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statistics - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2016-05-30 Mon

#2590. <gh> ޤñˤĤƤ [statistics][spelling][grapheme][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][digraph][gh]

ɸˤĤơJones English Pronouncing Dictionary (12th ed.) Ѥơ<gh> ޤͭ̾졤졤ʣ90оݤȤĴԤʤäƤ롥ʲˡ (145--46) ƼƤ򼨤

1. Spelling ˤĤ

(1) Digraph 'gh' ΰ֤ˤʬ

Ƭˤ6 (7%)
ˤ19 (21%)
ˤ (-t ޤ65 (72%)

    Ƭ 'gh' Ϥ٤ gh [g] Ǥ롥

(2) 첻ˤʬ

- ough(t) ޤ2973
-igh(t) ޤ24
-augh(t) ޤ10
-eigh(t) ޤ10
¾17 


2. Sound ˤĤ

(1) 'gh' ˤʬ

gh [g] 14 (16%)
gh [f] 10 (10%)
gh-mute 62 (70%)
¾β4 (4%)

   'gh' [g] ɬפ˺줿ѸǤ롥ѲˤΤȤƤ [f] 줬䤢볰ϤۤȤۻǤȤ롥

(2) gh-mute ʬ

[-ait] Ȥʤ2554
[ɔːt] Ȥʤ19
[-eit] Ȥʤ10
¾β8 

   βѲΩڤȤȤˡ 'gh' digraph 첻Ȥδط̩ܤǤäȤܤ٤Ǥ

(3) ˤʬ

ñ68 (76%)
219 (21%)
33 (3%)

   'gh' word ñ frequency ι⤤ܸ줬¿դ¿ϤۤȤɤü͢Ǥ롥


ȤƤϡ<gh> ޤñǤϡthough thought Τ褦ñ줬ǤŵŪǤ롥7ۤɤñǤ뤫2ŻĤ̵б뤫Ǥ롥
<gh> ˴ϢȤơ#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1])#210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1])#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1])#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1])#2085. <ough> β ([2015-01-11-1]) ʤɤε⻲ȡ

ͺDigraph 'gh' ȯã˴ؤŪͻסعظ浪ס41967ǯ128--47ǡ

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2016-05-18 Wed

#2578. ȸ̤ƱѸؼѤ줿찮Υƥñ [loan_word][latin][celtic][oe][borrowing][statistics]

֥ƥ礬43ǯ410ǯޤǤΤޤλ۲֤졤Ǥ٥ƥ줬äƤȤ¤顤λѤƤƥñ줬μ礿ȤʤѸˤ⡤ĤäƤϤǤϤʤ뤫⤷ʤΥƥñ¿ȸüԤ޲Ȥʤäơ˱Ѹˤ줿ΤǤϤʤȡºݤˤϤΤ褦ʾϵʤäBaugh and Cable (77) ˤȡ

It would be hardly too much to say that not five words outside of a few elements found in place-names can be really proved to owe their presence in English to the Roman occupation of Britain. It is probable that the use of Latin as a spoken language did not long survive the end of Roman rule in the island and that such vestiges as remained for a time were lost in the disorders that accompanied the Germanic invasions. There was thus no opportunity for direct contact between Latin and Old English in England, and such Latin words as could have found their way into English would have had to come in through Celtic transmission. The Celts, indeed, had adopted a considerable number of Latin words---more than 600 have been identified--- but the relations between the Celts and the English were such . . . that these words were not passed on.


Υȸˤ600᤯ƥñ줬äƤȤΤϡΤʤäơűѸäΤϤä5ˤʤȤäƤ뤬Baugh and Cable (77--78) 󤲤ƤΤϡceaster (< L castra "camp"), port (< L portus, porta "harbor, gate, town"), munt (< L mōns, montem "mountain"), torr (L turris "tower, rock"), wīc (< L vīcus "village") Ǥ롥Ǥ츻˰ΤΤ⤢ꡤȸͳǸűѸäƥѸγμ¤ȤϤʤʤ⤷ʤ¾̾ǤȤƤ street, wall, wine ʤɤäƤ뤬ˤ褽Τ褦ʥ롼ȤǸűѸäƥѸ찮ꤷʤ
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1]) ʤɤǿ줿褦ˡѸˤˤƥƥñμѤȤȷϩϲ٤ä Baugh and Cable θƤ֤ȤΥƥñѤ1˴ؤƤϡ٤Τä˾ʤȸäƤBaugh and Cable (78) η

At best . . . the Latin influence of the First Period remains much the slightest of all the influences that Old English owed to contact with Roman civilization.


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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2016-04-26 Tue

#2556. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿űѸäϤɤΤ餤뤫 (2) [oe][pde][lexicology][statistics]

ɤΤ餤γθűѸäˤޤǻ¸Ƥ뤫ȤˤĤơ#450. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿űѸθäϤɤΤ餤뤫 ([2010-07-21-1])#384. ÿȥޥΨǸűѸȸѸθäӤ ([2010-05-16-1])#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1]) ǤĤοͤߤƤǸ˵󤲤ɵ褦ˡGelderen (73) ˤСűѸˤä8䤬줿ǽȤ
ƱˤĤơBaugh and Cable (52) 85%Ȥ󼨤Ƥ롥طսѤ褦

The vocabulary of Old English is almost purely Germanic. A large part of this vocabulary, moreover, has disappeared from the language. When the Norman Conquest brought French into England as the language of the higher classes, much of the Old English vocabulary appropriate to literature and learning died out and was replaced later by words borrowed from French and Latin. An examination of the words in an Old English dictionary shows that about 85 percent of them are no longer in use. Those that survive, to be sure, are basic elements of our vocabulary and by the frequency with which they recur make up a large part of any English sentence.


#450. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿űѸθäϤɤΤ餤뤫 ([2010-07-21-1]) Dz⤷褦ˡΤ褦פظˤ͡󤬤롥ǧ뤫򼭽θФ˺Ѥ뤫ȤŪ⤢СޤǤβŪϢ³ܤΤỌ̇̄ŪϢ³ܤΤȤǤϴۤʤäƤ롥űѸɤǤ´ȤƤϡѸθäμǤǤǤʤ٤ȤơΤ餤⤤ͤФƤ⤪ϤʤȤϻפ롥ǯ٤λϤǸűѸϤƤ⤤Ȼפ뤬οͤϤäȤäǤϤʤ

Gelderen, Elly van. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2006.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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2016-03-19 Sat

#2518. Ҳۻ [silent_letter][phoneme][grapheme][spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][consonant][phonology][orthography][digraph][statistics][haplology][spelling_pronunciation]

(118) Ĵ٤ˤȡѸˡˤƻҲۻ (silent_letter) ޤϡ޷ޤ420줢ȤҲ̤򼨤Ȱʲ̤ꡥ<b> (24 words), <c> (11), <ch> (4), <d> (17), <f> (2), <g> (41), <gh> (41), <h> (57), <k> (11), <l> (67), <m> (1), <n> (14), <s> (22), <p> (31), <ph> (2), <r> (1), <t> (37), <th> (2), <w> (33), <x> (2) ʸǤϡζ㤬Ҥ󤲤ƤꡤԴѤǤ롥ʲɤǤƤ⤷äճäʤɤǤиȴФҲ𤷤

