ˤѸν¤פˤĤƤϡelf γƵ䡤Ȥ櫓 statistics elf γƵǼ夲ƤѸϸ߿ʹǤꡤѸ˴ؤ¤פѲκˤ뤿ˡǿξΤª뤳Ȥǯ٤졤ˤäƤϿǯ٤ξȤ˸䤷̤ȤȤˤʤ꤬Ǥ롥ޤ¿θԤ䵡ؤ¤פĴƤΤΡ̤ξ̤˸ɽˤȤɤޤ뤳Ȥ¿뤳Ȥ
ʲΰϡ2006ǯ˽Ǥ줿 Schmitt and Marsden (2--3) ˵ƤѸν¤פνܤԤ⤤褦 "In many cases, the most current information available dates from the 1990s, or even the 1980s." (2) Ǥ롥ޤǻͻΤ褦˰ƤǤϤ롥ʤʸǤϡƹܤŵƤꡤɬפ˱ƻȤ뤳ȤǤ롥
English is the principal language of intercontinental telephone communication.
Perhaps as much as 75 percent of mail around the world is written in English.
About half of the world's newspapers are published in English.
Twenty-eight percent of the books published annually are in English.
The majority of academic journals with international readership are in English.
The majority, and perhaps even more than two-thirds, of international scientists write in English. For example, nearly two-thirds of the publications produced by French scientists were in English in the early 1980s. Likewise, English was the major working language for German academics surveyed in the early 1990s. In 13 out of 20 disciplines, at least 40 percent claimed to work in English, and for psychology, biology, chemistry, and physics, the figures ranged from 81 to 98 percent. One can only suspect that these figures are even higher today.
Ninety percent of Internet hosts were based in English-speaking countries in the mid-1998s.
Close to 80 percent of the world's computer data available on the Internet was stored in English in the 1990s, which is not surprising considering that English-speaking countries took the lead in developing the Internet. However, as other countries rapidly increase their use of the Internet, the use of non-English languages is rising. Still, English sites on the Internet continue to attract a disproportionately high percentage of hits.
Forty percent of the people online on the Internet speak English (228 million people), though this may eventually drop to around 30 percent. The next highest language is Chinese at 9.8 percent (55.5 million people).
The most influential software company, Microsoft, is based in an English-speaking country: the United States.
Most of the largest advertising agencies are based in the United States.
Eighty-five percent of world institutions use English as their language, or as one of their languages; for example, it is the official language of the Olympics and the World Council of Churches.
The official international language for both aviation and maritime use is English.
English is the dominant language of international trade, with about 40 percent of the business deals made in English.
The most influential movies and modern music come from English-speaking countries.
In 1994, 80 percent of all feature films that were shown in cinemas worldwide were in English.
About 85 percent of the global movie market was controlled by the United States in 1995.
The fact that large numbers of people are learning English as a second language is reflected by the large number of people taking the TOEFL® Test (about 689,000 people in 215 countries) and University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES) tests (more than 1 million people in more than 130 countries) every year.
1997ǯ˽Ǥ Graddol 2003ǯ˽Ǥ Crystal ʤϤŤˤμƤ롥Ϣơ#48. Ū˱Ѹ줬Ѥפʬ ([2009-06-15-1]) #716. ѸˤΥȥ2011ǯǡˤȤβ ([2011-04-13-1]) ⻲ȡ
ϸ̤˾åץǡȤǤФ褤Τ˾ѤΤǡǤե륿ǤλŻˤʤäƤޤΤ褦ʹܰϡŤȤǧĤġ˻ȤäƤ椯Τ褤
