ī㡼ɶdz֤Ƥֺ֥ڥǤɤѸˡ⡤53ޤ210ڡˤ˳줿3515̤ through --- ѸΥڥפѤ饤ɻ˥åפƤޤ
ϡѸΩڥ濴˿ʤΤ褦Ω֤ɤΤ褦ˤ줬λˤƲäƤȤˤʤäޤݥȤȤưʲ3Ŧޤ
Υޥˤɸֻڥ˱
ȤƼ˴Ťڥ͡ʲ
Ѹڥɸಽ
ΤȤơɸŪڥˡȤȯۤƶḽŪʤΤǤ뤳ȤǧǤΤǤϤʤȻפޤʲ饤ɤΥڡȤ˥ĥäƤޤ褫ΥפޤơȤƤɤ
1. ֺ¡إڥǤɤѸˡ3515̤ through--- ѸΥڥ
2.
3. (1) Υޥڥ
4. ΥޥѸޤǤά
5. 515̤ through (#53, #54), 134̤ such
6. 6ñǤߤѸڥ
7. busy, bury, merry
8. Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales Ƭ
9. 7ܤμܴ (#2788)
10. (2) ڥ͡ʲ
11. (3) ڥκɸಽ
12. ޤȤ
13. ʸ
#1511. űѸ sc θ ([2013-06-16-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡޥ [sk] ϸűѸ˸ȻФ [ʃ] ؤѲԤϡűѸǤ scip (ship) Τ褦 <sc> ȤŻ (digraph) ֤줿#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1]) ȤꡤѸˤϿŻ <sh> ֤褦ˤʤä
ޥƱˤƤ [sk] ݤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿Τǡ餬Ѹ˼ѤȡѸȤȤŸ (doublet) 뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ѹ shirt ȸťΥɸ줫 skirt δط褯ΤƤ뤬ɸ˵ ship, skiff, skip(per) Τ褦ʻŸȤ⤤٤ط鸫Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥
פ̣Źϥɥĸñ scifɥĸǤ Schiff Ǥ롥Ҳ [f] ϡ2ޥҲ (sgcs) η̤Źϥɥĸ sciff ϸťꥢ schifo ȤƼѤ졤˸ťե esquif ФѸ skif Ȥƾ̣Ȥä줬Ѹ skiff Ǥ롥ե equip ˤϢ
Ƭ [sk] ݤä楪 schip ղä skipper ϡḶ́ȤѸꡤߤ˻롥θʬṳ̂졤ɤ skip ȤʤΤǡǤߤȤ˻Ÿ줬Ǥ롥skipper ˤĤƤϡ#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1]) ⻲ȡ
ʤ캬ϥꥷ skaptein ʤȴˤȶ̤Ƥꡤڤ̤ƺäΥˤĤʤ롥
ɸˤĤơJones English Pronouncing Dictionary (12th ed.) Ѥơ<gh> ޤͭ̾졤졤ʣ90оݤȤĴԤʤäƤ롥ʲˡ (145--46) ƼƤ
1. Spelling ˤĤ
(1) Digraph 'gh' ΰ֤ˤʬ
Ƭˤ 6 (7%) ˤ 19 (21%) ˤ (-t ޤ 65 (72%)
Ƭ 'gh' Ϥ٤ gh [g] Ǥ롥
(2) 첻ˤʬ
- ough(t) ޤ 29 73 -igh(t) ޤ 24 -augh(t) ޤ 10 -eigh(t) ޤ 10 ¾ 17
2. Sound ˤĤ
(1) 'gh' ˤʬ
gh [g] 14 (16%) gh [f] 10 (10%) gh-mute 62 (70%) ¾β 4 (4%)
'gh' [g] ɬפ˺줿ѸǤ롥ѲˤΤȤƤ [f] 줬䤢볰ϤۤȤۻǤȤ롥
(2) gh-mute ʬ
[-ait] Ȥʤ 25 54 [ɔːt] Ȥʤ 19 [-eit] Ȥʤ 10 ¾β 8
βѲΩڤȤȤˡ 'gh' digraph 첻Ȥδط̩ܤǤäȤܤ٤Ǥ
(3) ˤʬ
ñ 68 (76%) 2 19 (21%) 3 3 (3%)
'gh' word ñ frequency ι⤤ܸ줬¿դ¿ϤۤȤɤü͢Ǥ롥
ȤƤϡ<gh> ޤñǤϡthough thought Τ褦ñ줬ǤŵŪǤ롥7ۤɤñǤ뤫2ŻĤ̵б뤫Ǥ롥
<gh> ˴ϢȤơ#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1])#210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1])#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1])#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1])#2085. <ough> β ([2015-01-11-1]) ʤɤε⻲ȡ
ͺDigraph 'gh' ȯã˴ؤŪͻסعظ浪ס41967ǯ128--47ǡ
(118) Ĵ٤ˤȡѸˡˤƻҲۻ (silent_letter) ޤϡޤ420줢ȤҲ̤Ȱʲ̤ꡥ<b> (24 words), <c> (11), <ch> (4), <d> (17), <f> (2), <g> (41), <gh> (41), <h> (57), <k> (11), <l> (67), <m> (1), <n> (14), <s> (22), <p> (31), <ph> (2), <r> (1), <t> (37), <th> (2), <w> (33), <x> (2) ʸǤϡζ㤬ҤƤꡤԴѤǤ롥ʲɤǤƤ⤷äճäʤɤǤиȴФҲ𤷤
