤȤɲǽǤűѸ˻äƤϡѤƤʸۤʤꡤϤ䳰ˤʤǤ礦
ĹˤΤʤǡֻȯδ֤ˤ줬븶¿ޤȤǤϡװ3ĤۤɾҲ𤷤ޤ1ܤϡκǤäѸˤϡ¿ͤäƤɸפȤ٤Τ¸ߤޤǤλɸಽʤǤǡñֻϤȤѤ졤ȯ̤Ѥ롤Ȥ褦ʥߥޥåΤǤ㤨 busy /ˈbɪzi/ Ȥñ <u> ֻϥͳ褷/ɪ/ Ȥȯͳ褷ޤbuild <ui> Ȥֻ⡤ƱͤκʪǤ
2ܤϡͥγؼԤˤ֤ޯפʲѤǤ16ŵǤƥ䥮ꥷؤƴ줫顤ܤؼԤñθ츻ֻȿǤ褦Ȼߤޤη̡ȯʤʸ츻äưտŪ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤŵŪ㤬 doubt <b> ʥƥ dubitāre ͳˤ receipt <p> ʥƥ recepta ͳˤǤɤ߽μʪäᡤηֻפΤȤ夷ƤޤޤΤ褦ֻϡ̤夫ؤȼѤ졤٤ȤƸ경Ƥޤֻױư깭뤳ȤФФ⤢ޤۤܤ٤Ƥ˸ߤ˻ޤ
3ܤϡʲѲǤknow knife θƬ <k> ȯʤΤϡǤĤƤ /kn/ ȯƤλҲϢ1718ˤƼޤꡤ䤬 /k/ βæޤβѲλֻ경ƤޤäƤᡤȯʤ <k> ֻˤƤϸ˻ޤǻ¸ƤȤ櫓Ǥ
ȤǤϡѸˤȤ櫓˭ֻΥꥨñȤ through ޤ䤬ĴȤǤϡñˤϼ¤516ֻޤޤűѸѸѤƤʸ <þ> (thorn) ʤ虜虜 <th> Ȥ2ʸȤ߹碌֤ƤޤäΤȤˤޤˤϡ1066ǯΥΥޥʹߤ˱Ѹήեñ줬äƤҿطޤեˤϤʤʸ <þ> ϡäפȤ졤ե <th> ѤΤ֤ޯפȸʤ褦ˤʤäΤǤѲȤϡɬǶưΤǤϤʤ֥եåפȤ٤Ūװˤ礭롤¤˿ʹֽĤߤʤΤǤ
Τ褦ˡѸˤɳȤǡѸԲIJ¦̤˸Ƥ뤳ȤǤޤѸˤμϡѸؽԤե饹ȥ졼ŪʹؤžϤäƤȤΤǤ
ȤϡѸˤƳȤơ뤤ϱѸȤؤδؿ뤭äȤơ¿ˤйǤ
<ch>/k/ ɽ魯ϡ̤˥ꥷ줫μѸˤߤȤ롥Ѹʤɤ <c> ʤɤǼޤ줿ΤѸˤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) θˤäơꥷ <ch> ֤ľ줿⾯ʤʤΤȻפ롥Carney (219--20) ˼褦
Distribution of <ch>
The <ch> spelling of /k/ is restricted almost entirely to §Greek words: archaeology, archaism, archangel, architect, archive, bronchial, catechism, chaos, character, charisma, chasm, chemist, chiropody, chlorine, choir, cholesterol, chord, chorus, christian, chromium, chronic, cochlea, echo, epoch, eunuch, hierarchy, lichen, malachite, matriarch, mechanic, monarch, ochre, oligarch, orchestra, orchid, pachyderm, patriarch, psyche, schematic, stochastic, stomach, strychnite, technical, trachea, triptych, etc. This is by no means a compete list, but it serves to show the problems of using subsystems in deterministic procedures. Some words with <ch>/k/ have been in common use in English for centuries (anchor, school) and came by way of Latin rather than directly from Greek. Lachrymose and sepulchre are strictly Latin in origin, but were mistakenly thought in antiquity to have a Greek connection. Many words with <ch>/k/ are highly technical complex words used by scientists for whom the constituent §Greek morphemes, such as {pachy} or {derm}, have a separate semantic identity. In some cases the Greek meanings are irrelevant to the technical use of the words since they involve obscure metaphors. One does not normally need to know that orchids have anything to do with testicles --- it's actually the shape of the roots. There appear to be no explicit phonological markers of §Greek-ness in the words listed above. The morphological criterion of word-formation potential is the best marker, but this works best with the technical end of the range. We can hardly cue the <ch> in school by calling up scholastic.