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ε#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1]) ǡǰǤǤϡѸβǤΤʤǤäȤ¿Ȥ벻ǤϲơäȤȤʤΤϲ
פȤä椬롥Fry, D. B. "The Frequency of Occurrence of Speech Sounds in Southern English." Archives Néerlandaises de Phonétique Expérimentale 20 (1947) ǽФ줿פ Crystal (239, 242) ˷ǺܤƤΤǡ˺ƷǤ롥ĹäˤٲǤǿΤǤ롥
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | total | ||||
| /iː/ | /ɪ/ | /e/ | /æ/ | /ʌ/ | /ɑː/ | /ɒ/ | /ɔː/ | /ʊ/ | /uː/ | /ɜː/ | /ə/ | /eɪ/ | /aɪ/ | /ɔɪ/ | /əʊ/ | /aʊ, ɑʊ/ | /ɪə/ | /eə/ | /ʊə/ | |||||
| 1.65 | 8.33 | 2.97 | 1.45 | 1.75 | 0.79 | 1.37 | 1.24 | 0.86 | 1.13 | 0.52 | 10.74 | 1.71 | 1.83 | 0.14 | 1.51 | 0.61 | 0.21 | 0.34 | 0.06 | 39.21 | ||||
| 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | |
| /p/ | /b/ | /t/ | /d/ | /k/ | /g/ | /ʧ/ | /ʤ/ | /f/ | /v/ | /θ/ | /ð/ | /s/ | /z/ | /ʃ/ | /ʒ/ | /h/ | /m/ | /n/ | /ŋ/ | /l/ | /r/ | /w/ | /j/ | |
| 1.78 | 1.97 | 6.42 | 5.14 | 3.09 | 1.05 | 0.41 | 0.60 | 1.79 | 2.00 | 0.37 | 3.56 | 4.81 | 2.46 | 0.96 | 0.10 | 1.46 | 3.22 | 7.58 | 1.15 | 3.66 | 3.51 | 2.81 | 0.88 | 60.78 |
[2011-08-20-1]εǡ#845. Ѹθäεȳפ礷ѸθäϤɤäΤˤĤƤ͡ʸ椬뤬פǤϡűѸͳθä60--70%ʩͳθä22--30%ťΥɸͳθä8--10%ʳ1%̤ȤͤФƤ (Duggan 238)
ȤNorman Hinton 1980ǯȾȯɽƤѸä絬ϤĴˤСפȤ˰ۤʤͤƤ롥Hinton ʸ̤ʤΤǡʲ Hinton 𤽤ΤΤǤϤʤDuggan (238--39) ǸڤƤ뤽γפ˴ŤΤͤޤǤ롥
MED ˼ФθФȤθ츻˴ŤƸʬष̡Germanic 35.06%, Romance 64.54%, Other 0.35% ȤͤϤФ줿פ٤ Germanic Romance οͤžƤ뤫Τ褦ǤꡤפˡˤäơۤɤޤǤ˷̤Τȶʤ롥פ⡤äդƲᤷʤФʤʤȤǧĤġ³褦

Hinton ϡChaucer Cotton Nero A.x θˤĤƤʬԤʤäƤꡤѸλˤäʿŪӤ뤳ȤˤäơƸΡǯ¬פߤƤ롥Chaucer θ Germanic 38.5%, Romance 61.2%, Other 0.09% ȤΨǤꡤ1460ǯʿŪΨȤޤCotton Nero A.x ˤĤƤ Germanic 58.7, Romance 41%, Other 0.15% ȤΨǡ1390ǯʿŪΨؤȤϤͤǤꡤǯؤ櫓ǤϤʤषChaucer Cotton Nero A.x 70ǯȤŪʺ줾θäλȤʬκƤ餯ʸŪʺбƤ뤫⤷ʤȤǽ⤷
Duggan, H. N. "Meter, Stanza, Vocabulary, Dialect". Chapter 8 of A Companion to the Gawain-Poet. Ed. Derek Brewer and Jonathan Gibson. Cambridge: Brewer, 1997. 221--42.
Hinton, Norman "The Language of the Gawain-Poems." Arthurian Interpretations 2 (1987): 83--94.
ѸüԿˤĤƤ϶Ū̻Ū¦̤ demography ΤĤεǼ夲Ƥä˰ʲȡ
[2009-10-17-1]: #173. ENL, ESL, EFL üԿ
[2010-03-12-1]: #319. ѸüԿζɤեǥ
[2010-05-07-1]: #375. ENLESL οΨ
[2010-06-15-1]: #414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ
[2010-06-28-1]: #427. ѸüԤˢ֤ǥ
̻ŪʱѸüԿοܤˤĤƤϡʸ͡ʿ¬ͤȤƵƤ롥[2010-03-12-1]Ρֶɤեǥפο˼Ƥͤ⤽ΰĤǤ롥ͤ礭ۤʤʤرѸǯɽ٤˵Ƥ복ȤˡοܥդƤߤ1500ǯ1900ǯޤǤ100ǯߤǤοפǤ롥

| Year | English-Speaking Population |
|---|---|
| 1500 | about 5 million |
| 1600 | about 6--7 million |
| 1700 | about 8 million (including about 2 million that had emigrated to the New World) |
| 1800 | 20--40 million |
| 1900 | about 123 million |
ε#913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ ([2011-10-27-1]) Ǽꤢ Rayson et al. ǤϡüԤ̤ǤʤǯˤäѰۤĴƤ롥ǯȤäƤ⡤35̤ʾ夫Ǿ岼ʬ绨Ĥʬ̤ϤĤζ̣ͿƤ롥ʲϡχ2 ξ19̤ޤǤΰǤ (142--43)
| Rank | Under 35 | Over 35 | ||
| Word | χ2 | Word | χ2 | |
| 1 | mum | 1409.3 | yes | 2365.0 |
| 2 | fucking | 1184.6 | well | 1059.8 |
| 3 | my | 762.4 | mm | 895.2 |
| 4 | mummy | 755.2 | er | 773.8 |
| 5 | like | 745.2 | they | 682.2 |
| 6 | na as in wanna and gonna | 712.8 | said | 538.3 |
| 7 | goes | 606.6 | says | 443.1 |
| 8 | shit | 410.1 | were | 385.8 |
| 9 | dad | 403.7 | the | 352.2 |
| 10 | daddy | 380.1 | of | 314.6 |
| 11 | me | 371.9 | and | 224.7 |
| 12 | what | 357.3 | to | 211.2 |
| 13 | fuck | 330.1 | mean | 155.0 |
| 14 | wan as in wanna | 320.6 | he | 144.0 |
| 15 | really | 277.0 | but | 139.0 |