(1) <mb> <b> ۻȤʤϡ#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]), #1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])#1917. numb ([2014-07-27-1]) ʤɤǵƤ⤦ɲäǤ롥űѸѸ <b> (= /b/) Ϥʤä <b> 줿ΤȤ limb, crumb, numb, thumb 롥ĤƤϼ¸Ƥ <b> = /b/ ̵Ȥơclimb, bomb, lamb, comb, dumb, plumb, succumb 롥<mb> Ȥ߹碌Ǥ⡤rhomb ɩ, zimb ʥ֤ΰ, iamb ʼ嶯ʡˤʤɤѸǤ <b> ȯ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
(2) #2362. haplology ([2015-10-15-1]) ¾Ȥơmineralogy < mineralology, pacifism < pacificism, stipend < stipi-pendium, tragicomedy < tragic comedy 롥
(3) perhaps ϤȯǤ /præps/ Ȥʤꡤ<h> ۻȤʤ롥
(4) iron ˤơꥫѸǤ <r> ȯ뤬ꥹѸǤ <r> ̵ /ˈaɪən/ Ȥʤ롥
(5) kiln
ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) /kɪln/ ̤Ѹ <n> ̵ȤʤäŪȯ /kɪl/ ⤢롥Ʊͤ Milne /mɪln/ ̤Jones ȯŵ (1967) Ǥ /mɪl/ ΤߤǧƤȤ顤ֻȯϤĤǶΤȤΤ褦
(6) Christmas տȯǤ /ˈkrɪstməs/ Ȥʤ <t> ۻȤʤʤΤ褦ʻҲ˶ޤ줿ĶǤϡŪ <t> ̵ȤʤΤ̾ä (see #379. often spelling pronunciation ([2010-05-11-1]))
(7) ҳѸȤƤ southeast, northeast Ǥ <th> ̵Ȥʤ롥/saʊ ˈiːst/, /nɔːr ˈiːst/
ʸɤȡۻΥץˤʤ롪
Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
ε#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) ˰³ (19--21) ȤơҲʻˤбɽǤ롥
| consonantal phoneme | consonantal grapheme | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /p/ | p, gh, pp, ph, pe | 5 |
| 2 | /b/ | b, bh, bb, pb, be | 5 |
| 3 | /t/ | t, th, pt, ct, ed, tt, bt | 7 |
| 4 | /d/ | d, bd, dh, dd, ed, ddh | 6 |
| 5 | /k/ | k, c, kh, ch, que, qu, cque, cqu, q, cch, cc, ck, che, ke, x, gh, cu | 17 |
| 6 | /q/ | g, gu, gh, gg, gue | 5 |
| 7 | /ʧ/ | ch, tch, t, c, cz, te, ti | 7 |
| 8 | /ʤ/ | j, g, dg, gi, ge, dj, g, di, d, dge, gg, ch | 12 |
| 9 | /f/ | f, ph, gh, ff, v, pph, u, fe | 8 |
| 10 | /v/ | v, f, ph, vv, v | 5 |
| 11 | /θ/ | th | 1 |
| 12 | /ð/ | th | 1 |
| 13 | /s/ | s, sci, c, sch, ce, ps, ss, sw, se | 9 |
| 14 | /z/ | z, se, x, ss, cz, zz, sc | 7 |
| 15 | /ʃ/ | sh, shi, sch, s, si, ss, ssi, ti, ch, ci, ce, sci, chsi, se, c, psh, t | 17 |
| 16 | /ʒ/ | s, z, si, zi, ti, ge | 6 |
| 17 | /h/ | h, wh, x | 3 |
| 18 | /m/ | m, mb, mn, mm, mpd, gm, me | 7 |
| 19 | /n/ | n, mn, ne, pn, kn, gn, nn, mpt, ln, dn | 10 |
| 20 | /ŋ/ | ng, n, ngue, nd, ngh | 5 |
| 21 | /l/ | l, ll, le | 3 |
| 22 | /r/ | r, rh, rrh, rr, wr | 5 |
| 23 | /j/ | y, j, i, ll | 4 |
