#6250. ʤűѸʸˡ̾ޤ֤ stan ʤΤ (2) ([2026-06-07-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤإᥤȤ ykagata ֡θűѸ̾ɽ stn ǻϤޤܡϤޤʤܡƤ롥 Smith (66) ѤƤ롥ʲ˺ƷǤ褦
OE nouns can be classified into five groups, or declensions. In decreasing order of frequency of occurrence in OE, these declensions are:
(1) General Masculine Declension
(2) General Feminine Declension
(3) General Neuter Declension
(4) the -an Declension
(5) Irregular Declensions
ǡ̾ޤηˤĤŪ̻Ūʥ٥ѤŪŪʥ٥ѤƤ뤳Ȥykagata ϾƤ롥
(1) (5) ٤ι⤤¤٤ƤȤȤΡ١פΥϤɤƤΤ餯ˤǤϤʤűѸŪQuirk and Wrenn (20) εƤΨʤ뤤Ϥ餫Υˤ˰͵ƤΤǤϤʤˤǤ롥οͤɽǤޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤͽ̤ۤꡤŪ̻Ūʥ٥뤬ѤƤաˡ
| Noun Class | Value |
|---|---|
| masculine a-stems | 0.36 |
| masculine n-stems and minor declension | 0.09 |
| feminine o-stems | 0.25 |
| feminine n-stems and minor declension | 0.05 |
| neuter a-stems | 0.25 |
| neuter n-stems | insignificant |
θδܸȤ櫓 S, V, O 3Ǥ¤ӽΥѥˤĤơʲεʤɤǰäƤ
#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1])
#2786. 칽¤Ͽ --- WALS Online ([2016-12-12-1])
#3124. ܸ (1) ([2017-11-15-1])
#3125. ܸ (2) ([2017-11-16-1])
#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1])
#3129. ܸ (4) ([2017-11-20-1])
#4316. ܸ췿 SOV ϷŪɸѸ췿 SVO Ϥ⤿ʤ ([2021-02-19-1])
#3734. ٥ȸ VSO ε ([2019-07-18-1])
#5585. ػҶβʳء9Ǿ5Ρ֤ʤܸȱѸǤϸ礬㤦ΤǤפ˲ޤ ([2024-08-11-1])
ϡThe World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS Online) Feature 81A: Order of Subject, Object and Verb ˴ŤƺɽǤ#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1]) ǤƱݤεϿŪʸ⤤ĤźΤǡ껲Ȥ䤹ʤäƤȻפ
| SOV | 41% | ܸ졤̸졤ȥ륳졤ҥǥ졤Х |
| SVO | 35% | Ѹ졤졤եɸ졤ҥ졤٥ȥʥ |
| VSO | 7% | ɸ졤ϥ磻졤ޥ |
| VOS, OVS, OSV | 3% | ޥ饬졨ĥХ졨ȥХƥ |
| ܸʤ | 14% | ϥ졤ե졤졤Х |

77μͼkhelfʷѸ˥եˤˤرѸ˿ʹ٥12椬־ǸޤPDFǼͳ˱ɤǤޤ
顤ͼᡤɮؤԽؤϤƽʤƤޤˤäƸϤ꤮ޤǺǽĴɤƤޤǤä̤ˤĤƤϡɤ¿̤ΥƥĤܤǤ衤ɮԽȺ˴ؤä٤Ƥ khelf СˡޤϫȴդθդҤ٤Ȼפޤ褯ĥäƤޤ꤬Ȥޤ
ơ4̹ȤʤäƤޤɤΤ褦ʵǺܤƤ뤫Ū˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥޤ礦ޤ1̤ϡͼθ˹碌ʤ츻ᤰפꤹޥåʴƬǤɮԤϡܥ֥ heldio Ǥ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ˴ؤ븦ǤߤΡkhelf ߷Ǥɧʤ路¤Υ륿ˤȿɱʤȺ¤Υ٥ˤˤʤߡ2Ĥ¤ˤޤĤñˤɤޤ֤Ⱥ¡ (Lyra) ˴ؤƤϡlyre ֤꤬Ѹ lire 顤츻Υꥷ˶Ť뤿16 y Ѥѹ줿Ȥ츻ŪֻμˤƤꡤɮԤμ褫줿ȤʤäƤޤ
³2̤εϡwh Ϥޤط̾ˡפǤϳ4ǯ Y. T. ˤܳŪʱѸ˥ƥĤǤ䤿Τ褦˻ȤäƤ who which ϡűѸλˤϡïס֤ɤפ̣뵿ǤޤǤط̾ȤƤϻؼͳ褹 that ʤɤѤƤޤѸʹߡwhich ڤ wh 줬ط̾ˡƤޤwho ˤĤƤϡط̾Ȥ夹Τϰճˤ17äƤȡŪ٤ΤǤβϴˤϡShakespeare κʤǡͤԻˤȤ which Ūʸ̮ѤƤޤط̾ᤰˤˤϡñʤʸˡ§ѲˤȤɤޤʤҲŪ˥ʥߥåѲβؤäƤΤǤ