| 16 | okay | 257.0 | perhaps | 136.0 |
| 17 | cos | 254.4 | that | 131.3 |
| 18 | just | 251.8 | see | 122.1 |
| 19 | why | 240.0 | had | 118.3 |
ɸä Rayson et al. ʸɤBNC ǡŪʴʬव줿äդϿ֥ѥ4,552,555ˤоݤȤơä˽ǯҲŪϰ̤ˤ뺹餫ˤ褦ȤǤ롥װΤʤǡŪѰۤŪ˺Ǥ줿Τˤ뺹äȤȤʤΤǡܵǤϤη̤Ҳ𤷤
ޤʲ˵ͤβˤμɬפʤΤǡ˿ƤBNC ˼Ͽ줿äդϻִԤ2֤μʲä Walkman ˿ǤäǡΤǤꡤλִԤ73̾75̾Ǥ롥äо줹ִʳüԤˤĤƤ⡤Τۤ¿äơ֥ѥؤλΨǤСΤȤƽ⤯ʤ뤳ȤԻĤǤϤʤ
ƧޤǤ⡤ΤȤƽΤۤ褯äȤȤͤФѤ줿 word token ǤС1.00ȤȽ1.51äͭΨǤϡ1.00ȤȽ1.33ä˽βäǤΤۤ⤤ͭΨȤԸ椬뤬BNC Υ֥ѥǤϽƱΤβä¿äȤȤ嵭η̤طʤˤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤̣ͤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ˡ٤äˤ˽Ƥߤ褦˽ٹ礤ι⤤ɤȴФˡϡȤƤ[2010-03-10-1], [2010-09-27-1], [2011-09-24-1]εǾҲ𤷤ΤƱˡǤ롥ѥȽѥ̤줾줫줿ɽͤ碌Ū˽ (χ2) ι⤤¤ؤФ褤ʲϡ25̤ޤǤΰǤ (136--37)
| Rank | Characteristically male | Characteristically female | ||
| Word | χ2 | Word | χ2 | |
| 1 | fucking | 1233.1 | she | 3109.7 |
| 2 | er | 945.4 | her | 965.4 |
| 3 | the | 698.0 | said | 872.0 |
| 4 | year | 310.3 | n't | 443.9 |
| 5 | aye | 291.8 | I | 357.9 |
| 6 | right | 276.0 | and | 245.3 |
| 7 | hundred | 251.1 | to | 198.6 |
| 8 | fuck | 239.0 | cos | 194.6 |
| 9 | is | 233.3 | oh | 170.2 |
| 10 | of | 203.6 | Christmas | 163.9 |
| 11 | two | 170.3 | thought | 159.7 |
| 12 | three | 168.2 | lovely | 140.3 |
| 13 | a | 151.6 | nice | 134.4 |
| 14 | four | 145.5 | mm | 133.8 |
| 15 | ah | 143.6 | had | 125.9 |
| 16 | no | 140.8 | did | 109.6 |
| 17 | number | 133.9 | going | 109.0 |
| 18 | quid | 124.2 | because | 105.0 |
| 19 | one | 123.6 | him | 99.2 |
| 20 | mate | 120.8 | really | 97.6 |
| 21 | which | 120.5 | school | 96.3 |
| 22 | okay | 119.9 | he | 90.4 |
| 23 | that | 114.2 | think | 88.8 |
| 24 | guy | 108.6 | home | 84.0 |
| 25 | da | 105.3 | me | 83.5 |
ϢȤʤäƤ뤬Algeo Bauer ٤Ƥ뤦˲⤷ʤäƤ쥽ĴˤĤ (##873,874,875,876,877,878,879) Algeo ξܺ٤ʶʬ ϡ1963--72ǯο쥵ץ5000˴ŤޤǶŪĴ̤Ĥ̻ŪʷƤ褦˻פ롥Algeo Ȥڤ뤤ϵƤˤĤơʲ롥
(1) 3ʬ2 (63.9%) ¸ǤιĤޤʣ (compounding) ܼź (affixation) ˤƤ롥ʣܼźää˸űѸˤƿμפʼʤäȸڤ뤳Ȥ¿߱ѸˤƤ⤪դθǤȤ¤ѤäƤʤ
(2) ΤʤǤϡܼź (34.1%) Τۤʣ (29.8%) ¿ԤΤʤǤϡƬΤۤब¿ΤΡ쵡ǽʤƤ뤿˽и٤⤯פǤ롥ΰ̣ǡѸ "a suffixing language" (272) Ǥ롥
(3) û (shortening) ϡҴŪʾڵϤʤΤΡ"I suspect that the number of shortenings in English has increased greatly during the last two or three centuries" (271) ͳȤƤϡΨη̤ȤդͥŦƤ롥"Of the various kinds of shortening, the largest subgroup is that in which the shortening is based on the written form (acronyms, alphabetisms, and the like); this preeminence of the written language is clearly one of the consequences of increasing literacy" (272) .
(4) ѸˤƼ (borrowing) 14ԡȤƿषƤƤꡤߤǤϤष¾ñߤФȤƤ䤬礭ʤäƤƤ롥
⤦1ġܺ٤ʶʬǤϿͤȤɽƤʤ̣¤ȤơʲŦƤ롥
. . . of the whole sample of new words, 76.7 percent are nouns, 15.2 percent adjectives, 7.8 percent verbs, and .3 percent other parts of speech. It seems that there are far more new things than new events to talk about. Whatever the case may be syntactically, in its lexicon, English is a nominalizing language. (272)
̾줬¿Ȥ¤϶äʤ⤷ʤʱѸäʻ̳ˤĤƤ[2011-02-22-1], [2011-02-23-1]εȡˡѸ줬 "a nominalizing language" ɤڤˤϡΤˤ̾γˤĤ̸ŪĴɬפǤ⡤Algeo ΤλŦϡPotter ΤѸ "noun disease" (100--05) ȤȴطƤ뤫⤷ʤȹͤȡ̣ "noun disease" ˤĤƤϡ[2011-09-04-1]ε#860. ѸѲѰۤΰפ1ܤȤƵˡ
ǸˡƤʤäƤƤ뿷쥽ȤƤμѤˤĤơѸȤܸ줬ե˼2̤ǤȤ¤դҤܸ줫μѤˤĤƤϡʲεȡ
#45. ѸäˤޤĤ: [2009-06-12-1]
#142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬ: [2009-09-16-1]
#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶ: [2009-08-31-1]
Algeo, John. "Where Do the New Words Come From?" American Speech 55 (1980): 264--77.