(1) <mb> <b> ۻȤʤϡ#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]), #1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])#1917. numb ([2014-07-27-1]) ʤɤǵ󤲤Ƥ⤦ɲäǤ롥űѸѸ <b> (= /b/) Ϥʤä <b> 줿ΤȤ limb, crumb, numb, thumb 롥ĤƤϼ¸Ƥ <b> = /b/ ̵Ȥơclimb, bomb, lamb, comb, dumb, plumb, succumb 롥<mb> Ȥ߹碌Ǥ⡤rhomb ɩ, zimb ʥ֤ΰ, iamb ʼ嶯ʡˤʤɤѸǤ <b> ȯ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
(2) #2362. haplology ([2015-10-15-1]) ¾Ȥơmineralogy < mineralology, pacifism < pacificism, stipend < stipi-pendium, tragicomedy < tragic comedy
(3) perhaps ϤȯǤ /præps/ Ȥʤꡤ<h> ۻȤʤ롥
(4) iron ˤơꥫѸǤ <r> ȯ뤬ꥹѸǤ <r> ̵ /ˈaɪən/ Ȥʤ롥
(5) kiln
ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) /kɪln/ ̤Ѹ <n> ̵ȤʤäŪȯ /kɪl/ ⤢롥Ʊͤ Milne /mɪln/ ̤Jones ȯŵ (1967) Ǥ /mɪl/ ΤߤǧƤȤ顤ֻȯϤĤǶΤȤΤ褦
(6) Christmas տȯǤ /ˈkrɪstməs/ Ȥʤ <t> ۻȤʤʤΤ褦ʻҲ˶ޤ줿ĶǤϡŪ <t> ̵ȤʤΤ̾ä (see #379. often spelling pronunciation ([2010-05-11-1]))
(7) ҳѸȤƤ southeast, northeast Ǥ <th> ̵Ȥʤ롥/saʊ ˈiːst/, /nɔːr ˈiːst/

ʸɤȡۻΥץˤʤ롪

Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ

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2016-03-17 Thu

#2516. ҲǤȻҲʸǤбɽ [phoneme][grapheme][spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][consonant][phonology][orthography][digraph][statistics]

ε#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) ˰³ (19--21) 򻲾ȤơҲʻˤбɽǤ롥

 consonantal phonemeconsonantal grapheme
1/p/p, gh, pp, ph, pe5
2/b/b, bh, bb, pb, be5
3/t/t, th, pt, ct, ed, tt, bt7
4/d/d, bd, dh, dd, ed, ddh6
5/k/k, c, kh, ch, que, qu, cque, cqu, q, cch, cc, ck, che, ke, x, gh, cu17
6/q/g, gu, gh, gg, gue5
7/ʧ/ch, tch, t, c, cz, te, ti7
8/ʤ/j, g, dg, gi, ge, dj, g, di, d, dge, gg, ch12
9/f/f, ph, gh, ff, v, pph, u, fe8
10/v/v, f, ph, vv, v5
11/θ/th1
12/ð/th1
13/s/s, sci, c, sch, ce, ps, ss, sw, se9
14/z/z, se, x, ss, cz, zz, sc7
15/ʃ/sh, shi, sch, s, si, ss, ssi, ti, ch, ci, ce, sci, chsi, se, c, psh, t17
16/ʒ/s, z, si, zi, ti, ge6
17/h/h, wh, x3
18/m/m, mb, mn, mm, mpd, gm, me7
19/n/n, mn, ne, pn, kn, gn, nn, mpt, ln, dn10
20/ŋ/ng, n, ngue, nd, ngh5
21/l/l, ll, le3
22/r/r, rh, rrh, rr, wr5
23/j/y, j, i, ll4
24/w/w, o, ou, u4
  159


Ǹȡ24βǤФƷ159ʸǡdigraph ޤˤбƤ롥ʿѤ1ǤɽΤ6.625ĤʸǤѤ줦ȤȤˤʤ롥
夲첻ȺλҲȤ绻ȡ44βǤФƷ400Ĥʸǡdigraph ޤˤǧ뤳ȤˤʤꡤʿѤ1ǤɽΤ9.09ĤʸǤѤ줦ȤȤˤʤ롥
ȯֻȤ߹碌¿ͲƤŪװˤĤƤϡ#2405. ֻȯЪΥ --- ѸֻԵ§μŪװ ([2015-11-27-1]) ǿ줿̤ˤƤ褯ޤʣƤΤ

ָѸñ spelling sound discrepancy ˤĤơä˱Ѹˤδ鸫 orthography phonology δطˤĤơסʡؿʸѡ81, 1976ǯ49--75ǡ

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2016-03-16 Wed

#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ [phoneme][grapheme][spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][vowel][phonology][orthography][digraph][statistics]

ѸβǤʸǤбˤĤƾܺ٤˵Ҥʸꤷø󤵤įƤȡϳΤʤ褦ٿդʧĤ򽸤ᡤŪ褦ȤȤλäƤ롥ϡ (18--19) ˷ǤƤ첻˴ؤ벻ǤʸǤбɽƸơбޤºݤθˤĤƤϡľʸäƤ

 vocalic phonemevocalic grapheme
1/i/ee, ea, e, e...e, ei, ie. eo, i, ae, oe, ay, ey, eau, e, ui15
2/ɪ/i, ie, e, y, o, ui, ee, u, ay, ea, ei, ia, ai, a, ey, eight16
3/e/e, ea, ai, ay, eo, ie, ei, u, eh, ey, ae, egm, a, oe15
4/æ/a, ai2
5/ʌ/u, o, ou, oo, oe, ow6
6/ɑ/are, ah, al, ar, a, er, au, aa, ear, aar, ir11
7/ɐ/o, a, ow, ou, au, ach6
8/ɔ/aw, a, al, au, ough, oa, or, our, oo, ore, oar, as, o, augh15
9/ʊ/oo, o, ou, oul, oe, or7
10/uː/oo, o, o...e, u, wo, oe, ou, uh, ough, ow, ui, eux, ioux, eu, ew, ieu, ue, oeu18
11/ɜ/ur, urr, ear, ir, err, er, or, olo, our, eur, yr, yrrh12
12/ə/a, u, ar, o, e, ia, i, ough, gh, ou, er, o(u)r, or, ei, ure, eon, oi, or, oar19
13/eɪ/a...e, a, ea, ai, ei, ay, ao, eh, ey, eigh, ag, aig, e, alf, aa, au, ae, oi, e, et20
14/ɑɪ/i, i...e, eye, ay, ie, y, igh, uy, y...e, ign, ye, eigh, is, ui, oi, ey, ei, ais19
15/ɔɪ/oi, oy, eu, uoy4
16/əʊ/o...e, ol, ow, oh, owe, o, ou, oa, oe, eo, ew, ough, eau, au, ogn16
17/aʊ/ow, aou, ou, eo, au, ough, iaour7
18/ɪə/ear, eer, ia, ere, eir, ier, a, ea, eu, iu, e, eou, eor, iou, io, ir16
19/eə/are, air, ear, eir, ere, aire, ar, ayor8
20/ʊə/uo, oer, oor, ure, our, ua, ue, we, uou9
  241