| 24 | /w/ | w, o, ou, u | 4 |
| 159 |
ѸβǤʸǤбˤĤƾܺ٤˵ҤʸꤷøįƤȡϳΤʤ褦ٿդʧĤᡤŪ褦ȤȤλäƤ롥ϡ (18--19) ˷ǤƤ첻˴ؤ벻ǤʸǤбɽƸơбޤºݤθˤĤƤϡľʸäƤ
| vocalic phoneme | vocalic grapheme | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /i/ | ee, ea, e, e...e, ei, ie. eo, i, ae, oe, ay, ey, eau, e, ui | 15 |
| 2 | /ɪ/ | i, ie, e, y, o, ui, ee, u, ay, ea, ei, ia, ai, a, ey, eight | 16 |
| 3 | /e/ | e, ea, ai, ay, eo, ie, ei, u, eh, ey, ae, egm, a, oe | 15 |
| 4 | /æ/ | a, ai | 2 |
| 5 | /ʌ/ | u, o, ou, oo, oe, ow | 6 |
| 6 | /ɑ/ | are, ah, al, ar, a, er, au, aa, ear, aar, ir | 11 |
| 7 | /ɐ/ | o, a, ow, ou, au, ach | 6 |
| 8 | /ɔ/ | aw, a, al, au, ough, oa, or, our, oo, ore, oar, as, o, augh | 15 |
| 9 | /ʊ/ | oo, o, ou, oul, oe, or | 7 |
| 10 | /uː/ | oo, o, o...e, u, wo, oe, ou, uh, ough, ow, ui, eux, ioux, eu, ew, ieu, ue, oeu | 18 |
| 11 | /ɜ/ | ur, urr, ear, ir, err, er, or, olo, our, eur, yr, yrrh | 12 |
| 12 | /ə/ | a, u, ar, o, e, ia, i, ough, gh, ou, er, o(u)r, or, ei, ure, eon, oi, or, oar | 19 |
| 13 | /eɪ/ | a...e, a, ea, ai, ei, ay, ao, eh, ey, eigh, ag, aig, e, alf, aa, au, ae, oi, e, et | 20 |
| 14 | /ɑɪ/ | i, i...e, eye, ay, ie, y, igh, uy, y...e, ign, ye, eigh, is, ui, oi, ey, ei, ais | 19 |
| 15 | /ɔɪ/ | oi, oy, eu, uoy | 4 |
| 16 | /əʊ/ | o...e, ol, ow, oh, owe, o, ou, oa, oe, eo, ew, ough, eau, au, ogn | 16 |
| 17 | /aʊ/ | ow, aou, ou, eo, au, ough, iaour | 7 |
| 18 | /ɪə/ | ear, eer, ia, ere, eir, ier, a, ea, eu, iu, e, eou, eor, iou, io, ir | 16 |
| 19 | /eə/ | are, air, ear, eir, ere, aire, ar, ayor | 8 |
| 20 | /ʊə/ | uo, oer, oor, ure, our, ua, ue, we, uou | 9 |
| 241 |
ε#2424. digraph (2) ([2015-12-16-1]) ǤϡŻ (digraph) 뤤ʣʸ (compound grapheme) ȤƤ <th> ȤƼ夲2ʸ <h> ȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1]) ȤѤƤȤҲ𤷤ޤŪˡܸեΥ夲ξǡ䥢ޤǸɤŪǤΤФơѸ <h> Ϥ켫ΤñʸǤȤƤѤȤۤŦ줫ˡȤƤ櫓ǤƤ櫓Ǥʤˤäơ褦ȯ̵ǽ̤٤ۤʤʤѰդƤΤȤȤĥäǤ롥
ˤĤʤƹͤƤߤû첻 /e/ Ĺ첻 /eː/ ̤ˡɤΤ褦ˡ뤫˼ޤ⤽ζ̤ʤȤ褬롥ƥû첻 edo (I eat) Ĺ첻 edo (I give out) Ǥ롥ƥʤɤǤϡؼԤȽ䤹褦Ԥ edōԤ ēdō ɽ뤳ȤϤ뤬¤θŵƥƥȤˤƤϤΤ褦Ĺ (macron) ϸʤ첻ĹûƤñǤ뤫ϡʸ̮ȽǤΤƥήäƱͤˡܸΡֱסʤˤȡֱʼסʤؤˤˤֱҡפˤƤ⡤첻ĹûŪ˼Ƥʤ
ˡȯѤơĹǤ뤳ȤȤˡ롥ҤΥƥؼѤĹ椬ޤˤѸʤɤǤ첻ξ˥դȤǡĹȤԤƤޤѸ Richard Hodges ˤ붵Ūֻˤ⥦饦ȵ椬ƳƤ (see #2002. Richard Hodges ֻפʤֻ ([2014-10-20-1])) Ȼ褦ȤơҲ̾ˤ֥פФ֥פ˸Ĺʲˤ롥֡פϡ֥פƱͤˤä1ʸʬΥڡȤǡʤȤ⸫ɤϥƥĹ䥢ۤŪǤϤʤǤϡIPA International Phonetic Alphabet; ݲɸʸˤĹ /ː/ ֡פ˻ƤȤ롥ǵƼϡñȤǤϰ̣ʤɬǽŪ˥ᥤʸ˽°뤫ѤƤ뤳Ȥդ
³ơʿ̾Ρ֤פΤ褦ˡƱʸ֤Ȥˡ롥ѸǤѸǤ met /met/ Ф meet /meːt/ ʤɤʸ֤Ȥ̤˸줿