Potter, Simon. Changing English. London: Deutsch, 1969.
⡤Ѹο쥽˴ؤǶΰϢ (##873,874,875,876,877,878) ³[2011-09-19-1]ε#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤפ Bauer Ĵ̤ղ Algeo Ĵ̤ɲäΤʸǡɽHTMLȡˡƹܤ4ܤAlgeo ˤ Barnhart ο켭˴Ť1963--1974ǯοͤȿǤƤ롥դȤƤ٤äƤ뤬Algeo Ĵоǯ Bauer 3ޤ뤳Ȥդ줿

ε[2011-09-21-1]ǤҤ٤̤ꡤBauer Algeo ĴǤĤۤʤäƤ롥ä Bauer ǤʻžθƤʤΤǡӾ·뤿ˡAlgeo Υǡ "Shifts" ȤƶʬƤͤƤ뤳Ȥˤդ줿 "Shifts" ĴΤ14.2%뾮ϤʤͤǤ롥ξܺٶʬȡˡޤAlgeo "Blends" ϡΥպǤ "shortening" ΰȤưä
Algeo οͤ Bauer 3οͤȳ뤬쥽ηȤƤϤ⤷ۤɤ˰פƤ롥Bauer μ̻ŪʷAlgeo ˤäĴƼƤȸä褤ӴκۤȤϾˤĤƲߤ˻ٻ̤ȤʤäΤ̣
Algeo, John. "Where Do the New Words Come From?" American Speech 55 (1980): 264--77.
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
[2011-09-17-1], [2011-09-18-1], [2011-09-19-1]εǡBauer (35, 38) ˤ1880--1982ǯ1Το쥽ˤĤƿƤѸο쥽̻ŪˤѲƤ˴ؤ븦¾ˤޤ긫ȤʤŪĴǤкε#876. Ѹˤ뤫Ф˹⤤ ([2011-09-20-1]) ǿ줿 Algeo 롥
Algeo Ĵ1963ǯʹߤοϿ Barnhart μ̵Ф1000˴ŤΤǡʬǸ Bauer 31939--82ǯˤΤ褽Ⱦο˴ؤĴȤȤˤʤ롥쥽ʬब Bauer ٤ƤäȺ٤Τħǡʬ٥įǤγפĤƤޤʺ٤ޤBauer ʻž (conversion) Ĵоݤ˴ޤƤʤAlgeo "Shifts" 1ȤƴޤƤ롥 "Shifts" ˤϰ̣ѲޤޤƤꡤʿΤȤʤΤ뤤ϿޤΤˤͤ롥
Algeo ʸ Appendix (273--76) ˷ǺܤƤ롤ܺ٤ʿ쥽ʬȤοͤΥڡžܤΤǡȤ줿
嵭Τ褦 Bauer Algeo ǤĴоݤȤ塤쥽ʬȤƤ뿷פƤʤΤľӤϤǤʤΤΡξԤͿͤϤˤ賵Ǥ뤫顤碌ƸѸο쥽˴ؤ뷹ΤȤ礤˻ͤˤʤ
ѸοˤĤƤϡ[2011-01-16-1]ε#629. Ѹο쥵 Word Spyפȡ
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
Algeo, John. "Where Do the New Words Come From?" American Speech 55 (1980): 264--77.
Barnhart, Clarence L., Sol Steinmetz, and Robert K. Barnhart, eds. The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963. Bronxville, N.Y.: Barnhart, 1973.
[2011-01-18-1]ε#631. blending γפǡѸˤƤФ줬äƤˤĤƼ夲ФϡѸη1ĤȤ Leech et al. ŦƤ "densification" (50) θȹͤ줽Ǥ[2011-01-12-1]εָѸʸˡѲ˸뷹פȡˡ¿ΤФСΤˤ⤢ʤľȤǤϤ롥[2011-09-17-1]ε#873. ѸοˤʣΥХפǿ줿ȤꡤBauer οĴˤСˤ뤫Фγ1880--1982ǯδ֤ p < 0.05 Υ٥ǤͭդäƤʤʤпäƤˡʣδѻԤŦƤꡤ䤿ľˤŬФ÷ȡҴŪͤȤΤ˺ΤϤɤȤ
1ĤˤϡBauer Ĵоݴ֤1982ǯǽäƤȤȤεҴŪ2011ǯλǻ䤿ƤľȤäƤƤԻĤϤʤ30ǯۤɤδ֤ blending Ȥǽͤ롥
⤦1ġľȿͤΥåפװ롥˴ؤơAlgeo ĴҲ𤷤¿θø椬 OED ϤμѤƤ뤬Algeo ϤȤ̷μѤΩĴԤʤäκΤäˡϡ1963ǯʹߤοϿ Barnhart μ1000̵ФȤ˿ʬȤΤǤ롥ĴˤȡФĴΤ4.8%ˤ¾μפʸΤʤǤΩʤƥǤȤ̤ȤʤäAlgeo (271) ϤοͤϲᾮɾȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Last in numerical importance as a source of new words is blending. Less than a twentieth of our new words have been formed in that way (4.8 percent); however, blending is more popular than that statistic suggests. Its principal areas of use are popular journalism and advertising. Time magazine and Madison Avenue dearly love a blend. Most of the popular coinages are nonce forms that were unreported in the Barnhart dictionary and consequently are not included in these statistics. But every new word begins as a nonce form, so a source that is prolific of nonce forms today may be expected to increase its contribution to the general vocabulary tomorrow. Blending may look like a long shot, but the smart money will keep an eye on it.