3̤ξˤߤΤϡֱѸ˥饦 by khelfפϢܥʡǤϡĻرؤλ߷ؤΥӥ塼θԤϤޤɮԤ khelf ĹڵǤ߷Ρֿ䤷ܡפȤơʸͺرѸȯãˡ٤ H. Bradley رѸȯãˡ٤ʤɡѸ˸ˤŵŪ̾ʣҲ𤵤ޤޤѸˤؤ̥ϤˤĤơפǽ餺֤ʤפ䤤³뤳Ȥν⤫ƤꡤԤ֤ˤä˼٤ƤȤʤäƤޤ
ơ3̤βǤϡ2̤ǤäȽꤵƤֱѸ˥ BASICפȾܤɤळȤǤޤѸθäˤѸγ˴ؤ륯Ǥ䤤⡤ҵɤƤСɮԤϡرξĹʿǤ
Ǹ4̤ˤϡرɥij̴ˤܳŪʱѸˤεNot ΡֶĴ!?~Jespersen's Cycle ȡָԡפȤƤθ~פǺܤƤޤϡѸʸȯã "Jespersen's Cycle" ˴ؤͤǤǾҲ𤵤꼭μ岽ĴɲâĴ꼭פȤϥեɥĸǤ⸫븽ݤǤǤϤˡ奢ꥫѸΥ squat (: Claudia saw squat.) λ夲Υ뤬塤̤ؤ³ƤǽƤޤ
Τ褦ˡ⤹٤Ƥε khelf СǮդõ濴η뾽ǤѸˤ椹ܵǺ夲رѸ˿ʹ12ҤäȤɤߤйǤ
Ǹˡhellog ɼԤγ1ޤ⤷عμȤʤɤθŪʵʤ뤤ϡ¾νऺ뵡ˤˤơرѸ˿ʹ٤ѤˤϡҾ嵭 heldio ۿΥꡤ뤤Υե̤ƤޤȹǤkhelf γưӤȤʤۤԽѰˤȤäƤߤȤʤޤΤǡϤΤۤɤꤤޤϤع̾Ŀ̾ʤɤξˤĤޤƤϡkhelf μİŪΤߤ˸¤ꡤԤεĤʤ̤˸ʤɤι٤ϰڹԤʤʤݡޤեɥХå̤khelf ˤֱѸˤδ֤ˡפαѸ˳ưhelˤؤλƱޤȹǤ
ǸˡرѸ˿ʹ٤ΥХåʥСʹ泰ޤˤҲ𤷤Ƥޤ碌Ƥɤkhelf HP ΥڡˤХåʥСޤˡ
رѸ˿ʹ1ϴ2022ǯ41
رѸ˿ʹٹ泰12022ǯ410
رѸ˿ʹ22022ǯ711
رѸ˿ʹٹ泰22022ǯ718
رѸ˿ʹ32022ǯ103
رѸ˿ʹ42023ǯ111
رѸ˿ʹ52023ǯ410
رѸ˿ʹ62023ǯ814
رѸ˿ʹ72023ǯ1030
رѸ˿ʹ82024ǯ34
رѸ˿ʹ92024ǯ512
رѸ˿ʹ102024ǯ98
رѸ˿ʹٹ泰32024ǯ98
رѸ˿ʹ112024ǯ1230
YouTube ֤ΤۤإͥκǿƤޤ#317. ǯؤϸθؤ˲ĤǤ
ܥ֥Ǥǯ (glottochronology) ˤĤ͡ʵƤޤĤԥååפƤߤޤ
#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1])
#1729. glottochronology ˬ ([2014-01-20-1])
#2659. glottochronology lexicostatistics ([2016-08-07-1])
#2660. glottochronology ȴܸá ([2016-08-08-1])
#4685. Campbell ˤ glottochronology Ƚ ([2022-02-23-1])
ۿ heldio/helwa Ǥ⡤ʲβǸǯؤˤĤƤäƤޤ
helwa ֡ڱѸˤ #91ꤵ줿ָǯءס (2024/02/08)
heldio #1339. ǯ --- ػˤΰ (2025/01/28)
heldio #1340. ǯؤؤȽؤ٤뤳ȡ (2025/01/29)
θؤʬϡǤϸػˤΰ쥳ޤȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿ǤǥΤϻ¿äȻϹͤƤޤȽ¿ǤαԤȽΤʤΥԥ졼ӽФؤΰѤ˼㤤郎줿ΤǤӸؤʻɷ׳ (lexicostatistics) ȯŸܸäȤϲȤ䤤̣Ǥ˴ؤ⸫ľޤȽˤĹŪˤϥݥƥʰյ뤳ȤƤ빥Ǥ
Ūʳη굯ݥƥʺƲᡤŪѤϡͭפʻߤǤ͡
AZޤǤΥե٥åʸΤʤǡǤ٤ι⤤ʸ㤤ʸϲʸ (letter_frequency) ˤĤƤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1]) β Letter Frequencies (rankings for various languages) ؤΥȤꡤ͡ʸ䥳ѥǤνɽФƤ롥㤨СBNC ˰͵ "etaoinsrhldcumfpgwybvkxjqz" νɽ롥
Crystal (277) ˤϡThe Cambridge Encyclopedia (1st ed.) ƥȡ150ѥȤʸɽǤƤ롥ٽ (Cumulative) Τߤʤ餺ʸءʪءؤγơΥơޤȤ٤ Morse code (morse_code) ٤碌ƼƤ롥ʲΥդϡX˱äٽ (= "eatinorslhdcmufpgbywvkxjq") ʸ¤١YƥơǤٳɴʬΨˤȤΤǤɽϥ HTML ȡˡ

ٽ˾Ȥ餷ƥơޤȤħƤߤȤȡǤɸŪǤ롥ʸؤ³ɸफäƤΤءʪء Morse code Ȥʤ롥
ġʸߤȶ̣¿롥Ū˽Ǥ <h> ¿ (holy?) <l> ʤȡʸؤǤ <w> ¿Ȥϲ̣Τʪؤ䲽ؤϥƥꥷϤñ줬¿ޤޤƤ뤿ˡ¾̤Ȥϼ㴳ۤʤʸ٤ƤΤ⤷ʤŪ Morse code ϡ¾ΥơޤȤܤ˸ưۤʤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.