ޤ#2423. digraph (1) ([2015-12-15-1]) Ǥ夲褦ʡϢ³ʣʸ (discontinuous compound grapheme) λѤ롥Ѹ줫ѸˤƹԤ줿red /red/ rede /reːd/ Τ褦ʽΩǤ롥rede 2ܤ <e> 1ܤ <e> ĹˤƷꤷƤ롥
ǸˡꥷǤϤޤäۤʤʸѤû첻 ǡĹ첻 ɽ魯
Τ褦ˡˤäƼʤۤʤ졤ۤƱǽ餫ˡǼƤʤ뤤ϡʤˤΤǤ롥
ε ([2015-12-15-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѸŻ (digraph) 뤤ʣʸ (compound grapheme) Τ<ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> Τ褦2ĤʸǤ <h> ǤΤϾʤʤ٤ƤˤƤϤޤ櫓ǤϤʤŪˤäơ <h> εǽϡ1ʸǤɽ魯ŵŪʻҲǤΤIJ餫ħ (distinctive feature) ѲȤΤ岽˻ꡤꡤꡤꡤ̵ѲΤϰꤷƤʤ1ʸǤб벻Ǥˤ֤ǽäƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥ겼Υ٥ħƯ뵡ǽäƤȤ̣ˤƤϡ<h> ϵǽŪˤΩʸȤȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1]) ˶ᤤΤ褦˵ǽȤƤŪǤʤ顤κۤȤƤΩʸ <h> ٤äƤȤʤɤʤ
ܸβ̾դȯǤͤ褦ᥤʸǡ֤פαˡۤΩʤ褦äȡ֤פȤʤ롥ϡͭˤȤħƯƤꡤǽȤƤϾҤ <h> Ƥ롥Ʊͤˡեˡˤ <é>, <è>, <ê> ʤɤΥ⡤ᥤȤʤʸ <e> ŪղäơĤĴ䳫ĴĹĴʤɤɸ뤳Ȥ롥Ĥޤꡤᥤβμ̤ˤäȤѤäȤŪʵǽ̤Ƥ롥ܸեΥϡΤ褦ˡǽŪǤΤƱͤˡɤˤƤ⤢ޤŪǡޤΤǤ롥
Ȥʣʸ <th> ˤ <h> ϻ𤬰ۤʤ롥<h> ϡñȤǤʸǤȤƵǽ롥<h> ϥᥤ⥵֤̳ΤФ䥢ñȤǥᥤ̳뤳ȤϤǤʤСܸեǤϡ֤ܤŰȯȤ٥ñ̤¸ߤ뤬ѸǤϤ줬¸ߤޤǻŪΩ <h> Ȥ1ʸǽŪˤϥᥤΤߤʤ餺֤ˤѤȤȤǤ롥˰³ƶĴ뤬Τ褦˱ѸˡǤϡǽŪ˥٥ΰۤʤΤ̤ʤѤƤȤʤΤǤ롥
ʤ2Ĥΰۤʤ٥ʬȤơ (ligature) 롥<ae>, <oe> 2ĤñʸǤ¤Ӥ <æ>, <œ> 1ĤʣʸǤб롥䡤ξ硤ϤǤʣʸǤǤ뤳ȤơñʸǤˤʤäƤȸ٤ (see #2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1])#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]))
Ѹˤ <ai>, <ea>, <ie>, <oo>, <ou>, <ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <qu>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> 2ʸǤ1ñ̤ȤʤäβǤɽ魯Ż (digraph) ¸ߤ롥#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1])#2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1])#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]) ۤεǼ夲ƤϤΤ褦 digraph ˤĤbeautiful ˤ <eau> ʤɤλŻ (trigraph) 䤽ʾȤ߹碌⤢뤬ǽҤ٤ digraph ε trigraph ʤɤˤƤϤޤϤǤ롥
⤽⡤ƥΤˡ̤Хꥷ䥻ϤθΤȯãƤ alphabet ȤϲŪˤ礭ۤʤǤѸˡΤޤޤޤŬѤȤȤϡ褦ʤޥե٥åȤƼ줿űѸꡤǤοʸοϰפʤäΤǤ롥ǤΤۤ¿äΤǡ̤ʸɽ褦ȤСɤƤʣʸȤ߹碌1ĤβǤбȤ褦ˡɬפȤʤ롥㤨 /æːa/, /ʤ/, /ʃ/ ϳơ <ea>, <cg>, <sc> digraph ɽ줿 (see #17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1])) ĤޤꡤѸ줬ޥե٥åȤǽɽ뤳Ȥˤʤäǽʳ顤digraph Τ褦ʸȤ߹碌뤳ȤϡȾԲäȹͤ롥Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤϡ餫ѤĤġ¿ͤʲѤäʤѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸؤȯŸƤä
"digraph" ȤѸˤĤƤǤ롥θƾΤϤɤ餫ȤʸǤ2Ȥ߹蘆äȤŪ¦̤˾ƤƤ뤬2Ĥ1ĤβǤбȤǽŪ¦̤Ĵ硤"compound grapheme" (Robert 14) ȤѸ줬ŬڤRobert (14) ˼褦
We term ai in French faire or th in English thither, compound graphemes, because they function as units in representing single phonemes, but are further divisible into units (a, i, t, h) which are significant within their respective graphemic systems.