"nonce-form" 뤤 "nonce-word" ˤ blending ¿ѤȤΤϵҴŪ˳ΤˤľˤŬ֤ (productivity) ȤϲؤȤϡ[2011-04-28-1], [2011-04-29-1], [2011-05-28-1]εǤƤ褦ˡΤʲͿΤǤ롥䤤ϡʼ˷Ǻܤͤ˸ȤߤʤȤ⤦1ĤˤطƤ[2011-03-28-1]ε#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤Ρפȡˡblending οϼ伭˴ŤͤˤϸˤѤθˤƳƤǤ뤳Ȥ϶餯ְ㤤ʤϡμŪɾˤƵҴŪ˻ٻ뤫ȤˡʤΤǤϤʤ
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
Algeo, John. "Where Do the New Words Come From?" American Speech 55 (1980): 264--77.
Barnhart, Clarence L., Sol Steinmetz, and Robert K. Barnhart, eds. The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963. Bronxville, N.Y.: Barnhart, 1973.
2ε[2011-09-17-1], [2011-09-18-1]ǡBauer Ĵ̤˴ŤƿΥѤĴϤۤ¿ʤ褦ʤΤǡBauer Υǡ (35, 38) ϵŤȻפ⤦ʬϤƤߤʥǡHTML˺ܤƤ
Υ礭2ʬȡ (borrowing) ȸ (word formation) Υƥ롥ѤϼѸˤäƿ˲̶ʬ졤ȤƷδ˲̶ʬ롥ޤ٤ʬƤ礭ʷˤʤΤǡѤϼѸ̤4̤(1) borrowing, (2) composition, (3) derivation, (4) shortening, (5) other word formations 5ʬǽפʤʲΥդǤϡȤ3ˤ錄ѲĤߤ䤹褦ɴʬΨɽƤ롥㤨С11880--1913ǯοͤ碌100%Ȥʤ롤ȤɤǤ롥

ΤȤơоݤȤʤä100ǯ֤̻ŪѲ p < 0.0001 Υ٥ͭպФΤʤǤѤη㸺Ǥ⸲ѲǤƱ p < 0.0001 Υ٥ͭաˡƻǹ碌6ۤɤ composition derivation μ2ƥϡˤäƤۤѲƤʤ p < 0.05 ٥ͭպʤˡޤΤǤγ礫餹Ωʤ shortening ¾θĴäƤ뤳Ȥ⸫ƨƤϤʤʤshortening ˤĤƤϡp < 0.001 Υ٥ͭաˡƥζ̤λˤäƷθѲΤǡƱǡ͡ʳ٤į뤳Ȥɬפ
3֤εΥդޤȤƤߤ褦ˡ3##873,874,875פϢ뤷ΤӤޤǤˡ
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
εָѸοˤʣΥХ ([2011-09-17-1]) Ǽ夲 Bauer ĴϡѸοǤεĤޤθƤ (32--33, 34--36) ʥǡHTMLȡ
ˤΨϡ1880--1913, 1914--38, 1939--82ǯ3ˤ錄 31.4% -> 22.3% -> 19.2% 礭ܸꤷƤ롥ѸˤƤϡѸѸ١Ū˼Ѥ˰¸٤ƤΤ狼롥Ѹ줴Ȥ˾Ƥߤ褦ʲΥդϡBauer (35) ˷ǺܤƤɽ˴ŤƺΤǤ롥

Ūˤ Fr. (French) Grmnc (Other Germanic) ˤ p < 0.05 Υ٥ǸͭպǧΤΡΥ줬Ūʸ˴ͿƤȤϡˤ餺Ū˸³ƤΤɤ롥
դ٤ϡ1880--1913ǯ Other ƥΩäƤ뤳Ȥˤϡȥꥢݥͥꥫ줫μѤ¿ޤޤƤȤʤλˤθ줫μѤ¿äȤϡĴƹͻɬפ
Bauer 3νλǯǤ1982ǯꡤ30ǯвᤷƤ롥ʸ塤ѸμΥ³ƤΤⶽ̣䤤Ǥ롥
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
Ѹäˤϡ븻Ȥ顤绨Ĥ˼Τ褦˳礵롥űѸǤʣ (composition) (derivation) äѸ줫ѸˤƤϼ (borrowing) ѸʹߤϺƤʣĥƤθûˤήơϿζ븻Ѥ¸ǡʤ켫ΤȤϸ¤ʤˤκѤ¿äƤȤȤˤʤ롥ǤϡѸħŤȤʣ2ĤθǤϡɤ餬⤤ȤPotter (69--70) ϡξԤΥХϤ褯ƤɾƤ롥
German and Dutch, like ancient Greek, make greater use of composition (or compounding) than derivation (of affixation). French and Spanish, on the other hand, like classical Latin, prefer derivation to composition. Present-day English is making fuller use of both composition and derivation than at any previous time in its history.