16--17νѸϡʬѹͥκꡤŵʥƥȥꥷˤºФ졤̤ñ줬Ѹä˼ޤ줿Ǥ롥ƱɽŪʸͤ Shakespeare ʤΤDurkin ˤФηȤΤߤܤȤƤ⡤û֤Υƥͳο ("latinate neologisms") ѸήȤǧȤ
The peak period of the Literary Renaissance was C.1590--1600. The Primary author was Shakespeare who, between 1591 and 1611, introduced no fewer than six hundred latinate neologisms, fifty-three of which occur in Hamlet alone. Many of these became everyday words, e.g. addiction, assassination, compulsive, domineering, obscene, sanctimonious, traditional. (226--27)
Shakespeare ƱŪ¤ϤθƤȤ뤬˽פʤΤϡθοŵ֡ͿȤӤʤΤǤϤʤShakespeare ɽͥ˲ФΤĤŵ줫θüѤδϡ³ˤˤޤɤषĥĤļѤƤäǤ롥Durkin Ϥ³Ƥ롥
After the Renaissance, a vast amount of technical and scientific vocabulary flooded into English from both Greek and Latin, hence words like carnivorous, clitoris, formula, hymen, nucleus. In the next century, Linnaeus [1707--78] introduced numerous biological terms, like chrysanthemums and rhododendron. The Scientific period, which peaked C.1830, featured many Neolatin terms like am(o)eba, bacterium, flagellum. Finally, the modern technical/technological period featured words like floccilation. (227)
Shakespeare Ѹû˾˲̤1ĤȤߤƤ褤
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
1950ǯ줿ɷˡʱѸǡ3431ˤСϢˮθѸ (official_language) ϥǡʡʸ (Devanagari) ǽ줿ҥǥ (hindi) ȤƤ롥15ǯ֤ϱѸλŪѤǧ롤ȤâबäƤˡ15ǯθˤ⡤Ѹ³Ū˻Ѥ뤳ȤǤϳƤɤθѸᤰϡǤ˷ˡꡤΤ褦˱ʪޤä褦ʸǻϤޤäƤȤȤѸǤ343Ѥ褦
343. Official language of the Union.---(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script.
The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement:
Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.
(3) Notwithstanding anything in this article, Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the said period of fifteen years, of---
(a) the English language, or
(b) the Devanagari form of numerals,
for such purposes as may be specified in the law.
ˡεܤνǤСҥǥ줬ɮƬθѸǤ롥ºݡɹǤϥҥǥüԤǤ¿2020ǯλ6ͰʾȤСԡˡp. 70ˡˤСҥǥϡǤ3ܤüԤ¿ĶǤ롥2020ǯΥ˥塼ˤȡEthnologue ˤפ˴ŤΤ褦ʲ⤬ʤƤ롥
Hindi is the 3rd most spoken language of the world in 2019 with 615 million speakers. The 22nd edition of the world language database Ethnologue stated English at the top of the list with 1,132 million speakers. Chines Mandarin is at the second position with 1,117 million speakers.
⥤ɤοäϢưƥҥǥüԿƤΤȻפ롥ɤΥʥߥåʸ𤫤ܤΥʤ
Ϣ Ethnologue θüԿˤĤơ#3009. üԿˤȥå252017ǯǡˡ ([2017-07-23-1]) ¿ȤθѸȤơ#3291. 11θѸեꥫ¹ ([2018-05-01-1]) ȡ
ԡˡWorld Englishes ١Ʋ2023ǯ
ε#5268. ԡˡWorld Englishes ١ʾƲ2023ǯˡ ([2023-09-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȯ䤬ϤȤʤä褦Ǥ

ޤܥ֥ǤWorld Englishes Ѹ'ˤˤĤƤ¿夲Ƥޤ (cf. (world_englishes)) 21äƤѸءѸˤǤäۤܤ褦ˤʤäȤǤ15ǯۤɤ֤äƤߤƤ⡤ѸءѸˤ칶θơޤȤ͵ΥȥԥåȤäƤ褤Ǥ礦 World Englishes ο͵ιޤˤϡְ㤤ʤҲŪطʤȹͤƤޤˤĤƤʵ˽äꤷƤޤܤƤͽǤ
ޤˡΡWorld Englishes ٤Ǥޤ줫顤ܽȤĤܥ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פˤơϢ夲ƤĤǤΤǡȼƤС
ëǷˤֽϡWorld Englishes---ѸפǤϡθѸ˴ؤǿλ¤פƤޤĤѤޤ
ߡˤ196¸ߤ7000ʾθ줬ȤƤ롥(p. 6)
2022ǯ1180ͤĶ 2022ˡΤѸѤ졤졤ȤƤαѸѼԡˤ145000͡ΤüԤ37000졤ȤƤλԤ108000ͤǤ (Ethnologue 2022) ΤȤüԤοüԤοϤ뤫˾äƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥(p. 9--10)
ǡѸѸ⤷ϽѸƤ54Ǥ롥4Τ1ѸѸѸˤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥(p. 10)
Υͥåϡ416000͡69%ˤǤ (Internet World Stats 2023) Τ26%ѸͿǤꡤͥåΨѸιˤĤʤäƤ롥(p. 10)