compound grapheme ʣʸǡˤϢ³2ʸǤɬפʤ"[d]iscontinuous compound grapheme" Ϣ³ʣʸǡˤ⤢ꤦ롥ѸΡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) Ǥꡤ<name> <site> ˤơ<a .. e> <i .. e> Ϣ³Ȥ߹碌ˤ2첻 /eɪ/ /aɪ/ ɽ蘆Ƥ롥
ʣʸǤˡϡˤ롥Robert ΰѤǼƤ褦ˡ<th> ȤʣʸǤϡñʸ <t> <h> Ȥ߹蘆äκۤƤʤ顤ñʸǤ뵡ǽ̤ƤȤ¤롥<t> <h> ñΤʸǤȤ1Ǥɽ魯ǽͭ뤬ƱˡΤˤϡͽۤ2ǤǤϤʤ̤1ǤˤбΤλŦϡʣʸǤȤϡΤΤΤ褦ʹ뤫⤷ʤǶĴΤϡʸ˥եåȤɽ븽ԤαѸˤƤϡ<th> ȤʸȤˡ(1) 2Ĥñʸ <t>, <h> ̤λʤǤν¤ΤʤΤ뤤 (2) 1Ĥʣʸ <th> ƤΤȽǤǤʤȤȤ(1) (2) ʸΥ٥뤬ۤʤäƤꡤ餫νʬäƤ褵ʤΤեåȤ th ɽ롥㤨С<catham> <catholic> ˤơƱɤ <th> ǤԤ (1)Ԥ (2) ȤƵǽƤ롥(*)<cat-ham>, *<ca(th)olic> ʤɤȡǫ˶̤ˡäƤ褵ŪˤϹԤƤʤʤɤʬɤϡʸŪȽǤˡǤζڤ꤬ɤǤ뤫ȤȽǡ뤤ϸȤƤǧΤ˺ѤޤƤΤǤ롥СѸ켰ʣʸǤλѤϡʬŪǤ졤ֻɽäƤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
ΡʣʸǤפϤۤˤ櫓ǤʤŪˤϤ礭ǤϤʤ⤷ʤκۤƱ <th> ˸ʤ⡤2Ĥΰۤʤ٥ǵǽƤǽȤȤϡʸαդ٤Ǥ뤳ȤǧʤФʤʤǽŪ˥٥ΰۤʤΤ̤ʤ˥եåȤ¤٤ȤפǤ롥
Hall, Robert A., Jr. "A Theory of Graphemics." Acta Linguistica 8 (1960): 13--20.