̣Τ lachrymose sepulchre ʤɤϥƥͳʤΤäƥꥷͳȴ㤤 <ch> ֤Ƥ롤ȤƥˤƤ顤ꥷ˴Ť츻Ūֻä餷ȤȤˤʤ롥ֻˤƤ餤ϰҿˤ䤫ꤿȤפϡ¿θʸˤƶ̤ƤΤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ε#5707. 2Ż <gh> ε ([2024-12-11-1]) ³<gh> ˤƽиˤĤơѸֻˤθŵ路 Scragg (46--47) ˡΤ꤬롥
The use of <h> as a diacritic in <ch> and <sh>, indicating that <c> and <s> have a pronunciation different from that normally expected of those consonantsa, was not new to English when <ch> was introduced from French, for <th> had earlier been used alongside <þ> (cf. footnotes to pp. 2b and 17). Both <ch> in French and <th> in English derive from Latin orthography, use of <h> as a diacritic in Latin being made possible by the disappearance of the sounds represented by <h> from the language in the late classical period. As a result of the establishment in English of diacritic <h> in <ch> and <th>, other consonant groups were formed on the same pattern. The grapheme <gh> has already been discussed (p. 23c). <wh> has a rather different history, for it began in Old English as an initial consonantal combination <hw> corresponding to /xw/. Assimilation of the group to a single voiceless consonant /ʍ/ had taken place by the late Old English period, and Middle English scribes, associating the sequence <hw> for the single phoneme with the use of <h> as a fricative marker in other graphemes, reversed the graphs to <wh>.
English scribes' incorporation into their spelling system of the grapheme <ch>, and the 'consequential' changes which resulted in the creation of <sh> and <wh>, were made possible by their knowledge of Anglo-Norman conventions.
ΰʸΤʤƱؤλȤ꤬뤬ȤȽפʵҤߤĤäΤǡѼԤˤб뤫ǰʲ˻βʸǺܤ롥
a I.e. <h> as a fricative marker, allowing for the fact that <sh> is historically a simplification of <sch>. (fn. 2 to p. 46)
b Latin <th> had always been recognised as an alternative to thorn by English writers; even before the Norman Conquest, foreign names were spelt with either: Elizabeth or Elizabeþ, Thomas or þomas. (fn. 2 to p. 2)
c <ȝ> was also used in Middle English for the two allophones of /j/ which occurred after a vowel: [ç] and [x]. These two sounds gave scribes considerable difficulty in Middle English; among the many graphemes representing them are the Anglo-Norman <s>, the Old English <h>, the new grapheme <ȝ>, and the last two combined as <ȝh>. In the fifteenth century, when the distinction between <ȝ> and <g> became blurred, this combination was written <gh>, and this is the sequence which has survived in a great many words in which [ç] and [x] were once heard, or still are in northern dialects, e.g. high, ought, night, bough. (fn. 2 to p. 23)
ʾꡤ˴Ϣפվȡ̤ꡥ
(1) <th> ϸűѸˤѤ뤳Ȥä
(2) 2Ż <ch> <th> ϤȤϥƥˡͳ褹
(3) <h> ȯʹ (diacritical_mark) ȤѤ褦ˤʤäΤϡŵΥƥ h ̵<h> 줿
(4) 2ʸܤ <h> Ĵ¸2ŻΥѥΥޥֻΤäƤѸ̻μˤꡤ¾ؤ礷
(5) 2ʸܤ <h> 2Żϡh ŪʤΤǡ
<gh> ޤ2Żεȯã˸Ƥ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
2Ż (digraph) <gh> ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ gh γƵˤƤ2Ż <gh> ˤĤƤϡ줬ɽ魯ȤȤˡѸ˾Ǥ⤤롥ΤʤǤܤ1Ĥ˵꤬롥űѸǤϡѸʹߤŵŪ <gh> Ѥ¿Υǡ<h> 1ʸȤƤѸˤʤȡδĶˤ <h> λѤϽ˿षƤä <gh> <ȝ> (= yogh) ƬƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥<gh> Ϥäɤ褿Τ
Upward and Davidson (182) ˤȡ2Ÿ <gh> ϥΥޥ̻ˤäƤ⤿餵줿ǤȤ
. . . ANorm scribes frequently replaced the OE H with GH: OE niht, ME night; OE brohte, ME broughte 'brought'. (The letter ȝ was also used: niȝt, brouȝte.) The GH represented /x/, which was pronounced [ç] after a front vowel and [x] after a back vowel, as in ME night and broughte respectively (and as also in Modern German). Although, under the influence of Chancery and the printers, this digraph has continued to be written from the ME period to the present day, the sound it represented/represents has undergone many changes.
Υޥֻˤ <ch>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> ʤ2ʸܤ <h> 2ŻλѤǧ롥餹٤ƤѸǸƤۤ¿ѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ2Ż <gh> ⤳֤ä (cfAnglo-Norman Dictionary) Υޥ줿̻䡤αƶѸμ̻Ѹݤˤ <gh> ȤȤˤʤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ˡ#1511. űѸ sc θ ([2013-06-16-1]) Ǽ夲ꡥűѸ2Ż (digraph) Ǥ <sc> ˤĤơ͵ʸ Prins ѤDzҤ٤Ƥ뤫ǧPrins (203--04) Ѥ롥
7.16 PG sk
PG sk was palatalized:
1. In initial position before all vowels and consonants:
OE Du sčēap 'sheep' schaap WS sčield A scčeld 'shield' schild sčēawian 'to show' schouwen G schauen sčendan 'to damage' schenden sčrud 'shroud'
2. Medially between palatal vowels and especially when followed originally by i(:) or j:
þrysče 'thrush'
wysčean 'to wish'
3. Finally after palatal vowels:
æsč 'ash'
disč 'dish'
Englisč 'English'
űѸ츦Ǥ̾ <sc> β [ʃ] ȤƤ뤬Prins (204) ˤȡ [ʃ] äɤϤ狼ʤȤष [sx] äΤǤϤʤȵƤ롥
Note 2. In reading OE we generally read sc(e) as [ʃ], but there is no definite proof that this was the pronunciation before the ME period (when the French spelling s, ss is found, and the spelling sh is introduced).