ǾǤƤDzΤѸ줬ѤƤΤ8ʾǤ롥 (p. 10)
ܽϥ⽼¤Ƥޤ㤨СϤΤʤ2ĤΥˤαѸDzdzؤָסʵΩءҲ𤵤Ƥޤ٤ƤαDz褬ѤʤäƤޤؤäƤޤ
ԡˡWorld Englishes ١Ʋ2023ǯ
Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ˤ#368. ѸȥեǻƤñ줬5ĤΥѥȤǤäޤ˴줿ǡ#370. ѸäΤʤΥեѸγϡ --- ꥹʡμޤΤǡҤİ
ѸȥեξؤǤ¿ȻפޤVoicy Ǥⲿ٤Ҥ٤ƤޤȤƤξ˳ؤ֤ȤᤷޤˡξμĤʤΤȤơֱѸˡפͭѤǤȤȤ⡤ȻפޤѸˤؤ٤гؤ֤ۤɡեˤؿͯޤĤĥեؤ֤ȡѸ褯Ǥ褦ˤʤޤơˤäƥե줬狼äƤȡξ֤δط˰ռ褦ˤʤꡤϤ̡˹ͤ뤳ȤԲǽʶϡʡˤ˻ޤѸؽեؽ⡤Ȥ˳ڤʤ뤳礤Ǥ
ºݡä˴ؤ¤ꡤѸä1/3ۤɤեַϡפñˤäޤեַϡפȤΤϡեȡߤοƤǤƥ碌ˤǤ˥եλǤݥȥ졤ڥ졤ꥢʤɤμѸäʤСΤΤʤǤΥեַϡפγϤ⤦ޤޤ
ơ1/3ΤʤǤξǤƥ줬եäƤ 2:1 뤤 3:2 ۤɤǤ礦ξƱʤΤǸۤȤƱȤñ¿Ѹ줬θ줫ѤΤȽȤʤ⤷ФиޤǼºݾϡեַϡסʤ뤤ϥƥַϡסˤθäȤƴˤäƤΤȤ櫓Ǥ
Τ褦ʱʩθä˴ؿΤϡҴϢ heldio β hellog ̤ƴؿƤФȻפޤʲ˼פؤΥĥäƤޤ¤ꤢξ줪ӱѸˤγؤӤ
heldio β
#26. Ѹä1/3ϥե졪
#329. եؤӻϤʤСұѸ˳碌ơ
#327. ǯ٤˥եؤӻϤƤ볧ءѸˤ碌Ƴؤ֤Ф˳ؤӤ⤷ʤ«ޤ
#368. ѸȥեǻƤñ줬5ĤΥѥ
hellog βʰ祢
#202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ ([2009-11-15-1])
#429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ ([2010-06-30-1])
#845. Ѹθäεȳ ([2011-08-20-1])
#1202. Ѹθäεȳ (2) ([2012-08-11-1])
#874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])
#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1])
#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1])
#2385. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1])
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#4138. եѸΤѸ˼ڤ줿Τ4䶯ǡĽ ([2020-08-25-1])
#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨ ([2011-02-16-1])
#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħ ([2010-12-12-1])
#1225. եѸʬۤð ([2012-09-03-1])
#1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])
#4451. եѸΥԡ14 ([2021-07-04-1])
#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#1295. եȥƥ2Ÿ ([2012-11-12-1])
#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])
#848. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ (2) ([2011-08-23-1])
#3581. ѸΥեѸ졤ƥѸ졤"mots savants" (1) ([2019-02-15-1])
#3582. ѸΥեѸ졤ƥѸ졤"mots savants" (2) ([2019-02-16-1])
#4453. ե줫ѤñʤΤեñʤΤ ([2021-07-06-1])
#3180. ˹ٸ̤ƤեƥѸ ([2018-01-10-1])
#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1]) (1) ǡֶΰספȤǽ˸ڤ2ĤθηŪʴطƱꤹ뤳ȤܻؤӸ (comparative_linguistics) ˤȤäơ2줫餽줾Ф줿1Фθ줬 (arbitrariness) ˴ŤޤƤˤʤΤǤϤʤȤǰϾ˶ŪǤ롥ζɬɤʬΤӸؤˡˤƤ⡤뤤Ϥ褦ȤرĤˤȤäƤ⡤Ǥ롥
ˤĤơCampbell (275--76) "Chance Similarities" ꤹ1 Doerfer Ը˸ڤʤƤ롥ˤ2ढȤݤ
Doerfer (1973: 69--72) discusses two kinds of accidental similarity. "Statistical chance" has to do with what sorts of words and how many might be expected to be similar by chance; for example, the 79 names of Latin American Indian languages which begin na- (e.g., Nahuatl, Naolan, Nambicuara, etc.) are similar by sheer happenstance, statistical chance. "Dynamic chance" has to do with forms becoming more similar through convergence, that is, lexical parallels (known originally to have been different) which come about due to sounds converging through sound change. Cases of non-cognate similar forms are well known in historical linguistic handbooks, for example, French feu 'fire' and German Feuer 'fire' . . . (French feu from Latin focus 'hearth, fireplace' [-k- > -g- > -ø; o > ö]; German Feuer from Proto-Indo-European *pūr] [< *puHr-, cf. Greek pür] 'fire,' via Proto-Germanic *fūr-i [cf. Old English fy:r]).