ξԤΥХƤ뤫Ȥä¾ͥ줿ȤȤˤϤޤäʤʤޥɤȥޥɤθħƤ뤳ȤˤꡤѸ줬Ω줫ֶᤤȴȤ̤Ϥ뤫⤷ʤʴϢ[2010-05-27-1]εֱѸΥޥ첽ˤĤƤɾפȡˡޥϤǤ⤢ޥϤǤ⤢ȤѸħϡ˸¤餺Τˤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ơPotter Ͼ嵭Τ褦ʣιХŦŪ¬ä櫓ǤϤʤ¾μפʥ衼åѸ줢뤤ϸŤѸȤӤˤɾˤʤˤĤƤҴŪĴΤBauer (32--33, 36--39) Bauer The Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary (1972--86) Ѥ̵ɸĴǡоݤФ줿Ǥ뿷1559ǯˤ (1) 1880--1913, (2) 1914--38, (3) 1939--82 3˶ʬơ¤ˡ̤˸̤줿¤ˡȤϡAbbreviations, Blends, Shortenings, Compounds, Prefixation, Suffixation, Names, Neo-classical compounds, Simultaneous prefix and suffix, Other 10Ǥ롥
Bauer (38) ηǤɽΥǡ Log-Likelihood Tester, Ver. 2 ꤲƤߤʥǡHTMLȡդϰʲȡˡΤȤƻ̤κ p < 0.05 Υ٥ͭդǤꡤʬ̻ۤŪѲѻȸäƤ褤¤ˡ̤ѲƤߤȡAbbreviations p < 0.01 Υ٥ͭդäSuffixation Neo-classical compounds 줾 p < 0.05 Υ٥ͭդʸ¾¤ˡˤĤƤϡ3ˤ錄ɤϸϰȤȤˤʤ롥Bauer (37--38) ϡBlends äͭդǤȼƤꡤФлŦƱݤηٻƤ褦 p < 0.05 Υ٥ǤͭպǧʤäΤդɬפǤ[2011-01-18-1]εblending γפȡˡ

ʣ (Compounds, Neo-classical compounds) (Prefixation, Suffixation, Simultaneous prefix and suffix) ٤ȡ3̤ƸԤγԤγ2.7٤ǰݤƤʰʲΥդȡˡŪˤϡΤۤ˥ХФäƤ褦

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
Potter, Simon. Changing English. London: Deutsch, 1969.
ɸˤĤ[2011-08-27-1], [2011-08-28-1]εˤƤѸǤˡ she ԸդȤʤäƤƤ롤뤤ϾʤȤ⤽ register ޤäƤƤΤϤʤ
ˤϡ1960ǯʹߡȤ櫓ꥫѸǹޤäƤ gender ˽ʿȤ political correctness (PC) ؤδؿäƤ롥δ顤ʹ֤ΤȤƤ man(kind) -essȿͤɽ魯ʣ -man̿;̾ȤƤ he λѤʤɤ뤵졤ɽƤƤʴϢϡ[2009-08-20-1]ˤο͵ϤʤΤ, [2010-01-27-1]ָѸλ;ñ̾, [2011-04-17-1]֥ȥåŪȥݥȤƤθ츻פʤɤεȡ
δ she üˡȡ̾ΩƤƽ̾ǼͳϤʤǤϤʤȤ롥ΰԤȤäȤѸˤȿǤƤ뤳ȤϳΤߤδѤ٤ϤʤȤͤǤ롥
ä˹̾ she ˡϡĥäդȤ register ˸¤ȡ1960ǯʹߡ㸺ƤƤ뤳Ȥ¾ڤ롥The Times corpus ѤƤڤ Bauer (148--49) ˤȡ1930ǯޤǤϹؼ she ˡɸŪäºݡ1900ǯ1930ǯδ֤ǡؼ it 3ΤߤäȤȤ1935ǯʹߡit 㤬³Ū˸1970ǯˤshe ư쵤ɸȤʤäshe 㤬ƤϵSƤ뤫Τ褦ǤꡤóȻ (lexical diffusion) פ碌롥ʲΥդ Bauer (149) Υդ˴ŤƳƺΤǤ롥

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
ѸθäˤȼѸΨˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤夲ƤĤĥäƤ
[2010-12-31-1]: #613. Academic Word List ˴ޤޤγ
[2010-06-30-1]: #429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ
[2010-05-16-1]: #384. ÿȥޥΨǸűѸȸѸθäӤ
[2010-03-02-1]: #309. Ѹδܸ100εȳ
[2009-11-15-1]: #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ
[2009-11-14-1]: #201. ѸμѸεȳ (2)
[2009-08-15-1]: #110. ѸμѸεȳ
οŪĴˤϡݤΥˤ뤫type-count token-count ɤΤ餤θõϤ츻ˤޤĤΤɤΤ褦˽뤫ʤɤιθ٤ब͡ꡤԤˤäƷ̤ޤޤȤʤ뤳Ȥ롥ʣĴ٤С褽ʿͤƤΤΤǤ롥
äƤ ICOME7 (The Seventh International Conference on Middle English) ǡ84OED3 μ紴츻ؼ Philip Durkin "Some neglected aspects of Middle English lexical borrowing from (Anglo-)French" ꤹֱǴϢˤĤƿƤΤǡ⤷Ƥ