ȯʬǤ϶̵ζ̤θƤ餺դפϤ뤬ޤǤˤߤƤбɽΤʤǤŪȤäƤ
ǤС20βǤФƷ241ʸǡdigraph ޤˤбƤ롥ʿѤ1ǤɽΤ12.05ĤʸǤѤ줦ȤȤˤʤ롥

ָѸñ spelling sound discrepancy ˤĤơä˱Ѹˤδ鸫 orthography phonology δطˤĤơסʡؿʸѡ81, 1976ǯ49--75ǡ

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2016-01-08 Fri

#2447. οʸηϤο [statistics][world_languages][grammatology][writing][medium]

ˤοˤĤơ뤤ϸοȤˤĤơ#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1]) ˤƤοȤȤˤϡ̡Ƭ줬ǰƬ֤Ƥ뤬񵭸ȤȤǤФɤĤޤꡤʸηϤμˤĤΤϢϡ#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1]) ǰä󡤲ƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
餫ʤȤϡʸηϤοϡʸƬ˸οⰵŪ˾ʤȤȤǤ롥ŪʸοˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬ǹԤƤ˸¤äơȤꤢ7000ꤷ褦ʸηϤοˤĤƤ⡤ͻˤä¿ΤФĤϤ뤬 (7--8) ˤС400य餤ǧȤ롥οϡ˹ԤƤʸηϤμȤ⡤ʸȯ鸽ߤ˻ޤǤθź˹ԤƤʸηϤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤοˤϡǤѤȤʤäץʸܸʸʤɤޤޤ뤷̤ʸ (#2427. ̤ʸ ([2015-12-19-1])) ޤޤ롥
ǤϡʤʸηϤμϸƬμⰵŪ˾ʤΤǤñʤС٤ƤθƬ줬б񵭸äƤ櫓ǤϤʤ顤ȤȤˤʤ롥#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])#748. äդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-05-15-1]) ʤɤǼ褦ˡ񵭸ȯϸƬȯ⤺ä٤Ƥ롥˾塤Ƭ礯ҲϤʤä񵭸礯Ҳ¿¸ߤƤ
ºݡŪ٤ʸäƤʤ顤ʸ⤿ʤäҲ⤢롥ꥫΦ˱ɤ󥫤Ϲ٤ʸŸʤȤ⺣ΤȤʸȸƤ٤褦ΤȯƤʤޤ̤ο͡⡤Ĺˤ錄Ѥʤ϶ʸ桼Τ褦ĹԽߤʤ⡤ɽʸ⤿ʤäʰԡp. 8ˡ
бʸηϤ礯ƬüԽĤʤҲ񤬡ɬ̵ʸҲȤϸ¤ʤȤդ⤷μҲ¿ҲǤꡤ2ȤʸηϤĸȤʤθˤɤ߽񤭶ƤС餫ͭʸҲǤ (cf. #1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ ([2013-05-30-1])#1608. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ (2) ([2013-09-21-1]))
⤦1Ĥͳϡ񵭸ϡζۤơ˻ۤơȻ䤹ȤȤ롥ܸʸޥ󡦥ե٥åȡʸʤɤŪʳȻʬۤͤƤߤʬȤꡤμפʸηϤϡ䤹ۤʤرѤ졤ĶŪѤƤĤޤꡤ1ĤʸʣθɽΤѤΤ̤ʤΤǤ롥ƬʸǤϤ뤬񵭸ϰؤΤʸŪʿȯǤꡤۤɽפʲͤӤӤΤϰعŤʤϤʤ
ܥ֥ǤϡäդȽ񤭸դγơˤĤơ#2339. 񤭸դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (1) ([2015-09-22-1]) βĥäεʤɤǡ͡˵Ƥ񤭸դ뤤Ͻ񵭸Τ⤦1ĤħȤơΤʸηϤƬζۤŤ䤹ԡ䤹Ȥ뤳Ȥ򡤤ǻŦƤ

ůذμŵʸ١Ʋ1998ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-30-1] [2017-11-09-1]

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2015-11-07 Sat

#2385. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ󥹽줫μѸä (2) [oed][statistics][lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][latin][greek][french][italian][spanish][portuguese][romancisation]

#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ󥹽줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1])#2369. Ѹˤˤ륤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ줫θüѤˡ ([2015-10-22-1]) ǡCulpeper and Clapham (218) ˤ OED ١Υޥ󥹷ϼѸפҲ𤷤ʸδˡŪʿͤɽηǷǺܤƤΤǡˤ2ĥդʥǡϡHTML򻲾ȡˡ1Ĥ4ȾȤγƸ줫μѸ2ĤϤƱΤ򡤳ƻθФΤˤɴʬΨǼΤǤ롥

Classical and Romance Loanwords in OED

Classical and Romance Loanwords (%) in OED

ϢפȤơ#2162. OED ˤե󥹸졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ǿ줿 Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" ⻲ȡ

Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.

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2015-10-22 Thu

#2369. Ѹˤˤ륤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ줫θüѤ [italian][spanish][portuguese][loan_word][borrowing][statistics][lexicology]

#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ󥹽줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1]) Ǿ줿褦ˡѸ˾塤ե󥹸椷¾3ĤΥޥ󥹽줫θüѤϱƤꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥγƸ줫μѸϡ˶ʹߤˤĤơ#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) #756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) ǿ줿Ѹˤ⡤褽ե󥹸ͳǤϤ뤬ꥢݥȥ˵ĸμѤä (#2329. ѸμѸ ([2015-09-12-1]))
Culpeper and Clapham (210) ϡŪޥʡʤΥޥ󥹽줫θüѤˤˤĤơOED ˤפȤˡΤ褦üŪˤޤȤƤ롥

The effect of Italian borrowing can be seen from the 15th century onwards. Italy was, and still is, famous for style in architecture and dress. It was also perceived an authority in matters to do with etiquette. Travellers to Italy --- often young sons dispatched to acquire some manners --- inevitably brought back Italian words. Italian borrowing is strongest in the 18th century (1.7% of recorded vocabulary), and is mostly related to musical terminology. Spanish and Portuguese borrowing commences in the 16th century, reflecting warfare, commerce, and colonisation, but at no point exceeds 1% of vocabulary recorded within a particular period.