Ū̸Ūʶΰפ "statistical chance" Ǥꡤ̻ŪʲѲη̡֤ƤޤäȤ "dynamic chance" Ǥ롥Ӹؤ2줫餽줾Ф줿1Фθ٤ݤˡޤƤϤʤ2Ĥդ٤ȤõƤ
"dynamic chance" 1Ȥơ#4072. Ѹ have ȥƥ habere, ե avoir ̸츻 ([2020-06-20-1]) ȡ
Campbell, Lyle. "How to Show Languages are Related: Methods for Distant Genetic Relationship." Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Oxford: Blackwell, 262--82.
Doerfer, Gerhard. Lautgesetz und Zufall: Betrachtungen zum Omnikomparatismus. Innsbruck: Institut für vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck, 1973.
ε#4678. ˤݤĹء ([2022-02-16-1]) ǡˤݤĹءפδߤϤ⤦1ĤδǤ֤餮פܤ褦餮ϤˤĤơ (112) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
Τ褦ʲݤª뼫ˡΰĤȤơϰ˽иñ٤ʬĴ٤뤳Ȥ롥ñνиˤ餮ΤǤСϰˤñ줬иʤ礬ꡤޤǤñ줬¿и⤢ꡤ٤ʬ礭ʤϤǤ롥
ϸȤƤʬ䤹ʸɽäǰƬˤ硤餮ϸˤäưۤʤ뤬⤷Ȥˡ륭ɤϤФФ餮礭Ȥ桤p. 118ˡϡŪʥɤƱʤɤ˹ʶ̣Ǥ롥
ޤʹָˤʸϤȥʸʸϤȤǤ餮٤ȡ餫Ԥ餮礭ΤȤϿʹָħΰü롥ˡʸϤΥˤäƤ餮ϰۤʤ뤿ˡ桤p. 120ˡ餮ٹ礤ʸŪʻɸȤʤ롥
͡ʲǽˤ֤餮פ˥ƥʤĥäƤϢơ1/f 餮 (1/f) ܡ
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
ˤϡ¾¿μҲݤˤߤֲݡפȤΤѻ롥 (98) Ѥ롥
ηϰǸСֲݡסĤޤñ줬ǤޤäƸ뤳ȡñ줬öȤФ餯δ֤ˤ˽иǡȤۤȤɽиʤʤ뷹뤳ȤȤľŪª뤳ȤǤ롥ݤǤϡûֳ֤³ˤûֳ֤졤ޤդĹֳ֤³ˤĹֳ֤ǽ⤤Τ褦ʸβݤװΰĤϡΤȤʤʸ̮Ѳˤ롥
ݤϡͻʤɡޤޤʣϤˤƤϤ褯Τά͡ȤС籫Ͽ̤ǤޤäƸ뤳ȤϷи̤ïΤäƤҲŪоݤˤƤ⡤ȤСˤϡȤʤäơϢԤ뤿ᡤϤݤ뤳ȤΤ롥Ʊͤˡñ⤢ñ줬ȤʤꡤñʤӤ˴Ϣñβи롥
ƤߤСäȤȤݤǤϤ롥βݤΰŪʸˤˤ뤬˱ѤϾʤ褦ˡȤƤϡ礭ʬơĹءפȡ֤餮פܤ2बȤǤԤƤ
ĹءפˤϤϡ֤ΡĤʬؤʬεΥ s ˰¸ƤɤΤ褦Ѳ뤫Ĵ٤ϡפǤ桤p. 99ˡߤΥ줿2Ĥʬ¤ƤĹؤȤȤˤʤcf. #4675. ʣϡ ([2022-02-13-1]) ǸڤĹסˡ
ѸˤѸǤ괧 the ˤĤơĹʸϤĹزϤߤȡɤ夤Ĺؤ褦桤p. 105ˡޤǼ夤ĹؤˤȤɤޤꡤ٤ߤ the ˤ餢٤βݤߤ뤳ȤȽ롥äȤˡthe ⸽ȤϸǤޤäƸ졤ʤȤˤϤФ餯ʤȤȤٴѻΤǤ롥 (109ˤϡԸ˽λ¤Τ褦˲ᤷƤ롥
k Ĥûֳ֤ȡ³ k + 1ܤδֳ֤ûk ĤĹֳ֤ȡ³ k + 1ܤδֳ֤Ĺˤ롥ûֳ֤³ȤϡоݤȤʤñ줬ǤޤäƸ뤳ȤƤ롥άͤΤ褦ʲݤطʤˤʸ̮Ѳ롥the ˤĤƤϡޤ괧濴ȤưŪʳǰƳθ塤Ƴ줿ǰˤĤƵԤ졤κݤ the ¿Ѥ롥
ϡäˤ¤ (information_structure) ܤthe ˤĤƤβݤɤ߲ȤäƤ褤
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
ܥ֥Ǥϡʣϡե饯δطˤĤơcomplex_system chaos_theory ʤɤεǾҲ𤷤ƤȤƤؿϤΤΡƬȼäƤʤʬΤ褦ǡʤʤǤʤʸƬˤ⤦䤹ǡ嵭ʬʰŪˤϿ̸ءˤܤʤɤФ褤ΤˤʤȻפäƤȤǯҡˡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ٤Ǥ줿ɤߤȻפĤѤɤƤΤ褦䤯ڡ⤷
ʤ䤬ޤǿǤʤäΤդͳ⡤Ƴ鶵ƤƤơȤƤ桤pp. 10--11ˡ
ʣϲʳؤϼҲŪʷϤŬѤƤªõϡǤⰡήǤꡤŪǤȤ虜ʤμͳȤƤϡʪŪˡоݤϹȤϤäƤޤǤꡤ̤Ͽͤβ˰¸ʤΤܻؤȤ롥θϡͤβȤñʸõ椷ƤϳŪˡϡ̣äơȤ褤ȤϤʤäΤǤ롥ǡʪؽпȤθԤõ椷𤬤˻𤷤Ƥꡤϸν¦ϸʤܽϤΤ褦ʴ¸¿äƤ롥
ȤƤ褯ʬä㤨 Zipf's Law (cf. zipfs_law) Ȥ̾ʸ׳ؾˡ§Ǥ顤ͤùɤߤȻפСؤ⳰˽ФʤФʤʤ¿̤θؤ̤ˤȤäơʤʤФʤΤǤ롥
ǤϡʤϡΤʬäƤʤ⡤ʣϤʤɤȤδط˿ҤΤդΥ䤷Ȥ⡤ (11) äƤ줿