In Ælfric sc alliterates with sp, and st. So s must have been the first element. The second element cannot have been k, since Scandinavian loanwords (which must have been adopted in lOE) still have sk: skin, skill.
The pronunciation in OE was probably [sx]. Cf. Dutch schoon [sxo:n], schip [sxip], which in the transition period to eME or in eME itself, must have become [ʃ].
Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.
ε#5555. kh ֻ ([2024-07-12-1]) ˰³2Ż (digraph) <kh> ˤĤơUpward and Davidson (257) ˤޤȤޤäҤΤǰѤ롥
KH
The KH spelling reflects an aspirated consonant (somewhat like [k] + [h]) or a fricative (like [x] as in Scottish loch) in the source or carrier languages, all from the Middle East or Indian subcontinent. In English, there is no difference in pronunciation between KH and K.
In initial position: khaki (< Hindi); khamsin 'hot wind' (< Arabic); khan (spelt caan when first borrowed in the 15th century; < a Turkic language)
- Khazi, a slang word for 'toilet' dating from the 19th century, is not, despite its spelling, of eastern origin, but probably derives from Italian or Spanish casa 'house'. It has various spellings in English (kazi, kharzie, karsey, etc.).
In medial position: astrakhan 'fabric' (< Russian place-name); bakhshish 'tip or bribe' (a spelling baksheesh --- see under 'K'); burkha (a spelling of burka/burqa --- see under 'K'); gymkhana (< Urdu gend-khana, altered by influence of gymnastics); kolkhoz 'collective farm in USSR' (< Russian).
In final position: ankh 'emblem of life' (< Egyptian 'nh); lakh '100,000' (also lac; < Hindi and Hindustani); rukh 'mythical bird' (another spelling of roc, which is the more common spelling in English; < Arabic rokh, rukhkh, Persian rukh); sheikh (< Arabic shaikh).
ۤܤ٤Ƥñ줬졤ɥΦνͳ褷θ̣ݻ뤿ˡŪˤϱѸߤΤʤ <kh> ȤֻѤƤΤդֻˤϡäդȯǤɸʤñͳ뵡ǽʬŪǤäƤȤפǤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ε#5555. kh ֻ ([2024-07-12-1]) ˰³2Ż (digraph) <kh> ˤĤơUpward and Davidson (257) ˤޤȤޤäҤΤǰѤ롥
KH
The KH spelling reflects an aspirated consonant (somewhat like [k] + [h]) or a fricative (like [x] as in Scottish loch) in the source or carrier languages, all from the Middle East or Indian subcontinent. In English, there is no difference in pronunciation between KH and K.
In initial position: khaki (< Hindi); khamsin 'hot wind' (< Arabic); khan (spelt caan when first borrowed in the 15th century; < a Turkic language)
- Khazi, a slang word for 'toilet' dating from the 19th century, is not, despite its spelling, of eastern origin, but probably derives from Italian or Spanish casa 'house'. It has various spellings in English (kazi, kharzie, karsey, etc.).
In medial position: astrakhan 'fabric' (< Russian place-name); bakhshish 'tip or bribe' (a spelling baksheesh --- see under 'K'); burkha (a spelling of burka/burqa --- see under 'K'); gymkhana (< Urdu gend-khana, altered by influence of gymnastics); kolkhoz 'collective farm in USSR' (< Russian).
In final position: ankh 'emblem of life' (< Egyptian 'nh); lakh '100,000' (also lac; < Hindi and Hindustani); rukh 'mythical bird' (another spelling of roc, which is the more common spelling in English; < Arabic rokh, rukhkh, Persian rukh); sheikh (< Arabic shaikh).