ޤꥢ줫μѸ줬ʤΤϡ15Ǥ롥#1530. 󥰥ɻʾɽƤ Compa ([2013-07-05-1]) Ǹڤ褦ˡ13Ⱦʹߡ16ޤǡꥢŪʾȡͻϥ󥰥ɷкѤ礭ʱƶͿƤ줬Ū;ȤȤʤäƸƤΤ15դ꤫Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥θ塤ꥢѸ18βѸήˤäƥԡޤ
ڥȥݥȥϡꥢ⤵ΩΤʤŪȤΤ16˸ꤵ롥ιȤȤ̾ڤξͺθŪʸȤ
Ƹ줫θüѤͻҤϡŪˤߤаʾ̤Ūʰ㤤󤹤ȼ̤ˤʤ (Strang 124--26)

(1) ꥢͤ󤷤꿢̱ꤹԤǤϤʤޤǥ衼åιͤǤääơꥢ줬󶡤ä⡤衼åŪʤΤ˸ꤵȤäƤ褤ͥ󥹤ȯϤȤȤ⤢ꡤݽѡڡʸءۤʬθä¿󶡤ȤϤޤǤʤʸʪ̤ƤȤϹ̣ǤιͤθͳơθäѸήȤߤ٤ȤƤϡե󥹸ͳ褦ʷ֤äƤ뤳Ȥ¿
(2) ڥήϡ󥰥ɽ Mary ȥڥ Philip II η뺧ˤξ̩ʴط餦Ȥ¿ڥڤΤߤʤ餺Φͳ褹äξʤʤȤħǤ롥
(3) ڥʾŪʼѸ󶡤Τϡ15--16˹ҳѤȯãؤŸݥȥθǤ롥ݥȥϡΦΤߤʤ餺եꥫ䥢¿θä衼åѤ˻ꡤ줬̤ȤƱѸˤ⤿餵줿

ŪʼѸϡ#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

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2015-10-13 Tue

#2360. 20Υե󥹼Ѹ [french][loan_word][borrowing][statistics][norman_french][creole][oed]

ѸΥե󥹸Ȥդ礤ϸűѸڤ뤳Ȥʤ³Ƥ롥ե󥹸üѤΥԡϡ#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ󥹽줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1]) #117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) Ǹ褦1251--1375ǯθ⡤Ϥ̾ʤ⡤ѤϢʤ³ƤƤ롥ѸʹߤγƻΥե󥹸äμѤˤĤƤϡ#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1])#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1])#594. ѸʹߤΥե󥹼Ѹħ ([2010-12-12-1]), #678. ƥ衼åŪ18Υե󥹼Ѹ ([2011-03-06-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ϡѸˤե󥹼Ѹ夲Schultz ϡOED Online Ѥơ1900ǯʹߤ˱ѸäƤե󥹸äĴSchultz ե󥹼ѸȤƼФǧꤷΤϡ1677Ǥ롥Schultz ʸǤϡ14Ĥΰ̣ʬʤȤʤ벼̶ʬˤȤץ󤷤Ƥ뤬Ǥ12ʬ줾°οȳΤߤ򼨤 (Shultz 4--6)

(1) Anthropology (11 borrowings, i.e. 0.7%)
(2) Metapsychics and parapsychology (11 borrowings, i.e. 0.7%)
(3) Archaeology (30 borrowings, i.e. 1.8%)
(4) Miscellaneous (46 borrowings, i.e. 2.7%)
(5) Technology (62 borrowings, i.e. 3.7%)
(6) La Francophonie (63 borrowings, i.e. 3.8%)
(7) Fashion and lifestyle (77 borrowings, i.e. 4.6%)
(8) Entertainment and leisure activities (86 borrowings, i.e. 5.1%)
(9) Mathematics and the humanities (92 borrowings, i.e. 5.5%)
(10) People and everyday life (154 borrowings, i.e. 9.2%)
(11) Civilization and politics (156 borrowings, i.e. 9.3%)
(12) Gastronomy (179 borrowings, i.e. 10.7%)
(13) Fine arts and crafts (260 borrowings, i.e. 15.5%)
(14) The natural sciences (450 borrowings, i.e. 26.8%)

20Υե󥹼Ѹħϲ1ĤϡSchultz "the vocabulary recently adopted from French is characterized by its great variety, ranging from words related to everyday matters to highly specific terms in technology and science" (8) ȤޤȤƤ褦ˡ̣ʬ󤲤롥ݽѡʳؤŪ˶ΤȤƤϥޥȤäƤ褤ޥǤ뤳ȤѸΥե󥹼ѸħˤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ顤ϱѸˤˤե󥹸üѤƻŪˤߤħȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ
ܤ٤ϡѸΥȤơɸե󥹸Τߤʤ餺ե󥹸νѼ䥯쥪ʤɤޤޤƤ뤳Ȥֽ硤ʥ륤ʡեꥫʤɤΥե󥹸Ѽ狼μѸ줬ʤʤѸˤ⡤ե󥹸Τߤʤ餺Ȥ櫓˥Υޥ󡦥ե󥹸 (norman_french) äήƤʹߡ֥ե󥹸פλؤϰϤȤȤȤˡѸѼ¿ͲƤȤȤ
μѸȤƤαѸͤƤߤƤ⡤ϥꥹɸѸ䥢ꥫɸѸ줬ۤͣμѸѼä⤷ʤߤǤϥԥ䥯쥪ޤ᤿ƼαѸѼ郎ѸѼȤʤäƤ¤롥ƱȤե󥹸ˤĤƤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤ

Schultz, Julia. "Twentieth-Century Borrowings from french into English --- An Overview." English Today 28.2 (2012): 3--9.

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2015-10-10 Sat

#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ󥹽줫μѸä [oed][statistics][lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][latin][greek][french][italian][spanish][portuguese][romancisation]

ɸ˴ؤ롤OED2 CD-ROM ǤѤܳŪŪȯCulpeper and Clapham ˤΤǡĴˡ򸫤뤫ꡤ츻󸡺εǽȤʤ٤κʤ褦忴褦OED ʤɤѤŪϾʤʤˡθ̩˴դߤơĴ⿮Τ̤ȤƼƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥äȤ⡤ɮԤȤ OED ѤƸפ뤳ȤΰյפˤĤƿŤƤꡤ̤⤽˱ƿŤ˲ᤷʤФʤȤ⤷Ƥ롥äơʲεҤ⡤â񤭤ʬ˰ռĤIJᤵ줿
Culpeper and Clapham ΰäŵ줪ӥޥ󥹽ȤϡŪˤϥƥ졤ꥷ졤ե󥹸졤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ濴ȤǤ롥ͤȤƤ٤礭ˤʤΤϡǽ4ۤɤǤ롥ɮԤϡOED Ǻܤ2,314,82θФ줫顤θľθȤѸ77,335Ф̡̤׿Ȥ⡤Ȥ˽Фäˤ뤽μѸγŻ뤷ơƼθͤ򻻽Ф
ĤҤȤĤοͤŪǤꡤ줾̣ᤷƤΤ⤪⤷ΤǤ Culpeper and Clapham (215) ʸκǸ󤷤Ƥ礿ȯ7Ѥ褦

   (1) Latin and French have had a profound effect on the English lexicon, and Latin has had a much greater effect than French.
   (2) Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese are of relatively minor importance, although Italian experienced a small boost in the 18th century.
   (3) The general trend is one of decline in borrowing from Classical and Romance languages. In the 17th century, 39.3% of recorded vocabulary came from Classical and Romance languages, whereas today the figure is 15%.
   (4) Latin borrowing peaked in 1600--1675, and Latin contributed approximately 7000 words to the English lexicon during the 16th century.
   (5) Greek, coming after Latin and French in terms of overall quantity, peaked in the 19th century.
   (6) French borrowing peaked in 1251--1375, fell below the level of Latin borrowing around 1525, and thereafter declined except for a small upturn in the 18th century. French contributed over 11000 words to the English lexicon during the Middle English period.
   (7) Today, borrowing from Latin may have a slight lead on borrowing from French.