ε#2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1]) ˰³ <ae> ֻˤĤơUpward and Davidson (219--20) ȤĤļ夲롥
ꥷ <oi> ŵƥޤǤ <oe> ȤƼ褦ˤʤäƤΤƱͤˡꥷ <ai> ϥƥؤ <ae> ȤƼ줿 (ex. G aigis > L aegis) Ż (digraph) ɽ蘆줿2첻ϸŵʹߤΥƥdz경ᡤֻ <ae> <e> ñΤɽ蘆褦ˤʤääơѸǤϡŵʹߤΥƥեʤɤäˤƤ <e> ŵƥľܻȤƤμѸ֤ľˤƤ <ae> 褦ˤʤäñˤäƤϡꥷΥꥸʥ <oi> ȹ碌ơ3ֻβǽˤĤäƤ㤬 (ex. daimon, daemon, demon; cainozoic, caenozoic, cenozoic)
ѸǤ <ae> ֤뤳Ȥ⤢ä <e> ؤñ㲽夷⾯ʤʤ(a)enigma, (a)ether, h(a)eresy, hy(a)ena, ph(a)enomenon, sph(a)ere ʤɤǤ롥ޤ˺ <ae> ݻƤΤϡꥹֻˤäǤ롥aegis, aeon, aesthetic, aetiology, anaemia, archaeology, gynaecology, haemorrhage, orthopaedic, palaeography, paediatrics ʤɤȤʤ뤬ꥫֻǤ <e> ñ㲽뤳Ȥ¿Michael Ȥ̾⡤<ae> ݼ餷Ƥ롥
ʤ20ޤǤϡ<oe> (ligature) <œ> Ȥư뤳Ȥ̤äΤƱͤˡ<ae> ̾ <æ> ȤưƤޤaerial <æ> ñ <e> ֤뤳ȤʤΤϡ줬ꥷ aerios ̤ΤǤꡤ2Ż <ai> ͳ褹ΤǤϤʤޤǸʸȤ߹碌 <a> + <e> ͳ褹ΤǤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Ѹ <amoeba>, <Oedipus>, <onomatopoeia> ʤɤֻ˸Ż () ηˤ꽾 <e> <oe> Ѥ줿ꡤԤƤѤȤʤʤɡñˤäƤɤ줬ä褦㤨 Phoebus, Phoenician, phoenix ʤɤϸ츻ŪֻȿǤƤꡤޤ夷Ƥ뤬<comoedy>, <tragoedy> ʤɤ夷ʤä
Ѹֻ <oe> κѤưŤʹߤ˼Ѥ줿ƥꥷä츻ŪֻηˤȤСʤ줬μθäФäƴѻ뤫롥ޤ<oe> ϡŵͳ褹ͭ̾ŵŪ˸롥Oedipus, Euboea, Phoebe तꥷޤθŵλʪǰɽ魯⡤ <oe> ݻ䤹 (ex. oecist, poecile) ʳѸʤɤä⡤<oe> ڤŵŪʸǤ (ex. amoeba, oenothera, oestrus dioecious, diarrhoea, homoeostasis, pharmacopoeia, onomatopoeic)
ʤ<oe> 16ʹߤΰˤơ (ligature) <œ> Ȥɽ뤳Ȥ̤ä<oe> ȯˤĤƤϡꥹѸǤ /iː/ бꥫѸǤ /i/ 뤤ϵ /ɛ/ б뤳ȤŦƤޤϾʤեѸͳ褹 <oe> ⤢뤳ȤźƤ (ex. oeil-de-boeuf, oeillade, oeuvre)
ʾ OED o ιफεҤ Upward and Davidson (221--22) ȤƼɮ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
#1826. 첻ĹûľܼȤǤʤ ([2014-04-27-1]) Ǽ夲˿䤷ʤȡɸΤ褦ˡ֥ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯ΤפȸäƤޤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤطʤˤ3ǯĶ륢ե٥åȤˤ롥
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ奮ꥷͤϻҲʸǤե˥Υե٥åȤǺȤƺ3ǯۤ˽첻ϰƤȤ뤬ϰƤϡꥷλҲɽˤȤä;Ūʥե˥ʸΤĤꥷ첻ƤƤߤ褦Ȥɤ餫ȤȾöŪưŤ˴ŤƤĤޤꡤ첻ɽ첻ȯ褦ȤѶŪưä櫓ǤϤʤºݡꥷ͡첻Τɽ綠ȤʤСե˥ե٥åȤΤĤ;ŪʸǤ餫˿ƤȤäƿ첻ФȤϡޤŪʸåȤѤƻҲƱˤĤ첻֤ɽ碌褦˹פȤȤե˥ʸʸΥޥե٥åȤŪȯŸεҤ Horobin (48--49) ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
The Origins of the Roman alphabet lie in the script used by Phoenician traders around 1000 BC. This was a system of twenty-two letters which represented the individual consonant sounds, in a similar way to modern consonantal writing systems like Arabic and Hebrew. The Phoenician system was adopted and modified by the Greeks, who referred to them as 'Phoenician letters' and who added further symbols, while also re-purposing existing consonantal symbols not needed in Greek to represent vowel sounds. The result was a revolutionary new system in which both vowels and consonants were represented, although because the letters used to represent the vowel wounds in Greek were limited to the redundant Phoenician consonants, a mismatch between the number of vowels in speech and writing was created which still affects English today.