ۤܤ٤Ƥñ줬졤ɥΦνͳ褷θ̣ݻ뤿ˡŪˤϱѸߤΤʤ <kh> ȤֻѤƤΤդֻˤϡäդȯǤɸʤñͳ뵡ǽʬŪǤäƤȤפǤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

khelfʷѸ˥եˤǤرѸ˿ʹȯԤʤɡѸˤhel (helkatsu) ͡ŸƤޤ
khelf ȤƾΤ "Keio History of the English Language Forum" Ƭ (acronym) ǡ伫Ȥ¤ʤΤǤܸȯǤϡ֥աסѸȯǤ /kɛlf/ ȤʤΤȻפޤkhelf <kh> ֻϢ³ʤȤޤΤǡѸֻˤ 2Ż (digraph) ˤĤܵǼ夲ޤ
<kh> ϡѸˤƤϷ褷٤ι⤤ʸȤ߹碌ǤϤޤkhaki ʥˡkhan ʥϡˡKhmer ʥ͡ˡKhoisan ʥ²ˡSikh ʥ̡ˤʤɤ˸졤ñǤ <kh> /k/ бطޤ٤ƼѸͭ̾ǤꡤѸˡ˴ƱƤ뤫ȤвȤǤCarney (221) Ǥϡ<kh> ˸ڤĤ astrakhan ʥȥ饫, gymkhana , khaki, khan, khedive ʥץˤƤޤ
Carney (328) Ǥϡ<h> 2ʸܤȤƤġҲɽ魯¾2ŻȤȤ <kh> ƤޤϢսѤޤ礦
The clusters <ch>, <ph>, <sh>, <th>, <wh>, are treated as spelling units. So are the clusters <gh>, <kh>, <rh>, but there is a difference. In the first group, the <h> has the natural function of indicating the features 'voiceless and fricative' in representing [ʧ], [f], [ʃ], [ʍ]; <th> represents only 'fricative' for both voiceless [θ] and voiced [ð]. In the group <gh>, <kh>, <rh>, the <h> is empty and arbitrary; there is some marking, however: <rh> is §Greek, <kh> is exotic.
<kh> <h> ϲŪˤưŤΤʤۻ (silent_letter) ȤäƤ٤Ǹ˿ƤȤꡤñ줬 "exotic" Ǥ뤳Ȥɸ뵡ǽͭƤ褦khelf ˡ̥ŪȤ̣Ǥ "exotic" ʳưܻؤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.

khelfʷѸ˥եˤǤرѸ˿ʹȯԤʤɡѸˤhel (helkatsu) ͡ŸƤޤ
khelf ȤƾΤ "Keio History of the English Language Forum" Ƭ (acronym) ǡ伫Ȥ¤ʤΤǤܸȯǤϡ֥աסѸȯǤ /kɛlf/ ȤʤΤȻפޤkhelf <kh> ֻϢ³ʤȤޤΤǡѸֻˤ 2Ż (digraph) ˤĤܵǼ夲ޤ
<kh> ϡѸˤƤϷ褷٤ι⤤ʸȤ߹碌ǤϤޤkhaki ʥˡkhan ʥϡˡKhmer ʥ͡ˡKhoisan ʥ²ˡSikh ʥ̡ˤʤɤ˸졤ñǤ <kh> /k/ бطޤ٤ƼѸͭ̾ǤꡤѸˡ˴ƱƤ뤫ȤвȤǤCarney (221) Ǥϡ<kh> ˸ڤĤ astrakhan ʥȥ饫, gymkhana , khaki, khan, khedive ʥץˤƤޤ
Carney (328) Ǥϡ<h> 2ʸܤȤƤġҲɽ魯¾2ŻȤȤ <kh> ƤޤϢսѤޤ礦
The clusters <ch>, <ph>, <sh>, <th>, <wh>, are treated as spelling units. So are the clusters <gh>, <kh>, <rh>, but there is a difference. In the first group, the <h> has the natural function of indicating the features 'voiceless and fricative' in representing [ʧ], [f], [ʃ], [ʍ]; <th> represents only 'fricative' for both voiceless [θ] and voiced [ð]. In the group <gh>, <kh>, <rh>, the <h> is empty and arbitrary; there is some marking, however: <rh> is §Greek, <kh> is exotic.