7ȤäƤ⡤θǤۣäĴ̤ϿͤȤƶβƤꡤ狼䤹(1) ϡե󥹸ȥƥǡɤ餬Ū¿μѸäѸˤ⤿餷ƤȤ䤤üŪΤǤꡤƥι׸Τ֤ۤä礭פȤƤ롥(7) ˤСΥƥ̤ͥϡ㴳κʤ⡤ѸˤĤƤ褦Ϣơ(6) 顤ι׸줬ե󥹸줫ƥڤؤäΤ16ȾǤ뤳ȤȽ뤷(4) 顤ƥΥԡ16Ȥ17Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼롥
(3) ǤϡʹߡˤѸΨäƤƤ뤳ȤƤ뤬ϡ#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ǤߤȤ礹롥(2) (5) Ǥϡƥȥե󥹸ʳν줫αƶϡΤȤƶϾ뤤λˤ串ȤʤäȤ٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ѸˤˤѸפˤĤƤϡcat:lexicology statistics loan_word γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿ܵȴϢơäˡ#2162. OED ˤե󥹸졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-10-02 Fri

#2349. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) [reestablishment_of_english][language_shift][french][loan_word][borrowing][bilingualism][borrowing][lexicology][statistics][contact]

ɸˤĤƤϡʲΰϢεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ

#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1])
#1638. ե󥹸ȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥ󥰤ζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2069. ؤءˡ ([2014-12-26-1])

˴ϢơRothwell ʸɤRothwell (50) ˤȡѸΤ˸ŪʵϿθ줬ƥ줫ե󥹸ءե󥹸줫Ѹܤޤ뤷ڤؤä (language_shift) ȤҲŪʻθʤФʤʤȤ

If the English language appears to embark on a far more extensive campaign of lexical borrowing from the later fourteenth century, this is because French had become the second official language of record in England, alongside and often in replacement of Latin. This means in effect that from the thirteenth century onwards French is called upon to cover a much wider range of registers than in the earlier period, when it was used in the main for works of entertainment or edification. This change in the role of French took place at a time when English was debarred from use as a language of record, so that when English in its turn began to take on that role in the later fourteenth century, it was only to be expected that it would retain much of the necessary vocabulary used by its predecessor --- French. . . . For successive generations of countless English scribes and officials the administrative vocabulary of French had been an integral part of their daily life and work; it would be unrealistic to expect them to jettison it and re-create an entirely new Germanic set of terms when English came in to take over the role hitherto played by French.


13--14ˤơե󥹸줬ˡΧطϤȤŪʸȤƤ򶯤ƤȤϡ#2330. 13--14󥰥ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) ǤߤΤ褦˥󥰥ɤˤƥե󥹸ǸŪʵϿ봷ˤ錄äƳΩƤȤˡ14ȾѸ줬ƤΤǤ롥񤭸վΥХ󥬥äȤϤ¿μ̻ˤȤäơ餳θؤˤϸǤääˡΧ˴ؤѸ¿ϡޤǥեñǤޤʤäƤƤꡤбѸϷ礱ƤΤ褦ʾǡ̻񤭸դѸؤȥեȤݤˡ񤭴줿ե󥹸Ѹ¿ѤȤϼä
ѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤Ťȡ֤θüѤϡΤ褦̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥ϢǶȤơ#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia ([2015-09-28-1]) ⻲ȡ

Rothwell, W. "Stratford atte Bowe and Paris." Modern Language Review 80 (1985): 39--54.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-09-07 Mon

#2324. n-gram [corpus][information_theory][coca][bnc][google_books][statistics][n-gram][collocation][frequency][link]

伫ʬѤ n-gram Ȥʬϼˡ롥ѥؤǤ⤹ǤˤߤγǰǤꡤɽ (collocation) θʤɤǤΤ褦Ѥ褦ˤʤäΥѥΥ󥿡եˤƤѤƤꡤ#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer ([2010-12-25-1]) Ǥ̾˴ޤޤƤۤɤܥ֥Ǥ COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English) N-gram ǡ١Ѥơ#956. COCA N-Gram Search ([2011-12-09-1]) ƤʤαѤϡ#953. ƬƧ2।ǥ ([2011-12-06-1])#954. ӱƧ2।ǥ ([2011-12-07-1])#955. ʸϤ碌2।ǥ ([2011-12-08-1]) 򻲾ȡˡBNC ǤϡExplore Words and Phrases from the BNC ѤǤ롥
ԥ塼ѤʬϼˡȤ񤷤ʹ뤬n-gram ιͤϻäñǤ롥ʸ٥ 2-gram (bigram) ͤƤߤ褦ĹαñȤ pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis (#63. پɤϱѸǺǤŤµ ([2009-06-30-1])) ˤȤ롥ޤƬ2ʸ1Ȥ pn Фˡ2ʸܤ˿ʤƱ褦 ne Ф3ʸܤ˿ʤ eu 4ʸܤ˿ʤ um 롥Ʊ褦ˡ1ʸıˤ餷ʤ顤Ǹ is ޤ2ʸ1Ȥ򼡡ȽäƤ44Ȥ2ʸȤˤʤ롥ȤΤʤǡic co ȤȤ߹碌ϳơ3󵯤ꡤos, si, no, on Ȥ߹碌ϳơ2󸽤졤ʳȤ߹碌Ϥ1٤Ǥ롥äơñˤƺǹ٤2ʸ1Ȥ ic co Ȥʤ롥
n-gram ñ̤ϡΤ褦ʸǤɬפϤʤǤǤ褤礭ñ̤ǤǤǤ褯礭ʶʤɤΤ礭ñ̤Ǥ褤Ѹ쥳ѥؤǤϡȤñ̤ǹͤΤ̤Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have a Dream αΥƥȤǸñ̤ 4-gram ȡǤ¿4Ȥ߹碌ϡͽ̤ "I have a dream" 8"will be able to" Ʊ8󸽤롥"Let freedom ring from" 7Ȥ褯롤ʬϤǽȤʤ롥Ǥ4ȤפꤷΤ 4-gram ȸƤФ뤬ܤ뤤Ĥʸθ뤫ˤ 1-gram (unigram), 2-gram (bigram), 3-gram (trigram) 5-gram ʾͤ뤳ȤǤ1-gram ξ硤ꥹȤϡ¾ƸɽǤˡ
祳ѥ줿 2-gram 3-gram ΰϡ켫ΤɽθʤɤǤϴܥǡȤʤ뤿ᡤ־Ǥ⤤ȸƤ롥ܸǤN-gram ѥ - ܸ쥦֥ѥ 2010뤷ѸǤ COCA n-gram ǡ١ 롥ޤBigram Plus Ǥϡ˱Ѹ쥳ѥޤ᤿ƼѸ쥳ѥ N-Gram Search Ԥʤ뵡ǽ󶡤Ƥ롥ۤˤǤդΥƥȤ䥳ѥоݤ n-gram ƼΥġ䥽եȤ⡤־ǽ
n-gram ʬϤθʬؤαϰϤϹʲʸˤϲȤͽ¬ǽȤطᡤˤ벻ǧʬϡȽꡤưڥåõΡʸѥǥåκʤɤ˳Ѥ롥󡤶ɽθǤϡܤˤԲķμʤȤʤäƤ롥n-gram ϤäѤȤɽ̲줿ƥȤоݤȤؤˤ빽¤ˤޤä뤳ȤʤᡤʸˡΤ褦ʸ̤Ƚ褦ܤϡn-gram in Wikipedia 򻲾ȡ
n-gram Ϲ׼ǡޤޤȤƻꤽ˱ѸƥȤˤ⡤ѤƤ