ǡϤȡŪפȤƤŪΩ롥λ¤顤Ūפϡ줬߽ФΰĤΤ褦ªƤ¦̤롥ܽǤ⸫褦ˡΰ̴طϤ餯դǤȻפ롥줬Ūפ߽ФȤϡŪޤꡤϤ餯ȤΩƤ롥ĤޤꡤŪפϡ¸ȤʤäƤȻפ롥ʤФŪɬϡñ칽¤ʤɤȤäν˱ƶڤܤƤϤǤ롥ơŪɬǸ줬ɤΤ褦üäƤ뤫뤳ȤϡܼªĤμΩƤȤʤȻפ롥
ɤޤǤΡŪɬʤΤʬСæΤˤΤơԤʹ֤˹տޤȿǤƤΤǤǽ⤤ (5) ϡΤȤMallarmé СפȤƼƤ롥
Ĥơ Stéphane Mallarmé ˤơФꤸפȤ˸ڤƤά͡Фΰ϶褷ѤʤפȤ Mallarmé ΤȤФϡפȤƤϼʤǤ뤬ˤĤƤȤʤդȯطʤˤϰտޤ뤳Ȥ¿˴ŤȤϹͤˤMallarmé ϡդȤȤ⡤Фꤸ褦˶ѤʤȤżդޤդΥȤԤˤߤ롥տޤäȯäˤ⡤ʸñ˶ӽǤʤʤ顤٤ˤ϶ɬäƤŪΤ뤳ȤǡդȤˤĤ餫ˤʤ롥λˡտޤʤɿʹ֤װܼ˸Ϥޤ
伫Ȥʤ׳ؤ˼椫ƤΤդ꤬ɤ߿ʤ뤦ˤɤɤʬäƤΤ
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
̤˸ˤơ¤ (information_structure) δ顤ȤʤʼȤϸ¤ʤˤʸƬʸ֤Τ˾ޤȤ롥ܸΤ褦ʼͳʸĸǤС¸뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݡܸƱͤ˸礬ŪͳäűѸǤ⡤ξ¤˱뤳Ȥʤä
ḽѸΤ褦ʤ褽경ĸξˤϡ餫ιפ餵ʤФʤʤűѸ줫ѸˤʸʸˡȤƤV2§졤礬경ƤˤĤơȤʤʸƬˤäƤ뤿ˡˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤäơפʼʤ1Ĥܤ褦ˤʤäΤưʸǤ롥ǽưʸˤŪ줬Ȥʤ硤ǽưʸưʸ˴뤳ȤˤꡤŪ줬ȤʤꡤʤʸƬ֤褦ˤʤ뤫
θ경ȼưʸ¿ѲȤ츫Ω2ĤŪݤϡ¤ȤŪʳǰΩȤƴϢŤΤǤ롥ϡ#4561. Ⱦ¤θ ([2021-10-22-1]) ̤Ǥ롥ʤȤⲾȤƤ϶̣
β¾ڤ褦Ȥ Seoane 롥Helsinki Corpus 1518ޤǤʬʤʤV2§줿λΥ֥ѥˤѤĴˤСʲ̤ꡤɤäƼưʸΨƤ뤳Ȥʬ (Seoane 371)
| Words | Actives | Percent active | Passives | Percent passive | |
| M4 (1420--1500) | 44,000 | 2,928 | 81.9 | 647 | 18.0 |
| E1 (1500--1570) | 50,000 | 2,236 | 78.5 | 612 | 21.4 |
| E2 (1570--1640) | 48,000 | 2,550 | 77.9 | 722 | 22.0 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 55,000 | 2,893 | 78.5 | 2,903 | 21.3 |
| Total | 197,000 | 10,607 | 78.5 | 2,903 | 21.3 |
#4518. OALD10 ѸΥ졼٥15 ([2021-09-09-1]) ǤҲ𤷤ǯ Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English ̾ OALDˤ10ǤǤ줿ȤȤ˿ʲ³뤳μΥե1ͤȤƤϡʸʾϿŪʬˤܤƤޤΤϢ Oxford 3000, Oxford 5000, OPAL ȸƤФѸؽͭѤʸðҲ𤷤OALD10 x--xi ˳ơβ⤬롥
The Oxford 3000TM
20줫ʤ The Oxford English Corpus ˤ٤˴ŤѸؽԤռԤޤ줿ñ3000ĤΰƱѥϡꥹѸȥꥫѸΤߤʤ餺Ѹ夷Ƥ롥2000DZѸƥȤ8θäСƤȤ⤤뤬3000ΰ CEFR (= Common European Framework of Reference) A1 B2 ޤǤοǰƬˤˤʤꥹȤɤǤ롥
The Oxford 5000TM
The Oxford 3000 ι⤤CEFR B2 C1 ޤǤθäޤĥǤñ嵭Ʊ˥Ǥ롥
The Oxford Phrasal Academic LexiconTM
"OPAL" άΤƤ롤ؽѱѸ (English for Academic Purposes) ͭѤʸáؤιֵߥʡݡȡ´ʤɤαѸǰƬԤޤ줿ñǤ롥ΰϡեѥ The Oxford Corpus of Academic English (= OCAE) äեѥ The British Academic Spoken English (= BASE) Ȥ (keyword) ʬϤ˴ŤΤǡؽѱѸνΩñǤ롥饢Ǥ롥
αѸؽϼ¤ŪʳŪˤʤäƤʤȴФѸءѸˤΥǥߥåʸˤƤäپȤΤϴܻǤ뤫顤˳Ѥ
Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. 10th ed. Ed. A. S. Hornby. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2020.