ξöŪ첻ϰƤȤϡΤޤޥȥꥢʸ줫ؤꡤŪˤϸѸˤĤʤäƤ롥ѸˤޤᡤθѤƤ¿θѼŪʳˤơ첻Τɽ魯ˡԤ߽ФƤѸˤ˸¤äƤ⡤Ż (digraph) ʤʸȤ߹碌ˤꡤ첻ɽȤȤϤФйԤƤmagic <e> (cf. #1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1])) ˤߤ褦ȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])) Ū <e> λѤˤä첻β䲻̤ɽߤʤƤѸˤƤ⡤ˡϴŪ첻ɽˤȤɤޤꡤФ1ʸľܤ첻ɽȤѤϸŪǤ롥ǯȤĹ֤Ū¤ΩĤΤǤСϥե٥åȤҲʸȤƻϤޤäȤμȤΤΤ⤷ʤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Ѹˤˤ̵ԹŸ /ʃ/ ϰŪʲǤäȤ뤬ɽ魯ֻϥꥨ˭٤äḽѸǤŻ (digraph) <sh> §Ȥ櫓ѸǤ͡ʰֻԤƤˤγάϡ#1893. إܥ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ϤɤΤ餤Ѹ ([2014-07-03-1]) Ǽۤˤ#479. bushel ([2010-08-19-1]) #1238. Υޥ̻οá ([2012-09-16-1]) εǴϢ˷ڤƤ
OED sh, n.1 ˰͵ơѸ˾塤λҲɤΤ褦֤ƤΤ⤦٤ҤޤϡOED εҤ˴ŤƤ餢ǯɽΤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡͤޤǤˡ

ʲä롥űѸɸֻä <sc> ѸȿΰӤɤꡤ¾μΰֻ֤뤳ȤˤʤäλҲΥեβǤȤƤ¸ߤʤäᡤեǽȤ˴ƤѸμ̻ϡ餫ιפ뤳ȤˤʤäǤñʻߤñȤ <s> ѤˡǡѸǤϸƬȸ /ʃ/ ɽ魯ΤѤ줿ŪˤϤʤʤäŻҲ <ss> ϴĶФѤ줿Ȥ⤢ꡤ깭Ѥ줿ȸǤ <ssh> ᡤĹ16ޤѤ줿16ѤȤƤϡCoverdale (1535) ǤФѤ줿 <szsh> <szh> 뤬ޤѤǿԤϽФʤä<ss> <sch> ΤۤѸȾФͥäֻȤƤϡɥĸֻפ碌 <sch> ʤ櫓ˤϤʤȤ櫓ƬǤϹԤ졤Ǥ16ޤ³
θǤ˸ /ʃ/ ɽ魯ΤˡֻѤ줿롥㤨 she ɽ魯Τˡ13ˤ <sge>, , <sze> Τ褦ֻȤѤ줿East Anglia Ǥϡ褯ΤƤ褦 shall should θƬҲ <x> ֤졤̯ <xal> <xulde> ߤ줿ޤ -ship ѸǤϤȤ -<chipe> ֤줿
Ǹˡ1200ǯ Ormulum Ǥ⤹Ǥ˵§ŪѤƤ<sh> ͥŻȤ¾뤳Ȥˤʤ롥14Υɥʸ Chaucer ǤŪǤꡤCaxton ǤɸȤʤä
ḽѸǤϡĤθˤƤλҲɽ魯Τ¾λѤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬츻Ū뤤ȯ٤ŪǤ롥㤨Сmachine, schedule, Asia, -tion (cf. #2018. <nacio(u)n> <nation> ֻѲ ([2014-11-05-1])) ʤɤǤ롥
ε ([2014-07-02-1]) κǸˡإܥֻΤʤǡȤ櫓ѸȹͤΤȤ <sh>, <ch>, <j> 3ѸˡȤСֻŪʰ̣ǡֱѸפǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥ΡֱѸפȤǧѸˤȤΩŪʴįȡΤȤ館ѤäƤ뤫⤷ʤŪˤϡֻɬѸŪȤϤʤǤ롥
ޤ<sh> = /ʃ/ ˡȤƳΩΤ15溢ΤȤˤʤűѸǤϡλҲ <sc> ȤŻ (digraph) ǵ§Ū֤ƤŻѸؤѤ줿ѸǤ͡ʰ֤꤬ΩΤʤפƤä㤨СѸ <ship> бΤȤơѸǤ <chip>, <scip>, <schip>, <ship>, <sip>, <ssip> ʤɤֻߤ롥ΤʤǡѸǤ褯Ѥ줿Τ <sch> Ū <sh> ϡ13Ƭ Orm Ƥĵ§ŪѤٰŪˤʤäΤ14Υɥ Chaucer ʤɤ <sh> Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤǤ롥θ塤<sh> 15溢˹褦ˤʤꡤ17ޤǤ¾ΰ֤ѤɤΤ褦ˡŻ <sh> δϡѸھȯȤϳΤѸΰ֤ȤĹˤ褦䤯ޤäǤꡤѸεȤʤäƤˤϤۤĹΤǤϤʤ (Upward and Davidson 157)
ˡ<ch> = /ʧ/ бεϡʤǤ롥λҲϡűѸǤŵŪ첻֤˸졤§Ū <c> ֤줿Ѳη̡<c> ƱĶ /k/ ɽ魯褦ˤʤꡤŤĤ˻äξطʤˤäȤȡѸ Norman French ֻϤʱƶϤäȤˤꡤѸǤϼ Norman French <ch> = /ʧ/ ̤Ȥʤä12ˤϡűѸŪ <c> = /ʧ/ бϤۤȤѤ졤űѸͳñʹߤä <ch> ֤ľ褦ˤʤäŻ <ch> μƤˤϡʸȲΤбܻؤŪȡNorman French ֻοʽФȤ쳰ŪװȤͿƤΤǤ (Upward and Davidson 100)
<j> ˤĤƤϡ#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ ([2014-04-29-1]) ȡ#1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1]) Ǹ褦ˡեѸ̤줿ѸˡϤեֻޤͤΤ˱ѸǤ夷ˤʤºݡ<j> ǻϤޤñϸ§ȤƱѸǤϤʤ
ʾΤ褦ˡǤϡֱѸפǧƤ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ⡤夹ޤǤֻäΤǤꡤ餫ŵŪˡֱѸפä櫓ǤϤʤ<ch> <j> 2Ĥ˻äƤϡΥեåʥ֥ʸǤեֻǤäѸ줬ϤΥեƤ褦ˡܸ줬ߤϤαѸƤȤƤäˤʤֻˡ⡤ĬήȤȤѲ뤳Ȥ⤢Ѱۤ⤹ΤǤ롥ơܿˤƶϡήԤҿʤɤμҲŪװ˰¸ΤǤ롥Ρɾ⡤ŪʴޤΩŪˤʤɬפȹͤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
#1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1]) <wh> ֻбȯˤĤƿ줿ɸѸǤϡ<wh> <w> Ʊͤ /w/ бĤƤä̤Ϥʤʸˤ19ȾޤǤɸѼǤ̤ĤƤˤкǤߤ伫Ȥ⥹åȥαˤŪ /hw/ ȯʹƤΤФƤ롥<wh> = /hw/ δطƤʬۤˤĤƤθڤƤߤޤϡCrystal (466) 顥
One example is the distinction between a voiced and a voiceless w --- as in Wales vs whales --- which was maintained in educated speech until the second half of the nineteenth century. That the change was taking place during that period is evident from the way people began to notice it and condemn it. For Cardinal Newman's younger brother, Francis, writing in his seventies in 1878, comments: 'W for Hw is an especial disgrace of Southern England.' Today, it is not a feature of Received Pronunciation . . ., though it is kept in several regional accents . . . .