ʸ嵭2015/09/12(Sat) Sketch Engine N-grams ⻲ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2016-09-07-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-08-25 Tue

#2311. Tristan da Cunha [enl][world_englishes][map][geography][demography][statistics][lesser-know_varieties]

#2305. Ѹ25Ͽޡ ([2015-08-19-1]) 11ܤȤƵ󤲤Ƥ Tristan da Cunha ˤĤդä롥Tristan da Cunha ϡեꥫꥫΦΤɤ餫Υ줿䳤θ硥եꥫ2400ꥫ3360ΥƤ롥6Ĥξ礫ʤꡤͭ Tristan da Cunha Gough Island 2ĤΤߤǤ롥ηϡ1506ǯ˥ݥȥͤγ Tristão da Cunha ˤäȯ줿17ʹߡ٤ˤ錄ä꽻λߤäԤΤ1816ǯΥꥹַˤΤǤ롥St. Helena ήˤ줿ʥݥ쥪ε߽Ф˻ߤ뤿ʼȤ롥1816ǯ˱ѹΤȤʻ礵줿1817ǯ˷űषʹߤϡ˻ĤäμԤȡˤ衼åѿͤɺήԤ̱͸ΤۤȤɤǤä1886ǯˤ97ͤȤ𤬤롥1938ǯˤ St. Helena ݸΤȤʤä2009ǯˤϰ̤ϲä졤ѹ񳤳 St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ΰȤʤäƤ롥2015ǯߡ͸259ͤǤꡤΤۤȤȤѸȤ ENL ϰǤ롥

Map of Tristan da Cunha

ʲϢ볰󥯤ĥäƤ

Website of the Tristan da Cunha Government and Tristan Association
Wikipedia ˤ Tristan da Cunha ε
BBC ˤ St Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha profiles
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
Edgar Allan Poe ˤ The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) Chapter 15 ˡTristan da Cunha ŪŪʾܤҤ롥

ʤSt. Helena ˤĤƤϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǤڤƤ롥

ʸ嵭2015/09/01(Tue) McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992. "TRISTAN DA CUNHA" (1056) ι⻲ȡαѸѼϡHighland English ƱħͭȹͤƤ롥

McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-04-22-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-08-21 Fri

#2307. ֻ; (2) [spelling][redundancy][statistics][information_theory][alphabet][final_e][silent_letter]

#2249. ֻ; ([2015-06-24-1]) Ǽ夲ꡥ̤δѸֻ;ͤƤߤ褦
Roman alphabet Τ褦ñʸηϤˤäƤϡ1ʸ1ǤбΤŪ˾ޤŪŪ¾λǡۤϤޤ¸ʤȤäƤ褤¤ۤ11æƤΤǤϡŪˤϤɤٰæƤΤ
ǡ#1159. MRC Psycholinguistic Database Search ([2012-06-29-1]) ѤơʸȲǤбٹ礤򤪤褽¬Ƥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥⤷̤ñʸηϤǤСñֻʸȡȯ벻ǿϰפѸäñˤĤơʸȲǿᡤΤʿͤʤɤͤФСŪʻɸϤֻ;Ū (redundancy) ǤȤȤϤޤǤεͽۤȤǤϤ뤬Ūˡʸвǿϡ2:1 ٤ʤΤ 3:1 ٤ʤΤɤʤΤ
ޤϡMRC Psycholinguistic Database Search ʲΤ褦˸ơñ줴ȤΡʸǿξԤʡ;λɸˤΰSQLʸ where ʲϡӽ뤿ξˡ

select WORD, NLET, NPHON, NLET/NPHON as REDUNDANCY, PHON from mrc2 where NPHON != "00" and WORD != "" and PHON != "";



ΰȤˡƼͤ׻Ф褤ʸȲǿʿͤϡ1.192025 ä0.2ߤˤȤäٿʬۿޤ򼨤

Letter-Phoneme Ratio in Words

ʸ̤ʿͤȤäƤߤȡ̣Ȥ3ʸʲñǤ; 1.166174 ˤȤɤޤꡤΤʿͤ꾮ʤ롥4ʸ7ʸޤǤñǤʿѤ⤤ 1.231737 Ȥͤ򼨤8ʸʾˤʤȺƤ;Ͼʤꡤ1.157689 Ȥʤ롥ʸǿ٤Ĺñ;⤯ûñĹñǤϤषŪ;㤤褦ͳˤĤƤϾܤʬϤƤʤ#1160. MRC Psychological Database Ƽפв ([2012-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡñǺǤ¿8ʸ6ǤǤȤȤ䡤final_e ϤȤۻ (silent_letter) ʬۤȲ餫δط뤫⤷ʤ
ơΤʿ 1.192025 Ǽ;٤ɤ줯餤ΤΤʤΤۤоݤʤΤɾˤˤŪˤۤ 1.0 Ƴȳ֤äƤʤʤȤݤǤ롥ñˤʸȲǤδطϡ#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡȡ ([2015-08-06-1]) ȤǤС褯ĥ줿ûΥפǷФ줿طȤ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
οͤˤĤդ٤ϡñˤʸȲǤбĤҤȤľȤ餷碌ƤϤФΤǤϤʤϤäʣбϤξԤδط򡤤줾ĹȤͤȤäΤˤʤȤȤǽŪ˵᤿ֻ;ΤΤǤϤʤ򤢤鼨ɸȤäۤ褤Ǥ⡤ܰ¤Ȥʤˤϰ㤤ʤ

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2015-07-08 Wed

#2263. μ׸üԿ [demography][statistics][world_languages]

üԿ͸ˤĤơƼפʲεǰäƤ

#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])
#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])
#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1])
#398. ²͸Ⱦʬ᤯ ([2010-05-30-1])
#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])
#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1])
#1375. 󥿡ͥåȤλѸȥå10 ([2013-01-31-1])

ϡ־ INFOGRAPHIC: A world of languages - and how many speak them ꤹ뵭ȰʲΤ褦ʿޤ򸫤ĤΤǡҲ𤷤Ƥ

Top Languages in Infographics

޼ƤüԿ˴ؤ͸פϡEthnologue ˴ŤƤ褦Ǥ롥ǹԤʤƤ7102θΤ5ͰʾüԤʤƤΤ23ΤߤǤꡤ2341ͤ򥫥СȤ
绨ĤʿޤʤΤǿŤɤޤʤФʤʤˤĤνζʬɽƤʤɡ褯פƤ롥ˤϳؽƤΥ󥭥󥰤⤢ꡤΤѸϷȴƤΥȥåפ15ͤγؽԤʤȸޤƤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-09-1]