Shakespeare θä˭ϤĤȤΤƤ뤬ŪˤĤñѤƤΤθΤˤ衤ȤѤƤΤˤ衤äεϤΤ˷פ뤳Ȥϡ⤽٤ñ̤Ǥָ (word) ŪޤäƤʤǤ롥ܼŪˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤָʤפεåƤ
Ǥ⡤Ǥ褤ΤΤꤿȤΤ;Ǥ롥Shakespeare θä˭ϤФз峰ȤƸڤ졤ʤȲƤ뵤̣⤢뤬ºݤΤȤԤδ֤ͿŪʿˤ礭㤬롥ŪΤƤΤϡ3١פȤ2١פȸѤԤ⾯ʤʤ褦Ǥ롥Ǥϡ夲 Crystal ˤ The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation (xv) ͤˤȤɤʤ
ƱüоݤȤƤΤ (1) 1եꥪ (2) ʳΥεӱ˴ؤǤʤĤޤꡤShakespeare ΥƥΤǤϤʤȤաˡξƱθФοȡȤ20,672줬äƤ롥ˤ1,809θͭ̾졤495γñʥƥʤɡˡ29 "non-sense words"84Υեꥪεӱ줬ޤޤƤ롥ȡפθä18,255Ȥʤ롥̩ˤСΥߥˤʤ̸äƤȻפ뤷ʣ餭ΤʣȤߤʤɤȤƬˤ⤢뤬οϡ2١˶ᤤΤȤƻͤˤʤ롥
ϢơShakespeare ˤޤĤˤĤƤϡ#1763. Shakespeare κʤȸ˴ؤ뻨¿ʾ ([2014-02-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
Crystal, David. The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
Ѹ˥ե줫μѸ줬̤ήȤϡѸˤǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ˤơ褽1250--1400ǯλˡȤƥԡãȤ⡤Ѹ˳ǤϹҤƤܥ֥Ǥʲεʤɤǡ٤Ȥʤ夲ƤǤ롥
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])
#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1])
#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1])
#2385. OED ˤŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1])
#4138. եѸΤѸ˼ڤ줿Τ4䶯ǤĽ ([2020-08-25-1]),
եѸοˤĤƤСOED ʤɤѤҴŪĴŤ줿¤Ǥꡤ嵭Ρפ˰Ϥʤʤ餹٤ƽդ˴ŤĴ̤Ǥ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥⤷äդˤեѸΥԡ䤷̤ȤʤСԡϤäᤫäǽ⤤Trotter (1789) Τ褦Ƥ롥
In charting the chronology of the process, we are again at the mercy of the documentary evidence. The key period of lexical transfer appears to be the 14th century; but that may be, as much as anything else, because of the explosion of available documentation in both Anglo-French and, more particularly, Middle English at that time. In other words, the real dates of the transfers may not be the dates at which they are documented. Some evidence that this is not so is available in the form of English surnames, of Anglo-French origin . . . , and indeed in the capacity of some early Middle English texts to generate hybrids from Anglo-French and Middle English (forpreiseð; propreliche; priveiliche from Ancrene Wisse . . .).