OED wh, n. ˤȡΤ褦ʵҤ롥
In Old English the pronunciation symbolized by hw was probably in the earliest periods a voiced bilabial consonant preceded by a breath. This was developed in two different directions: (1) it was reduced to a simple voiced consonant /w/; (2) by the influence of the accompanying breath, the voiced /w/ became unvoiced. The first of these pronunciations /w/ probably became current first in southern Middle English under the influence of French speakers, whence it spread northwards (but Middle English orthography gives no reliable evidence on this point). It is now universal in English dialect speech except in the four northernmost counties and north Yorkshire, and is the prevailing pronunciation among educated speakers. The second pronunciation, denoted in this Dictionary by the conventional symbol /hw/, . . . is general in Scotland, Ireland, and America, and is used by a large proportion of educated speakers in England, either from social or educational tradition, or from a preference for what is considered a careful or correct pronunciation.
ˡLPD "wh Spelling-to-Sound" ˤС
Where the spelling is the digraph wh, the pronunciation in most cases is w, as in white waɪt. An alternative pronunciation, depending on regional, social and stylistic factors, is hw, thus hwaɪt. This h pronunciation is usually in Scottish and Irish English, and decreasingly so in AmE, but not otherwise. (Among those who pronounce simple w, the pronunciation with hw tends to be considered 'better', and so is used by some people in formal styles only.) Learners of EFL are recommended to use plain w.
ơTrudgill (39) ˤ⡥
[The Northumberland area, which also includes some adjacent areas of Cumbria and Durham] is the only area of England . . . to retain the Anglo-Saxon and mediaeval distinction between words like witch and which as 'witch' and 'hwitch'. Elsewhere in the country, the 'hw' sound has been lost and replaced by 'w' so that whales is identical with Wales, what with watt, and so on. This distinction also survives in Scotland, Ireland and parts of North America and New Zealand, but as far as the natural vernacular speech of England is concerned, Northumberland is uniquely conservative in retaining 'hw'. This means that in Northumberland, trade names like Weetabix don't work very well since weet suggests 'weet' /wiːt/ whereas wheat is locally pronounced 'hweet' /hwiːt/.
ɤ˸¤СʬۤϤ褽ʲϰ˸ꤵȤȤǤ롥
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Ϣơ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ⻲ȡ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1029. England θѸʬ (1) ([2012-02-20-1]) ڤӡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) ȡ
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
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