<kh> <h> ϲŪˤưŤΤʤۻ (silent_letter) ȤäƤ٤Ǹ˿ƤȤꡤñ줬 "exotic" Ǥ뤳Ȥɸ뵡ǽͭƤ褦khelf ˡ̥ŪȤ̣Ǥ "exotic" ʳưܻؤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
줿 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥκǿǤϡѸˤδܸɽ뤿ΥˤĤơȤ櫓إܥˤĤƸäƤޤֺǶ褯 shichiji ʤɤΥɽϡ¤ϱѸŪǤϤʤǤ17ʬưȤʤäƤޤɤİ
͵Ѥ˴ؤǡϡǯ930ʸģ줿2021ǯ٤ֹ˴ؤĴη̤Ǥܺ٤3ǯ١ֹ˴ؤĴפη̤ˤĤơ (PDF) ꤴǧޤ
ܸɽ뤿ΥλѤˤĤƤϡޤǤ͡ʵꡤܥ֥Ǥ romaji ε¿夲Ƥޤ YouTube ưȤȤ櫓ϢοؤΥĥäƤޤΤǡ碌ƤȤ
#3427. ἰܼإܥΥĤŤоɽ ([2018-09-14-1])
#1892. ֥ΤĤŤס ([2014-07-02-1])
#1879. ܸˤˡ ([2014-06-19-1])
#2550. 붵եɥå褬ȯ줿 ([2016-04-20-1])
#4905. ְΡפ Aichi Aiti ([2022-10-01-1])
#4925. ɽɤȱѸ쥹ڥ ([2022-10-21-1])
#1893. إܥ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ϤɤΤ餤Ѹ ([2014-07-03-1])
#3251. <chi> ϡ֥פ֥פ֥פ֥ҡפ ([2018-03-22-1])
ܸҲˤƥȤե٥åʸηϤƤѤʤ褦ȤƤ֤뤳Ȥϡ줫ѸϤȤθʸȤɤդäƤͤǤʤȤȹͤޤư̤ơܸɽ뤿ΥѤˤĤƲƹͤƤߤƤϤǤ礦
ѸֻβפɸಽؤδؿϡѸˤĹˤ錄ä³Ū˴ѻƤűѸ "West-Saxon Schriftsprache" ˡκ1Ѹˤ "AB-language" ֻ Ormulum, Laȝamon ʤɤ֤꤬Ŀͥ٥ˡ˴ؿ16ʹߤˤ (orthoepy) ؤδؿޤꡤȼäƸŪֻԤΩ³˸줿18ʹߤˤ Samuel Johnson Noah Webster ơˡγΩ˴ͿƤˤƤοֻפαưȤƤhellog Ǥ spelling_reform ¿εǿƤ̤Ǥ롥
Crystal (288) ˤȡŪˡ (TO = traditional orthography) Ф˾βפϿ¿뤬4ʬȤ
Standardizing approaches, such as New Spelling . . . , uses familiar letters more regularly (typically, by adding new digraphs . . .); no new symbols are invented.
Augmenting approaches, such as Phonotypy . . . add new symbols; diacritics and invented letters have both been used.
Supplanting approaches replace all TO letters by new symbols, as in Shavian . . . .
Regularizing approaches apply existing rules more consistently or focus on restricted areas of the writing system, as in Noah Webster's changes to US English . . . or those approaches which drop silent or redundant letters, such as Cut Spelling . . . .
ϩϩؤν¤ؤ Regularizing, Standardizing, Augmenting, Supplanting ȤʤޤܳŪֻפϤʤŪ˺פĤ Hart Webster ̾뤯餤Ǥ롥ơŪƤϾ˲ʤΤäѸˤˤֻפϤۤΤäΤǤꡤ⤽³ǽ⤤
Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.
(linguistics) Ȥ㡼ȤϤʤݥåפ˹Τ˹Ƥ YouTube/Podcast ֤ͥإ饸114˸줿ǿǤϡ1β˰³<ghoti> /fɪʃ/ 濴˱Ѹֻȯ̯ʴطȤʤäƤޤˤĤƤϡ#5009. ʤСʡɡ硼ֻͥghoti = fishפ϶˴Τ ([2023-01-13-1]) ⻲ȡˡ2ˤ錄䤬ƽƤΤǤβ⤿ؤڤΤǤʿطԤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ghoti, high, women, nation, debt ʤɤֻˤĤơٸη̯ޯæʥȡɤΤȥ֥ե֤졦ɮſߡ֤ͳճ롥ȯ2#194Ǥ
֥ե֤졦ɮſߡפȤե졼ǤѸֻˤΥĥܤΤ3¤ˤ⤷θƤɽȻפޤѸֻϡѸʹߤ˥եˤ֤줿ȤΤϻ¤ǤޤɮȤΤϼ̻ĿͤΰɮȤ櫓ǤϤޤüʻΤδϰɮȸ礬뤳ȤŦƤޤʺϽ (minim) ȤʤäƤޤˡſߤϡѹͥȽŤʤѸ˸ŵä˥ƥˤؤƴݤäȤؤƤޤ
ե줫֤ȡʥƥ˲ſߤϡưۤʤäƤϤޤҲŪˤСҿ (prestige) ؤܶȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤޤϡѸֻˤ̤ƴѻ礭ĬήǤ
2Ρ֤إ饸פǼ夲줿˴ؤơ伫Ȥhellog~Ѹ˥֥סVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)YouTube ְͥʼδѸظإͥʤɤ̤ơ͡ȯƤƤޤ˥ޤȤѻˤʤꤽǤΤǡnote ߥڡ֤֡إ饸פ ghoti ˤޤĤĥäƤߤޤ碌Ƥ
ʤǿκǸΡ֤á줫衪פϡ#224. women ȯֻ (2) ([2009-12-07-1]) ΤȤǤ12ǯθĿŪʲʤȤⴶۡˤǡȼΤ˺Ƥޤ衤ʾСˡ
Voicy ѡʥƥꥹʡȤơ֤إ饸פ Voicy 뤳ȤҲ𤷤ƤȻפޤǿ֥ե֤졦ɮſߡ֤ͳճ롥#194Ǥ
˾Ƥ YouTube Podcast ο͵֤ͥإ饸110˸줿ǿghoti ȽƥեåɤࡩѸإ硼Ű˶ȯ1#193ǤѸֻȯЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) äΤȤƤ褯ΤƤ꤬Ҳ𤵤Ƥޤ䤬Ѹֻˤ椷ƤȤȤ⤢ꡤΤ³ԤȤʤ뼡ȹ碌ƴƽƤȤˤʤޤʿäˤʤäƤޤˡ
<ghoti> Ȥֻ fish /fɪʃ/ ɤ롤ȤȥǥͥǤϱѸֻפ˴ؿƤɽпȤη George Bernard Shaw (1856--1950) ѸֻΤҤɤäΤȤƾҲ𤵤뤳Ȥ¿ǤShaw <ghoti> <gh> ˴ؤ hellog ȤơʲƤޤ
#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1])
#605. Shavian Alphabet ([2010-12-23-1])