1ĤϡŪ˥ԡȤƤ14ϡޤդεϿ¿Ĥ줿ǤꡤΤ˥եѸεϤ礭ˤʤȤȤ
⤦1Ĥϡդ˽ФǯäơΤޤޱѸ˽Фǯ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȤcf. #2375. Anglo-French Ȥ (2) ([2015-10-28-1])ˡ̤θǤϤʤʿ̾ˤȤƼѤ줿եǤͤ碌ʤСᤤäƤڵ롥ޤѸʸڤ뺮¸ߤϡ̾ΥեѸ줬ޤǤˤ¿ή̤ƤȤcf. #96. ѸȥեǺ褫 ( hybrid ) ([2009-08-01-1])ˡ
ѸˤˤեѸΥԡϡդξڵŪĴ¤ˤƤϡ̤14ȤäƤ褤äդޤ֤ȤƤϡᤤˤäΤȿ¬ΤǤ롥
Trotter, David. "English in Contact: Middle English Creolization." Chapter 114 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1781--93.
νˤĤơפʳ (case) ΤȤʬहȤѸΤ褦 nominative-accusative פθȡХ䥰른Τ褦 absolutive-ergative פθ礭ʬ롥Ԥгʸ (accusative language)Ԥǽʸ (ergative language) ȸƤФ롥
ѸΤ褦гʸγηϤϡ䤿뤷ƤΤǤꡤۤȤפʤHe opened the door. The door opened. 2ʸˤơơʸƬΩäƤ̾ He The door ̤ (nominative case) ֤ƤΤФ1ʸ the door Ṳ̄г (accusative case) ֤ƤȤ롥
ǽʸˤƤϡ1ʸ2ʸξ the door г (absolutive case) ֤졤2ʸ He ǽ (ergative case) ֤롥ʸǤ⡤˳ïŪ˳Ƥפгʤ֤졤2ʸΤߤƤ롤ξ֤ǽưŪ˰פǽʤ֤Τ
ʤɤǤФиڤǽʸȤΤϡνΤʤǤϵʥפθȻפǤۤɵǤʤ褦гʸ٤аŪʾɤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ2ۤɤϤΥפΤäƶäBlake (121) ˤȡʬۤ˹äƤ롥
Ergative systems are often considered rare and remote, but in fact they make up at least twenty per cent of the world's languages. Ergative systems are to be found in all families of the Caucasian phylum, among the Tibeto-Burman languages, in Austronesian, in most Australian languages, in some languages of the Papuan families, in Zoque and the Mayan languages of Central America and in a number of language families in South America: Jé, Arawak, Tupí-Guaraní, Panoan, Tacanan, Chibchan and Carib. Outside these phyla and families where ergative systems of marking are common, ergativity is also to be found in some other languages including Basque, Hurrian and a number of other extinct languages of the Near East, Burushaski (Kashmir, Tibet), Eskimo, Chukch, and Tsimshian and Chinook (these last two being Penutian languages of British Columbia).
ʤߤˡѸǽʸǤϤʤǵ open(ed) Τ褦˼ưˤ¾ưˤѤưؤǽư (ergative verb) ȸƤ֤Ȥ롥
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Ѹ1Ĥθ졤ܸ1ĤθʤΤǡ碌2Ǥۤ͡˥ե졤ڥ졤ɥĸ졤졤졤ڹʤΤäƤ̾碌ƤȡϤƸˤϤĤθ줬뤳ȤˤʤǤ礦100Ĥ餤뤤1,000ġ⤷10,000ġΤ褦ʵȤʤĤʤȤ¿⤷ޤ
¤θؤˤƤ⡤͡ͳˤꡤΤʿФȤϤǤޤԤˤäɤ줬ߤΤǤդλޤơDz⤷Ƥޤ礦ʲİ
ؼԤ֤ȤĴĥäƸƤСΤʿФΤǤϤʤȵ˻פ⤷ޤ No ǤؼԤĥäƤ⡤Τʸ뤳ȤԲǽǤȤΤϡϸǤϤʤǤʤΤǤθȤȤϡäɤΤ褦ʹ٤ʤΤ䤤פʤ褦˻פޤ
ǤΤꤿȤΤ;Ǥ Ethnologue 23ǡ2020ǯˤȤƤߤޤȡθο7,117ȥȤƤޤȤ1ĤλͤˤޤΤǤդѤʵФƤϡȤƤϡֿ١פƨƤȻפޤ
ȤꡤӤ˴ϢȤơ##3009,270,1060,274,401,1949εå碌Ƥɤߤ
Ҳؤμǡָλ (language_death) ˿ȡؿij¿ܲ121ȤϥڡǸ줬ƤȤ¤Τȡʤ饷åΤΤȤ٤ΩˤܸȤѤƤꡤ٤ؤĶǤѸ̳ΤʤdzؽƤԤˤȤäơǴΤ줬ˤۤ¿¸ߤȤȤϡưפǤʤˤʤʿŪܿͤˤȤäơָλפȤϤ̣DZä
ܹˤΤʣ롥ޤȸСλࡤʤȤοȤʹȤ
ѸɮƬȤŪʱƶϤĶʸϡ¿μ微λƤΤݤȤ⤢롥⤷ȤСѸΤ褦ʸϻŪʸǤꡤԤȤߤʤ٤ʤΤ⤷微ߤȤΤǤСïɤΤ褦˵ߤΤ⤽ߤɬפΤʤΤ餬Ѥָ֡סʸ츢ˤĿͤǧȤʤСθĿͤ˲ݤֵ̳פϲˤʤ
Τ褦ˡָλפͤϤȡ٤³ȵäƤ롥ҲؤȤΥơޤǤ롥˻뻲͵Ȥָλפεåɤ
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