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2015-05-21 Thu

#2215. NiueѸѸȤƤĺǾιʺǿǡ [map][austronesian][esl][demography][statistics]

522ʶˤ23ڡˤˡʡ縩來Ԥǡ來ʿΡ祵ߥå2015פ롥ܡȥꥢޤᡤʿν񤬻ä륵ߥåȤǡʿϰ߳򶯲뤳ȤȤ롥ۥȹǤܤϡߥåȳŤ˹碌콵515˶ߤǥ˥塼ɼΤΥ˥ (Niue /niˈuːeɪ/; ̱̾ȷƻ Niuean /n(j)uːˈ(w)eɪən/) Ⱦǧ뤳ȤꤷܤǧȤϤ195Ȥʤ롥˥塼ɡ񡤥ɤʤɤäƹȾǧƤ뤬ϢˤϲƤʤ
˥ϡ˥塼ɤ2400km˰֤Ѥ259ʿkmʼ縩ǷȤۤƱˡ͸1,500ͤǤ롥Ԥ AlofiʲˡϿޤȹ򼨤

Map of Polynesia Map of Niue National Flag of Niue

άˤ򵭤Captain James Cook 1774ǯ˾Φ̱μŨդˤʤ "Savage Island" ̿̾1830ǯ붵Ĥ礷1852ǯ̱ꥹȶ1900ǯ˱ѹ񤬥⥢ʬΰȤƥ˥ʻ礷1901ǯˤϡ˥塼ɤåΰȤƱʻ礷1904ǯˤʬΥƼΤȤʤä1974ǯ˥˥塼ɤȼͳϢȤ༫ܤΩŪˤϤΤȤ˻¾ΩäƤ褤̱ϥ˥塼ɻ̱Ǥꡤɱҡϥ˥塼ɤǤդǰ¸Ƥ˥塼ɤؤΰܽԤ¿
ѤƤˤĤƤСEthnologue Niue ιˤС˥ (Niuean) ȱѸ줬ѸȤʤäƤ롥̱ΤۤȤɤ˥äѸ⹭Ѥ롥˥ϡȥͥ²ݥͥɤ°ܤȥ󥬸䥵⥢롥
ѸˤδˤǤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥ롥˥깭Ū˹ȾǧΤϺΤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ˾ǧ뤳Ȥǡ˥ϡֱѸѸȤƤĺǾιפΥȥʥåȤˤʤ롥#1747. ѸѸȤƤĺǾι ([2014-02-07-1]) Ǽ夲ʥϡѤǤϥ˥⤺äȾΰ̣ǤϤޤֺǾפ͸ˤĤƤХʥ1ͤΤФ˥ɴͤȤϤǤ뤫ֺǾפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ѸȤʬۤ˴Ϣפ¾ξ򹹿ɬפƤ
Ϣơľܥ˥ꤳޤޤƤʤ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο͸ ([2013-09-04-1])#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿ѸγȻȤδϢǤϡ#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) 򻲾ȡ
˥˴ؤ볰󥯤ȤƤϡʲΤΤ롥

̳ʤˤ˥åǡ
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Niue Υǡ
Wikipedia ˤ Niue ε

Referrer (Inside): [2017-06-07-1]

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2015-04-29 Wed

#2193. La Francophonie (2) [french][statistics][demography][francophonie][map]

˰³La Francophonie ˤĤơLa Francophonie θǸե󥳥եˡ ˡե󥹸˴ؤ͸פޤ͡ʿǺܤƤ롥οϡOIF (Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) ˤ2014ǯ4ǯȤ˹ˤ˴ŤΤȤ򤤤Ĥ

La Francophonie 80ιϰ褬äϢ54β23Υ֥С3ν
ե󥹸ϱѸȤȤ5ΦäƤǤ
27400ͤΥե󥹸üԡʤ5Φ21200ͤȤƻѡ
12500ͤΥե󥹸ؽԡ7600ͤȤơ4900ͤȤƳؽ
衼åѤ7700ͤŪʥե󥹸üԡڤ5200ͤΥե󥹸ǽϤͭ
5ܤˤ褯ä
3ܤζ̳Ѹʥ衼åѤǤ2ܡ
4ܤΥ󥿡ͥåѸ
2ܤ˹ݵؤѤƤ

嵭ΥȤˤϥե󥹸˴ϢϿޤ⤤ĤǺܤƤ롥ʲŽդ褦

Estimation de francophones

Le monde de la Francophonie

Le monde de la Francophonie et Commonwealth

2ܤϿޤˤ褦ˡLa Francophonie ˤ54β (États de gouvernements membres de l'OIF)23Υ֥С (États observateurs), 3ν (États associés) η80ιϰ褬äƤ롥ϰ褴Ȥ̾󤲤褦

Afrique de l'Ouest

  • Bénin
  • Burkina Faso
  • Cap-Vert
  • Côte d'Ivoire
  • Ghana (État associé)
  • Guinée
  • Guinée Bissau
  • Mali
  • Niger
  • Sénégal
  • Togo
Afrique centrale et océan Indien
  • Burundi
  • Cameroun
  • Centrafrique
  • Congo
  • Congo RD
  • Gabon
  • Guinée équatoriale
  • Rwanda
  • Sao Tomé et Principe
  • Tchad
  • Comores
  • Djibouti
  • Madagascar
  • Maurice
  • Mozanbique (État observateur)
  • Seychelles
Afrique du Nord et Moyen-Orient
  • Egypte
  • Émirats arabes unis (État observateur)
  • Liban
  • Maroc
  • Mauritanie
  • Tunisie
  • Quatar (État associé)
Amérique --- Caraïbe
  • Canada
  • Canada Nouveau-Brunswick
  • Canada Québec
  • Costa Rica (État observateur)
  • Mexique (État observateur)
  • République dominicaine (État observateur)
  • Dominique
  • Haïti
  • Sainte-Lucie
  • Uruguay (État observateur)
Asie --- Pacifique
  • Cambodge
  • Laos
  • Thaïlande (État observateur)
  • Vanuatu
  • Vietnam
Europe
  • Albanie
  • Andorre
  • Arménie
  • Autriche (État observateur)
  • Belgique
  • Bosnie herzégovine (État observateur)
  • Bulgarie
  • Chypre (État associé)
  • Estonie (État observateur)
  • Croatie (État observateur)
  • Ex-Rép. yougoslave de Macédoine
  • France
  • Géorgie (État observateur)
  • Grèce
  • Hongrie (État observateur)
  • Kosovo (État observateur)
  • Lettonie (État observateur)
  • Lituanie (État observateur)
  • Luxembourg
  • Moldavie
  • Monaco
  • Montégnégro (État observateur)
  • Pologne (État observateur)
  • Réep. Tchèque (État observateur)
  • Roumanie
  • Serbie (État observateur)
  • Slovaquie (État observateur)
  • Slovénie (État observateur)
  • Suisse
  • Ukraine (État observateur)
  • Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles

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2015-04-01 Wed

#2165. 20ȾμѸ쥽 [loan_word][statistics][lexicology][french][japanese][borrowing]