#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])
#2085. <ough> β ([2015-01-11-1])
#2590. <gh> ޤñˤĤƤס ([2016-05-30-1])
#3945. "<h> second" 2Żεȯã ([2020-02-14-1])
ʤ <ghoti> /fɪʃ/ ΩĤΤˤĤƤϡإ饸2ͤΥȡ˾ϤޤΤǡʤȤϽҤ٤ޤ
Shaw ϤȤƵ櫓ǡʤ䤿¦ⲿΰ´Ƥޤ<ghoti> /fɪʃ/ Υ饯ʬ뤱ɤ⡤ʤθղȴޤζδФϤɤΤǤ礦
䤿ϡɸѸˡ (orthography) ΤʤǤäʸˡ (graphotactics) ƤʤȿƤΤȻפޤѸֻν§ʣ¿ˤ錄ޤΤʤǤֻʸ (grapheme) ˴ؤ뵬§ꡤʸˡȸƤǤޤ<ghoti> /fɪʃ/ ΤʤǤȤ櫓Ҳбֻ <gh> <ti> ˤĤơʸˡε§ˤƤ롤ĤޤԵ§ȤФƤΤǤ
<gh> /f/ δطϳΤ cough, enough, laugh, rough, tough ʤŪ٤ι⤤ˤߤ졤ü櫓ǤϤޤδطΩĤΤϴŪˤϸʷˤˤƤǤꡤΤȤʸˡε§Ȥ߹ޤƤȹͤޤĤޤꡤñˤ <gh> /f/ δطƬʷƬˤǸ㤬ʤˡghoti ʸˡε§˰ȿƤȴΤǤ礦
Ʊͤ <ti> /ʃ/ δط⡤켫ΤϷ褷ޤ-tion -tious ñ¿ꡤ䤿⸫Ƥޤ (ex. nation, station, ambitious, cautious) /ʃ/ б <ti> ϴŪˤΩƸ櫓ǤϤʤ <on> <ous> ȼäƸΤʸˡε§Ǥ<ghoti> <ti> /ʃ/ ɤޤݤ˴붯ϡε§ȿͳ褷ޤ
ѸʸˡˤĤƤϰʲε⤴
#2405. ֻȯЪΥ --- ѸֻԵ§μŪװ ([2015-11-27-1])
#3882. ֻȯΡб§פȤ̤¸ߤˡ§ס ([2019-12-13-1])
إ饸ˤ Voicy ⤢ꡤκǿȤʤäƤޤ
Voicy ǤϤإ饸⡤ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ⡤Ʊָءץ˥ƥ饤ƤͥǤ뤿ᡤޤξɤ¤֤ȤޤʾСˡ
<wh> Ȥ2Ż (digraph) ϵΤ褦ʹٸ˸Τ߿2ŻбȯˤĤƤ褯ƤѸؽԤ¿ʤ
what, which ֥ۥåȡס֥եåפȥʽȯꤹͤ¿⤷ʤꥹɸѸˤƤϡ֥åȡס֥åפǤ롥ĤޤꡤWatt, witch ȤޤäƱȯȤʤ롥Ūˤ̵ [ʍ] ǤϤʤޤͭ [w] ȤȤ
嵭ϥꥹɸѸäǤꡤꥫѸϤθ¤ǤϤʤ what, which ϳơ [ʍɑt], [ʍɪtʃ] ŪȤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ºݾͭ [w] ǤȯޤäƤƤ褦
<wh> ɽ魯ҲθˤĤ Cruttenden ȤƤߤ褦
In CGB (= Conspicuous General British) and in GB speech in a more formal style (e.g. in verse-speaking), words such as when are pronounced with the voiceless labial-velar fricative [ʍ]. In such speech, which contains oppositions of the kind wine, whine, . . . /ʍ/ has phonemic status. Among GB speakers the use of /ʍ/ as a phoneme has declined rapidly. Even if /ʍ/ does occur distinctively in any idiolect, it may nevertheless be interpreted phonemically as /h/ + /w/ . . . . (Cruttenden 233)
ʤߤ˾嵭ʸ "CGB (= Conspicuous General British)" Cruttenden (81) ˤȡ"that type of GB which is commonly considered to be 'posh', to be associated with upper-class families, with public schools and with professions which have traditionally recruited from such families, e.g. officers in the navy and in some army regiments" Ȥ롥 "RP" (= Received Pronunciation) ˶ᤤΤªƤ褤͡ͳ RP ȸƤ֤٤ǤʤȤΩ줬ꡤΤ褦Ѹ츯ƤΤǤ롥
¾ѼˤĤƤϡΰѤͤˤʤ
The only regional variation concerns the more regular use of [ʍ] in words with <wh> in the spelling. This happens in Standard Scottish English, in most varieties of Irish English and is often presented as the norm in the U.S., although the change from [ʍ] to /w/ seems to be more common than is thought by some. (Cruttenden 234)
긵ˤä Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.) "wh Spelling-to-sound" Ƥߤ
Where the spelling is the digraph wh, the pronunciation in most cases is w, as in white waɪt. An alternative pronunciation, depending on regional, social and stylistic factors, is hw, thus hwaɪt. This h pronunciation is usual in Scottish and Irish English, and decreasingly so in AmE, but not otherwise. (Among those who pronounce simple w, the pronunciation with hw tends to be considered 'better', and so is used by some people in formal styles only.) Learners of EFL are recommended to use plain w.