Durkin BNC 1000ΥꥹȤФ츻ʬϤη̡Ѹ줬489졤եƥ줬489졤Υɸ줬32졤ʳθ줬10Ȥͤ줿絬ϥѥ٥ꥹ (see [2010-03-01-1]) Ѥ츻ĴϤĤʬǤȻפäƤDurkin ΤǤϫϤʤȤǤʤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ˤꡤ嵭ΥǼĴȹ碌ơtype-count ˴Ť100졤600졤1000졤2000졤3000졤4000졤5000졤6000졤7000졤8000졤9000졤10000Ȥ12ʳθõϤǤθΨ줿Ȥˤʤ롥ΤȤʤ븽ѸäξʬϤ줾ۤʤäƤΤ⤷ʤܰ¤Ȥưʲʬ English, French and/or Latin, Scandinavian, Other Ȥ4줷
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Ʊ֤ʻˤäƶ֤θؤ (diatone) ŵǤ̾ưפˤĤƤϡ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1], [2011-07-08-1], [2011-07-10-1], [2011-07-11-1]ΰϢεڤƤ̾ưκۤĴƤƻ⤳ε˴ؤäƤ[2011-07-07-1]εǤϴϢ˸ڤˡ֤ˤĤơƻϸ§Ȥ̾Ʊư֤롥СַưפǤ롥
ưλ¤ϡޤŪ˻ٻ롥Bolinger (156--57) ˤС3ζѸýΥץĴˤȡ¿ˤĤơƻ91% non-oxytonic ʺǽʳ˶ˤư63% oxytonic ʺǽ˶ˤǤȤñˤĤƤϡΰ֤뤳ȤϤǤʤΰ̣ʤñưȷƻθĿΨư줬60.7%롥ñζ̾ oxytonic ȲᤵΤǡΨϷƻ椷ư oxytonic ʷٻͤȤ褦
ưȤ֤ʬۤ˴ϢơBolinger ξʻθκۤ˸ڤƤ롥ƻˤäΤ¿ (ex. -ant, -ent, -ean, -ial, -al, -ate, -ary, -ory, -ous, -ive, -able, -ible, -ic, -ical, -ish, -ful) ưƬˤ¿ (ex. re-, un-, de-, dis-, mis-, pre-) 㳰Ūˤ켫Ȥ˶ -ose Τ褦ʷƻ⤢뤬㳰ŪǤ뤳ȤˤäƤäƺΩ (phonaesthesia) ʤ 缭 ( augmentative ) ȤƤεǽ碌ĤȤˤʤäƤ缭ˤĤƤ[2009-08-30-1]εɼפ⻲ȡˡbellicose, grandiose, jocose, otiose, verbose ʤɤǡǤ롥
ΤȤʤ顤Τʤˤ줿¿ηƻɬ non-oxytonic Ȥʤ뤷ΤʤƬˤ줿¿ư϶2ܰʹߤ֤뤳Ȥˤʤ oxytonic Ȥʤǽ⤤εȯŸˤϡܼμθɬפ뤬ܼˤѥ㤬ưνи˹ȤȤǤ礤˶̣ޤ̾⡤ƻƱͤˡƬǤϤʤ¿Ѥ뤳ȤͤС̾ưˤƱΩĤΤǤϤʤ
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
Biber et al. (Section 4.5.6 [pp. 291--22]) ˡ̾ñʣ٤˴ؤ뵭Ҥ롥Ѹˤ绨ĤʬۤǤϤ뤬LSWE Corpus 500쥵֥ѥѤǤͤʤΤǻͤޤǤ˥⤷Ƥޤƥ֥ѥ100˴ƤΥդκƸʿͥǡͿƤʤäΤǥդ鳵ɤäƤκƸˡ

(1) conversation transcription (CONV), fiction text (FICT), newspaper text (NEWS), academic text (ACAD) 4֥ѥ֤κ㤷
- §ȤʣȤʤԲĻ̾ޤƤȤϤ٤ƤΥ֥ѥñʣ٤⤤
- äǤñ٤Ū⤤
- դǤäդʣ٤3--4ܤ⤤
(2) ġ̾Ǥߤȡ¿̾줬ñ뤤ʣΤ줫ؤζФ
(3) 㤨С̾75%ʾγñȤ롥ex. car, god, government, grandmother, head, house, theory.
(4) 㤨С̾75%ʾγʣȤ롥ex. grandchildren, parents, socks, circumstances, eyebrows, onlookers, employees, perks.
(1) ˴ؤơñŪ¿ȼΤϤޤäԻĤǤϤʤҤΤ褦ԲĻ̾ϸ§ȤñʤޤۤȤɤβĻ̾Ǥñ lemma ΤΤǤ뤷̵ɸη֤Ǥ⤢롥ۤˤϡγǰΩ硤㤨 hand in hand, from time to time ʤɤδɽˤƤϡñѤΤ̤Ǥ롥
(2)--(4) ˴ؤơ̾ˤäñʣؤФȤΤäʤ줾θ췲įС "the communicative needs of the language user" (291) ȿǤƤ뤳ȤϤäʬ̾Τʤ餻С֥ߥ˥ɬפñФꤽȤȤľ롥
ǤϡäñλѤ¿ȤΤϡɤ櫓Biber et al. (291--92) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In general, the high frequency of singular nouns in conversation probably follows from the concern of speakers with individuals: a person, a thing, an event. Writers of academic prose, on the other hand, are more preoccupied with generalizations that are valid more widely (for people, things, events, etc.). This same tendency applies not only to nouns, but also to determiners and pronouns (4.4.3.1, 4.12.1, 4.14.1, 4.15.2.1).
ѥΤȤƤϡʣϰ̾2٤ʤȤˤʤ롥ʣθȤʤĤޤʣʤ٤¿ʤФʤʤ˻ˤȤäƤϡʤʤͤʤ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
2011ǯ53դǹϢ World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision ɽ줿ץ쥹PDF
ˤȡϺǯ10ޤǤ70ͤã2050ǯˤ93͡2100ǯˤ101ͤãȤ롥夲Ϲ⤤Ψǡˤϥեꥫ399˥6ƥꥫ4ޤޤȤ
ʹοͤȡܤο2010ǯ12600ͤ2100ǯˤ9130ͤظο1925ǯ139500ͤԡˡ2100ǯˤ94100ͤظɤοϡ1925ǯɤȴ1960ǯˤ171796ͤã2100ǯˤ155000ͤظ
絬Ϥʿͽ¬ˤ¿ޤޤƤ롥㤨Сץ쥹ɸˤ⤢褦 "if Fertility in all Countries Converges to Replacement Level" Ȥ롥äƲˤդפ뤬ѸüԿפǤ⡤Τ褦ͤϺǽפǤ롥[2010-05-07-1]εּ ENLESL οΨפǼ夲ENL7ͤȤܤɲáˤESL13ˤˤĤơ2100ǯޤǤοܡ medium variant ˴ŤˤղƤߤ


ENLϥꥫƺ¤ͽ¬ESLϺȾФˤƿĹȾꤨˤɤͤȴƤꡤʥꥢѥ˥ܤĥΤ롥
̤οͽ¬Ȥ̤αѸüԤοͽ¬뤳ȤñʺȤǤϤʤʤȤESLοȯϤŪͽ¬˴ŤƻŪ˳ǧ줿ȤϤ
ѸüԿˤĤƤϡ[2010-06-28-1], [2010-06-15-1], [2010-05-29-1]ε⻲ȡ
ʲˡѤ Log-Likelihood Tester, Ver. 2 ʸ褦ˡϥǡΥեޥåȤ䡤⡼ɤŬڤƤʤˤϥСǥ顼ǽΤա
| though | although | |
|---|---|---|
| Natural and pure sciences | 56.3 | 80.13 |
| Applied science | 37.36 | 68.31 |
| World affairs | 45.81 | 68.2 |
| Social science | 48.98 | 63.38 |
| Commerce and finance | 46.18 | 57.21 |
| Arts | 74.07 | 52.93 |
| Leisure | 45.85 | 49.46 |
| Belief and thought | 70.78 | 46.75 |
| Imaginative prose | 80.2 | 26.37 |
ε[2011-04-06-1]ǡthough although θˡκ˿줿Ʊǡ
4000Ķʤ The Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus (the LSWE Corpus) ȤѸʸˡBiber et al. (845--46) ǤϼΤ褦ˤ롥
Both of these subordinators [though and although] occur in all four registers [conversation, fiction, news, and academic prose], although the registers show different preferences of use. Conversation and fiction show a slightly greater use of though (concessive clauses are, however, uncommon in conversation generally). News shows no particular preference. In academic prose, although is about three times as frequent as though. Although seems to have a slightly more formal tone to it, fitting the style of academic prose . . . . The greater use of although by writers of academic prose may also result from an attempt to distinguish this subordinator from the common use of though as a linking adverbial in conversation . . . .
ޤƱ p. 842 ɽϡŪ though fiction ¿although academic prose ¿Ȥǧ롥ˤ뺹ƤȤη̤
Τ褦Ըơ BNC ( The British National Corpus ) ˤꤳΤƤߤ롥BNCweb ǡ{although/CONJ}, {though/CONJ} 줾측Written/Spoken, Text Domain, Sex of Author/Speaker, Perceived Level of Difficulty ʤ͡ʥѥǽиʬۤʬϤΩä̤ʲ˼ʿͥǡϤΥڡHTMLȡˡ
ޤWritten/Spoken κˤĤƤϡͽۤȤꡤξȤ Written ؤФ꤬㤷ʺ۷ though 0.66344 although 0.49770 ǡ餫˽դФˡLog-Likelihood Test Ǥϡp < 0.0001 Υ٥ǽդäդͭպΤ˼줿
ꡤäˤ뺹ⶽ̣դäդξǡalthough ͭպäλѤФäƤ롥though ˤĤƤϡ although ۤɸǤϤʤʤդǤ p < 0.05 ͭպˡ
ˡText Domain ̤٤ߤ롥9 Text Domain ̤ ( Natural and pure sciences, Applied science, World affairs, Social science, Commerce and finance, Arts, Leisure, Belief and thought, Imaginative prose ) 100νиɸಽͤǡξ Text Domain ٤ղΤʲοޤ

Text Domain ˤäξνи٤оŪʷ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū sciences ( = academic prose ) although ΩImag(inative) Prose ( = fiction ) though ¿Log-Likelihood Test ǤϡText Domain ˤиκ p < 0.0001 ͭդǤ롥
ľŪˤԸη̤ͽۤȤǤϤ뤬although νˤؽѻʸǸѤȤ줿
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
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