ѸοƳˤƤϡʣ (compounding) (derivation) 礿ˡȤʤäƤƤꡤ (borrowing) ι׸٤Ū㤤1ۤɤοܤߤƤ⡤ѤγŪܸꤷƤ (cf. #873. ѸοˤʣΥХ󥹡 ([2011-09-17-1]) #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]))
Ū˸äƤƤȤϤüѤϸѸǤ³Ƥ롥#874 Algeo ξܺ٤ʶʬΤʤǤ⼨Ƥ褦ˡѤ餺¿ͤǤ롥#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1])#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])#142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1]) ǤϡѸؤθ󶡼ԤȤưƳܸ줬ͭϤǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ܸʤɤޤ᤿̤Τܤ礬ΤꤿȤ
Algeo (78) ϡGarland Cannon (Historical Change and English Word-Formation. New York: Peter Lang, 1987. pp. 69--97) Ĵ˴Ťơ20ȾäƤѸäΥ̳󼨤Ƥ롥Ūˤϡ褽1963--88ǯδ֤˱ѸäƤѸϿ4ĤμĴоݤȤ̤˼Ѹ夲줾γФ4ĤμȤϡ(1) The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963 (1973), (2) The Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1980), (3) Webster's Third (1961), (4) The Barnhart Dictionary Companion Index (1987) Ǥ롥줾줫407, 332, 523, 166򽸤᤿1428ξýǤϤ뤬˴ŤưʲĴ̤줿

 (1) BDNE(2) BENE2(3) 81W3(4) BDCRank
French31.4%17.521.212.01
Spanish6.610.86.112.72
Russian3.45.42.124.13
Japanese7.99.36.39.04
African6.17.26.73.05
Italian4.74.510.72.46
German5.95.44.85.47
Greek6.94.88.01.28
Latin5.25.19.4 9
Yiddish5.72.75.03.610
Arabic2.03.91.76.011
Chinese1.74.23.66.012
Portuguese1.02.71.01.813
Hindi2.20.90.22.414
Hebrew0.71.50.41.215
Sanskrit1.71.20.8 16
Persian0.21.2 1.817
Afrikaans0.51.50.4 18
Dutch0.20.3 1.819
Indonesian0.20.30.81.220
Malayo-Polynesian 2.10.2 21
Norwegian0.2 1.50.622
Swedish1.00.31.0 23
Korean 0.60.80.624
Vietnamese1.00.30.6 25
Amerindian 1.20.6 26
Bengali0.50.90.2 27
Danish0.5 1.0 28
Eskimo0.50.30.20.629


ɽ˵Ƥʤ30--56̤θ췲Ϲ碌ƤΤȤ1%ˤʤǰΤ˼Τ褦ʸǤ롥Amharic, Annamese, Basque, Bhutanese, Catalan, Czech, Hawaiian, Hungarian, Irish, Khmer, Mongolian, Papuan, Pashto, Pidgin English, Pilipino, Polish, Provençal, Punjabi, Samoan, Scots (Gaelic), Serbo-Croatian, Tahitian, Thai (and Lao), Turkish, Urdu, Welsh, West Indian.
BDC ǥ줬̯˹⤤򼨤Ƥ뤬ԽФ˵ǽ롥Фβǽ򺹤ƹͤȡϽ̤ȤƤϥӥδ֤12դȻפ롥
15̤ޤǤθˤĤƥղΤޤǤ롥

Source Languages of New Loanwords from 1963 to 1988


Υդϡ#874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1]) Ǥߤ Bauer Ĵ˴ŤդξȥλۤʤΤǡӤˤȤ뤬ե󥹸졤ꥷ졤ƥ졤ɥĸʤɤ̤ǷƮƤͻҤϤΥդ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ롥ڥ䥤ꥢʤɤΥޥ󥹽ĴȤäƤ褤ΤʤǡȤɮƬΩäƤΤܸǤ롥եꥫ졤ӥ졤³ƤꡤѸ cosmopolitan vocabulary ϸˤƤߤȤ

Algeo, John. "Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 57--91.

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2015-03-31 Tue

#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μ [oed][loan_word][german][lexicology][statistics][lmode][loan_translation][scientific_english]

衼åѤμפʸΤʤǡɥĸϱѸμѸ쥽ȤưճΩʤŪˤ٤εϤǥɥļѸ줬ΤϸѸ줫Ǥꡤ϶ϾǤ롥Ѹɥĸ⥲ޥ (Germanic) °̤εĤȤȤΤƤˤϡξ֤ǼѤȤδطϴǤ롥
Ѹ˥ɥĸθŪƶʤȤ Jespersen (143) ڤۤ (258) ʤɤαѸ˳Ǥ⿨Ƥ̤ɥĸѤʤȤϤäƤե󥹸ƥ٤ƤäǤäơºݤˤϤ٤οϼȤѸȤäƤƤ롥ǯˤƤΤ褦 (Algeo 80; #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])) #2162. OED ˤե󥹸졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" Ǥ⡤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Other European languages remain steady, contributing 3--4% of new words throughout the centuries. The exception is German, which starting in the eighteenth century begins to increase its contribution to English vocabulary, reaching 3% of new words all by itself, and nosing ahead of French by the twentieth century.


Ʊꤷ OED ˴ŤפǥɥļѸŪܤ򥰥ղȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

Historical Influx of German Loanwords by OED


켣 (115--17) ˤСɥĤ16˹ۻѤѤĹƤΤǡαƶ17--18ˤѸäȿǤƤʥդǤμ㴳ιޤ16Ǥˡ17ʹߤϿ̾μѤ¿ޤɥĤ19ůؤؤޤŪȯŸ뤲ᡤŪѸ䳵ǰѸؤήʥվ19˥ԡޤˡ̾μѤΤۤ (loan_translation) ¿Τɥĸ줫μѤħȤ뤫⤷ʤʲʬ̤˥ɥļѸѤޤˤ󤷤褦

ιۻ
cobalt, gneiss, meerschaum, quartz, zinc

ůءʸɾ
folksong, gestalt, leitmotif, nihilism, objective, subjective, superman, transcendental, zeitgeist

Ӹء
ablaut, schwa, strong [weak] (declension), Umlaut

ζ١
kindergarten, semester, seminar

ʪءء
aniline, dynamo, ohm, protein, relativity, saccharine, sarin, uranium

ΰءء
aspirin, heroin, pepsin, Roentgen-ray [X-ray]

οʡ
delicatessen, frankfurter, hamburger, lager, noodle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut, schnitzel

ɥļѸˤĤƻ䤤ƤѸ˳¿ʤCarr, Charles T. The German Influence on the English Vocabulary. London: Clarendon, 1934. Ȥ񤬤褦Ǥ롥
Ϣơ#150. ꥫѸؤΥɥĸι׸ ([2009-09-24-1])#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

ʸ嵭2015/09/06(Sun)Begoña Crespo ("Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britan. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. p. 29.) ˤСǤѸ15ˤ⡤ϥɥĸ줫ιʪؤ˴ؤѸ줬äƤȤ

Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
Algeo, John. "Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 57--91.

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