ѤκǸˤ̤ꡤ䤿ѸؽԤϰ̤ <wh> /w/ ƤƤĤʤ
<wh> ȴϢơ#3870. Ѹˤ wh- ʤ q- ֻ ([2019-12-01-1])#3871. åȥɱѸˤ wh- ǤϤʤ quh- ֻʸ Alexander Hume ([2019-12-02-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
<ch> ۻ (silent_letter) Ȥʤñ줬4ĤȤȤƤäʵŤʾ꤬Ȥˡdrachm /dræm/, fuchsia /ˈfjuːʃə/, schism /sɪzm/, yacht /jɑt/ Ǥ롥ŵϡ#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲 (7) Ǥ롥
4Τ yacht ܤƤߤθ16Υ jaght(e) ѤΤǡOED ˤȽϰʲʸǤcf. #4444. Ѹĺ15 ([2021-06-27-1])ˡ t λҲߤʤΤˤʤȤǤϤ롥
a1584 S. Borough in R. Hakluyt Princ. Navigations (1589) ii. 330 A barke which was of Dronton, and three or foure Norway yeaghes, belonging to Northbarne.
ѸǤνֻʤ餯ȯˤϡ gh ȯɤΤ褦ˤƼफɤ줬ä餷͡ä褦OED βˤȡ
Owing to the presence in the Dutch word of the unfamiliar guttural spirant denoted by g(h), the English spellings have been various and erratic; how far they represent varieties of pronunciation it is difficult to say. That a pronunciation /jɔtʃ/ or /jatʃ/, denoted by yatch, once existed seems to be indicated by the plural yatches; it may have been suggested by catch, ketch.
<t> <ch> ȿž yatch Ȥʣֻ EEBO ǸƤߤȡ1670ǯ夫1690ǯޤǤ50ۤɾ夬äƤʤߤˡΤ褦ֻȿžѸǤʤȤ櫓 "guttural spirant" ؤˤϤ褯줿Τạ̇̄ǤϤʤѸˤޤǤϤ߽ФƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
yatch ȯֻˤĤƤϡDobson (371) Τ褦˸ڤƤ롥
Yawt or yatch 'yacht' are two variant pronunciations which are well evidenced by OED; the former is due to the identification of the Dutch spirant [χ] with ME [χ], of which traces still remained when yacht was adopted in the sixteenth century, so that it was accommodated to the model of, for example, fraught and developed with it, while OED suggests that the latter is due to analogy with catch and ketch---it is certainly due to some sort of corrupt spelling-pronunciation, in the attempt to accommodate the word to native models.
<t> <ch> ֻȿžȡ³ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) η߽Ф줿 yacht ̯ʰ۷ȤȤˤʤ롥
Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
餬ʸηϤ߽ФǤʤ¤ꡤθ⤹Ǥ¾ǻȤƤʸѤ뤳ȤˤäʸαѤϤϤǤ롥ȼѸθʤ¿쾯ʤۤʤħʤȤ櫓ˤäƤ櫓ǤꡤʸαѤˤäƤѸǤαѤ100%Τޤۤ櫓ǤϤʤ֤ʸηϤѤȤˤϡ餫Ѳ뤳Ȥʤϡ6˥Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ȤꡤƱ˴ܸ˼Ѥ줿ȤǤ롥
Görlach (35) ϡʸηϤμѤ˺ݤƲꤦ뤫6վǵƤ롥ɽʸǤ륢ե٥åȤμѤǰƬ֤ƤβվȻפ뤬ʲ˰Ѥ
Since no two languages have the same phonemic inventory, any transfer of an alphabet creates problems. The following solutions, especially to render 'new' phonemes, appear to be the most common:
1. New uses for unnecessary letters (Greek vowels).
2. Combinations (E. <th>) and fusions (Gk <>, OE <æ>, Fr <œ>, Ge <ß>).
3. Mixture of different alphabets (Runic additions in OE; <ȝ>: <g> in ME).
4. Freely invented new symbols (Gk <, , , >).
5. Modification of existing letters (Lat <G>, OE <ð>, Polish <ł>).
6. Use of diacritics (dieresis in Ge Bär, Fr Noël; tilde in Sp mañana; cedilla in Fr ça; various accents and so on).
ʤۤɡ¸ʸˡѤȤȤ⤢СʸФȤȤ⤢Ȥ褦͡ʥѥꤽ¿ϳΤ˸֤ǤʸηϤμѤ˺ݤƵ뤳Ȥ¿⤷ʤǤʤƤ⼫ȯŪ˵ܤ⤢ΤǤϤʤ
㤨о嵭1ˤĤƤϡƱǤäƤ̻Ū˵뤳Ȥ롥űѸ <y> /y/ ˤĤơѸˤƱǤ߿ȼäơƱʸǤϤ̣ǡספȤʤä櫓ѸˤϻҲ /j/ ɽ魯褦ˤʤä֤ˤä /i/ ΰ֤ȤǤϡܿľŪ˴ؤäƤʤ褦˻פ (cf. #3069. Ϣ9֤ʤ try tried Ȥʤꡤdie dying ȤʤΤס ([2017-09-21-1]))
Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.
줿餷Ѥʵ䡥ʤ <th> 2ʸʤΤ1ĤλҲбƤΤʤѤο1ʸѰդʤäΤȤ䤤Ǥ
Ѹ <th> ȤֻӤбȯ /θ, ð/ ϡƹ٤ǸޤѸǺǹ٤θǤ괧 the Ϥᡤthey, their, that, then, though ʤɡ"th-sound" ϤʤʤȯʤѸΥñˤ褯ޤѸؽԤˤȤäơάʤ櫓ˤϤʤֻǤȯʤ櫓Ǥ"th-sound" ˤĤƤϡth γƵǼ夲ƤΤǡ
<th> ɽ魯̵ /θ/ ˤͭ /ð/ ˤ衤ȯȤƤϤޤ1ҲбƤ櫓ʤΤǡֻȤƤ1ʸƤ٤ȤͤϡΤޤ1ĤλҲ /t/ Ф1ĤλҲ <t> б1ĤλҲ /f/ Ф1ĤλҲ <f> бΤƱ褦ˡ1Ĥ "th-sound" Ǥ /θ/ 뤤 /ð/ Фơ餫1ĤλҲбƤƤԻĤϤʤϤǤȤξˤϤʤ <th> 2ʸ䤷Ƥ櫓Ǥ֤ȤƤϡٸ˸ˡ<th> 2ʸǤϤʤ1ʸǽФ֤ڤʤΤˡȻפΤ̵̤ȤǤ
ɸ䤤⤷ΤϡѸ˾νפäƤ뤫Ǥ¤ϡűѸ졦ѸλˤϡФ "th-sound" б1ĤʸäΤǤ2ѰդƤꡤ1Ĥ "thorn" Ȥ̾ʸ <þ> Ȥ⤦1Ĥ "edh" Ȥ̾ʸ <ð> ȤǤԤϸΥޥ줬Ƥ롼ʸ (runic) ήѤΤǤꡤԤϥ <d> ˲դΤˤʤäƤޤűѸˤ̤ѤƤޤѸˤʤä <ð> Ѥ졤<þ> ͥȤʤޤƱѸ˥ƥեˡαƶˤꡤѸƱҲФ2ʸ䤹 <th> ֻƬƤޤơѸˤϡѤȯڤ˺ݤ <th> ͥŪФ줿Ȥ⤢ꡤ1ʸ <þ> ϤĤ˿ह˻äΤǤդηаޤˤĤƤϡ#1329. Ѹˤˤ eth, thorn, <th> ([2012-12-16-1])#1330. Ѹˤ eth, thorn, <th> ([2012-12-17-1]) Ȥ
ɸѤʵκˤռϡ֤ʤ <th> 2ʸʤΤ1ĤλҲбƤΤʤѤο1ʸѰդʤäΤפȤȤǤѸŪˤߤȡ¤ϤҤä֤䤦ͤΤפʤΤǤĤޤ"th-sound" ФƸűѸ졦ѸǤ1ʸ <þ>, <ð> äѰդƤΤˡʤѸˤ2ʸʤ <th> ˤ虜虜֤줿ΤפȤȤʤޤ
Ѹˤ th-sound ȸƤФѤȯޤܸˤϤʤȯʤΤǡ䤿ϤŪᤤ /s/ /z/ ʹꡤԲԲDz봷˽äƤޤѤȯפȤΤܸüԤˤȤäƤǤʤ¿ѸüԤˤȤäƤƱͤǡޤ괷ʤǤ뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ̣ǡth-sound ȤƤαѸΡֶ̤פȤäƤ褤⤷ޤǤϡβİ
th-sound θΤʤǤŪޤʲȤȤǤޤΤ餳β³ƤѸǹͤȡȤ櫓ͭ /ð/ ϡthe, this, that, then, there, though, with ʤɡ٤ι⤤˸뤿ˡ¤ϥ㡼ʲȤäƤ褤ΤǤȤ /θ/, /ð/ /s/, /z/ ȶ̤ƽƤʤФʤʤʤǤ
ѤʵȴϢơ##842,1022,1329εå
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow