ɸˤĤơJones English Pronouncing Dictionary (12th ed.) Ѥơ<gh> ޤͭ̾졤졤ʣ90оݤȤĴԤʤäƤ롥ʲˡ (145--46) ƼƤ
1. Spelling ˤĤ
(1) Digraph 'gh' ΰ֤ˤʬ
Ƭˤ 6 (7%) ˤ 19 (21%) ˤ (-t ޤ 65 (72%)
Ƭ 'gh' Ϥ٤ gh [g] Ǥ롥
(2) 첻ˤʬ
- ough(t) ޤ 29 73 -igh(t) ޤ 24 -augh(t) ޤ 10 -eigh(t) ޤ 10 ¾ 17
2. Sound ˤĤ
(1) 'gh' ˤʬ
gh [g] 14 (16%) gh [f] 10 (10%) gh-mute 62 (70%) ¾β 4 (4%)
'gh' [g] ɬפ˺줿ѸǤ롥ѲˤΤȤƤ [f] 줬䤢볰ϤۤȤۻǤȤ롥
(2) gh-mute ʬ
[-ait] Ȥʤ 25 54 [ɔːt] Ȥʤ 19 [-eit] Ȥʤ 10 ¾β 8
βѲΩڤȤȤˡ 'gh' digraph 첻Ȥδط̩ܤǤäȤܤ٤Ǥ
(3) ˤʬ
ñ 68 (76%) 2 19 (21%) 3 3 (3%)
'gh' word ñ frequency ι⤤ܸ줬¿դ¿ϤۤȤɤü͢Ǥ롥
ȤƤϡ<gh> ޤñǤϡthough thought Τ褦ñ줬ǤŵŪǤ롥7ۤɤñǤ뤫2ŻĤ̵б뤫Ǥ롥
<gh> ˴ϢȤơ#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1])#210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1])#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1])#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1])#2085. <ough> β ([2015-01-11-1]) ʤɤε⻲ȡ
ͺDigraph 'gh' ȯã˴ؤŪͻסعظ浪ס41967ǯ128--47ǡ
֥ƥ礬43ǯ410ǯޤǤΤޤλ۲֤졤Ǥ٥ƥ줬äƤȤ¤顤λѤƤƥñ줬μ礿ȤʤѸˤ⡤ĤäƤϤǤϤʤ뤫⤷ʤΥƥñ¿ȸüԤȤʤäơ˱Ѹˤ줿ΤǤϤʤȡºݤˤϤΤ褦ʾϵʤäBaugh and Cable (77) ˤȡ
It would be hardly too much to say that not five words outside of a few elements found in place-names can be really proved to owe their presence in English to the Roman occupation of Britain. It is probable that the use of Latin as a spoken language did not long survive the end of Roman rule in the island and that such vestiges as remained for a time were lost in the disorders that accompanied the Germanic invasions. There was thus no opportunity for direct contact between Latin and Old English in England, and such Latin words as could have found their way into English would have had to come in through Celtic transmission. The Celts, indeed, had adopted a considerable number of Latin words---more than 600 have been identified--- but the relations between the Celts and the English were such . . . that these words were not passed on.
Υȸˤ600ƥñ줬äƤȤΤϡΤʤäơűѸäΤϤä5ˤʤȤäƤ뤬Baugh and Cable (77--78) ƤΤϡceaster (< L castra "camp"), port (< L portus, porta "harbor, gate, town"), munt (< L mōns, montem "mountain"), torr (L turris "tower, rock"), wīc (< L vīcus "village") Ǥ롥Ǥ츻˰ΤΤ⤢ꡤȸͳǸűѸäƥѸγμ¤ȤϤʤʤ⤷ʤ¾̾ǤȤƤ street, wall, wine ʤɤäƤ뤬ˤ褽Τ褦ʥ롼ȤǸűѸäƥѸ찮ꤷʤ
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1]) ʤɤǿ줿褦ˡѸˤˤƥƥñμѤȤȷϩϲ٤ä Baugh and Cable θƤ֤ȤΥƥñѤ1˴ؤƤϡ٤Τä˾ʤȸäƤBaugh and Cable (78) η
At best . . . the Latin influence of the First Period remains much the slightest of all the influences that Old English owed to contact with Roman civilization.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ɤΤ餤γθűѸäˤޤǻ¸Ƥ뤫ȤˤĤơ#450. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿űѸθäϤɤΤ餤뤫 ([2010-07-21-1])#384. ÿȥޥΨǸűѸȸѸθäӤ ([2010-05-16-1])#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1]) ǤĤοͤߤƤǸ˵ɵ褦ˡGelderen (73) ˤСűѸˤä8䤬줿ǽȤ
ƱˤĤơBaugh and Cable (52) 85%ȤƤ롥طսѤ褦
The vocabulary of Old English is almost purely Germanic. A large part of this vocabulary, moreover, has disappeared from the language. When the Norman Conquest brought French into England as the language of the higher classes, much of the Old English vocabulary appropriate to literature and learning died out and was replaced later by words borrowed from French and Latin. An examination of the words in an Old English dictionary shows that about 85 percent of them are no longer in use. Those that survive, to be sure, are basic elements of our vocabulary and by the frequency with which they recur make up a large part of any English sentence.
#450. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿űѸθäϤɤΤ餤뤫 ([2010-07-21-1]) Dz⤷褦ˡΤ褦פظˤ͡롥ǧ뤫θФ˺Ѥ뤫ȤŪ⤢СޤǤβŪϢ³ܤΤỌ̇̄ŪϢ³ܤΤȤǤϴۤʤäƤ롥űѸɤǤ´ȤƤϡѸθäμǤǤǤʤ٤ȤơΤ餤⤤ͤФƤ⤪ϤʤȤϻפ롥ǯ٤λϤǸűѸϤƤ⤤Ȼפ뤬οͤϤäȤäǤϤʤ
Gelderen, Elly van. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2006.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
(118) Ĵ٤ˤȡѸˡˤƻҲۻ (silent_letter) ޤϡޤ420줢ȤҲ̤Ȱʲ̤ꡥ<b> (24 words), <c> (11), <ch> (4), <d> (17), <f> (2), <g> (41), <gh> (41), <h> (57), <k> (11), <l> (67), <m> (1), <n> (14), <s> (22), <p> (31), <ph> (2), <r> (1), <t> (37), <th> (2), <w> (33), <x> (2) ʸǤϡζ㤬ҤƤꡤԴѤǤ롥ʲɤǤƤ⤷äճäʤɤǤиȴФҲ𤷤
(1) <mb> <b> ۻȤʤϡ#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]), #1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])#1917. numb ([2014-07-27-1]) ʤɤǵƤ⤦ɲäǤ롥űѸѸ <b> (= /b/) Ϥʤä <b> 줿ΤȤ limb, crumb, numb, thumb 롥ĤƤϼ¸Ƥ <b> = /b/ ̵Ȥơclimb, bomb, lamb, comb, dumb, plumb, succumb 롥<mb> Ȥ߹碌Ǥ⡤rhomb ɩ, zimb ʥ֤ΰ, iamb ʼ嶯ʡˤʤɤѸǤ <b> ȯ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
(2) #2362. haplology ([2015-10-15-1]) ¾Ȥơmineralogy < mineralology, pacifism < pacificism, stipend < stipi-pendium, tragicomedy < tragic comedy 롥
(3) perhaps ϤȯǤ /præps/ Ȥʤꡤ<h> ۻȤʤ롥
(4) iron ˤơꥫѸǤ <r> ȯ뤬ꥹѸǤ <r> ̵ /ˈaɪən/ Ȥʤ롥
(5) kiln
ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) /kɪln/ ̤Ѹ <n> ̵ȤʤäŪȯ /kɪl/ ⤢롥Ʊͤ Milne /mɪln/ ̤Jones ȯŵ (1967) Ǥ /mɪl/ ΤߤǧƤȤ顤ֻȯϤĤǶΤȤΤ褦
(6) Christmas տȯǤ /ˈkrɪstməs/ Ȥʤ <t> ۻȤʤʤΤ褦ʻҲ˶ޤ줿ĶǤϡŪ <t> ̵ȤʤΤ̾ä (see #379. often spelling pronunciation ([2010-05-11-1]))
(7) ҳѸȤƤ southeast, northeast Ǥ <th> ̵Ȥʤ롥/saʊ ˈiːst/, /nɔːr ˈiːst/
ʸɤȡۻΥץˤʤ롪
Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
ε#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) ˰³ (19--21) ȤơҲʻˤбɽǤ롥
| consonantal phoneme | consonantal grapheme | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /p/ | p, gh, pp, ph, pe | 5 |
| 2 | /b/ | b, bh, bb, pb, be | 5 |
| 3 | /t/ | t, th, pt, ct, ed, tt, bt | 7 |
| 4 | /d/ | d, bd, dh, dd, ed, ddh | 6 |
| 5 | /k/ | k, c, kh, ch, que, qu, cque, cqu, q, cch, cc, ck, che, ke, x, gh, cu | 17 |
| 6 | /q/ | g, gu, gh, gg, gue | 5 |
| 7 | /ʧ/ | ch, tch, t, c, cz, te, ti | 7 |
| 8 | /ʤ/ | j, g, dg, gi, ge, dj, g, di, d, dge, gg, ch | 12 |
| 9 | /f/ | f, ph, gh, ff, v, pph, u, fe | 8 |
| 10 | /v/ | v, f, ph, vv, v | 5 |
| 11 | /θ/ | th | 1 |
| 12 | /ð/ | th | 1 |
| 13 | /s/ | s, sci, c, sch, ce, ps, ss, sw, se | 9 |
| 14 | /z/ | z, se, x, ss, cz, zz, sc | 7 |
| 15 | /ʃ/ | sh, shi, sch, s, si, ss, ssi, ti, ch, ci, ce, sci, chsi, se, c, psh, t | 17 |
| 16 | /ʒ/ | s, z, si, zi, ti, ge | 6 |
| 17 | /h/ | h, wh, x | 3 |
| 18 | /m/ | m, mb, mn, mm, mpd, gm, me | 7 |
| 19 | /n/ | n, mn, ne, pn, kn, gn, nn, mpt, ln, dn | 10 |
| 20 | /ŋ/ | ng, n, ngue, nd, ngh | 5 |
| 21 | /l/ | l, ll, le | 3 |
| 22 | /r/ | r, rh, rrh, rr, wr | 5 |
| 23 | /j/ | y, j, i, ll | 4 |
| 24 | /w/ | w, o, ou, u | 4 |
| 159 |
ѸβǤʸǤбˤĤƾܺ٤˵ҤʸꤷøįƤȡϳΤʤ褦ٿդʧĤᡤŪ褦ȤȤλäƤ롥ϡ (18--19) ˷ǤƤ첻˴ؤ벻ǤʸǤбɽƸơбޤºݤθˤĤƤϡľʸäƤ
| vocalic phoneme | vocalic grapheme | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /i/ | ee, ea, e, e...e, ei, ie. eo, i, ae, oe, ay, ey, eau, e, ui | 15 |
| 2 | /ɪ/ | i, ie, e, y, o, ui, ee, u, ay, ea, ei, ia, ai, a, ey, eight | 16 |
| 3 | /e/ | e, ea, ai, ay, eo, ie, ei, u, eh, ey, ae, egm, a, oe | 15 |
| 4 | /æ/ | a, ai | 2 |
| 5 | /ʌ/ | u, o, ou, oo, oe, ow | 6 |
| 6 | /ɑ/ | are, ah, al, ar, a, er, au, aa, ear, aar, ir | 11 |
| 7 | /ɐ/ | o, a, ow, ou, au, ach | 6 |
| 8 | /ɔ/ | aw, a, al, au, ough, oa, or, our, oo, ore, oar, as, o, augh | 15 |
| 9 | /ʊ/ | oo, o, ou, oul, oe, or | 7 |
| 10 | /uː/ | oo, o, o...e, u, wo, oe, ou, uh, ough, ow, ui, eux, ioux, eu, ew, ieu, ue, oeu | 18 |
| 11 | /ɜ/ | ur, urr, ear, ir, err, er, or, olo, our, eur, yr, yrrh | 12 |
| 12 | /ə/ | a, u, ar, o, e, ia, i, ough, gh, ou, er, o(u)r, or, ei, ure, eon, oi, or, oar | 19 |
| 13 | /eɪ/ | a...e, a, ea, ai, ei, ay, ao, eh, ey, eigh, ag, aig, e, alf, aa, au, ae, oi, e, et | 20 |
| 14 | /ɑɪ/ | i, i...e, eye, ay, ie, y, igh, uy, y...e, ign, ye, eigh, is, ui, oi, ey, ei, ais | 19 |
| 15 | /ɔɪ/ | oi, oy, eu, uoy | 4 |
| 16 | /əʊ/ | o...e, ol, ow, oh, owe, o, ou, oa, oe, eo, ew, ough, eau, au, ogn | 16 |
| 17 | /aʊ/ | ow, aou, ou, eo, au, ough, iaour | 7 |
| 18 | /ɪə/ | ear, eer, ia, ere, eir, ier, a, ea, eu, iu, e, eou, eor, iou, io, ir | 16 |
| 19 | /eə/ | are, air, ear, eir, ere, aire, ar, ayor | 8 |
| 20 | /ʊə/ | uo, oer, oor, ure, our, ua, ue, we, uou | 9 |
| 241 |
ˤοˤĤơ뤤ϸοȤˤĤơ#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1]) ˤƤοȤȤˤϡ̡Ƭ줬ǰƬ֤Ƥ뤬ȤȤǤФɤĤޤꡤʸηϤμˤĤΤϢϡ#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1]) ǰäƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
餫ʤȤϡʸηϤοϡʸƬ˸οⰵŪ˾ʤȤȤǤ롥ŪʸοˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬ǹԤƤ˸¤äơȤꤢ7000ꤷ褦ʸηϤοˤĤƤ⡤ͻˤä¿ΤФĤϤ뤬 (7--8) ˤС400य餤ǧȤ롥οϡ˹ԤƤʸηϤμȤ⡤ʸȯ鸽ߤ˻ޤǤθź˹ԤƤʸηϤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤοˤϡǤѤȤʤäץʸܸʸʤɤޤޤ뤷̤ʸ (#2427. ̤ʸ ([2015-12-19-1])) ޤޤ롥
ǤϡʤʸηϤμϸƬμⰵŪ˾ʤΤǤñʤС٤ƤθƬ줬бäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ顤ȤȤˤʤ롥#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1]) ʤɤǼ褦ˡȯϸƬȯ⤺ä٤Ƥ롥˾塤Ƭ礯ҲϤʤä礯Ҳ¿¸ߤƤ
ºݡŪ٤ʸäƤʤ顤ʸ⤿ʤäҲ⤢롥ꥫΦ˱ɤϹ٤ʸŸʤȤ⺣ΤȤʸȸƤ٤褦ΤȯƤʤޤ̤ο͡⡤Ĺˤ錄Ѥʤ϶ʸ桼Τ褦ĹԽߤʤ⡤ɽʸ⤿ʤäʰԡp. 8ˡ
бʸηϤ礯ƬüԽĤʤҲɬ̵ʸҲȤϸ¤ʤȤդ⤷μҲ¿ҲǤꡤ2ȤʸηϤĸȤʤθˤɤ߽ƤС餫ͭʸҲǤ (cf. #1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ ([2013-05-30-1])#1608. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ (2) ([2013-09-21-1]))
⤦1Ĥͳϡϡζۤơ˻ۤơȻ䤹ȤȤ롥ܸʸޥե٥åȡʸʤɤŪʳȻʬۤͤƤߤʬȤꡤμפʸηϤϡ䤹ۤʤرѤ졤ĶŪѤƤĤޤꡤ1ĤʸʣθɽΤѤΤ̤ʤΤǤ롥ƬʸǤϤ뤬ϰؤΤʸŪʿȯǤꡤۤɽפʲͤӤӤΤϰعŤʤϤʤ
ܥ֥ǤϡäդȽդγơˤĤơ#2339. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (1) ([2015-09-22-1]) βĥäεʤɤǡ͡˵Ƥդ뤤ϽΤ⤦1ĤħȤơΤʸηϤƬζۤŤ䤹ԡ䤹Ȥ뤳ȤǻŦƤ
ůذμŵʸ١Ʋ1998ǯ
#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1])#2369. Ѹˤˤ륤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ줫θüѤˡ ([2015-10-22-1]) ǡCulpeper and Clapham (218) ˤ OED ١ΥޥϼѸפҲ𤷤ʸδˡŪʿͤɽηǷǺܤƤΤǡˤ2ĥդʥǡϡHTMLȡˡ1Ĥ4ȾȤγƸ줫μѸ2ĤϤƱΤƻθФΤˤɴʬΨǼΤǤ롥


ϢפȤơ#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ǿ줿 Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" ⻲ȡ
Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.
#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1]) Ǿ줿褦ˡѸ˾塤ե椷¾3ĤΥޥ줫θüѤϱƤꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥγƸ줫μѸϡ˶ʹߤˤĤơ#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) #756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) ǿ줿Ѹˤ⡤褽եͳǤϤ뤬ꥢݥȥ˵ĸμѤä (#2329. ѸμѸ ([2015-09-12-1]))
Culpeper and Clapham (210) ϡŪޥʡʤΥޥ줫θüѤˤˤĤơOED ˤפȤˡΤ褦üŪˤޤȤƤ롥
The effect of Italian borrowing can be seen from the 15th century onwards. Italy was, and still is, famous for style in architecture and dress. It was also perceived an authority in matters to do with etiquette. Travellers to Italy --- often young sons dispatched to acquire some manners --- inevitably brought back Italian words. Italian borrowing is strongest in the 18th century (1.7% of recorded vocabulary), and is mostly related to musical terminology. Spanish and Portuguese borrowing commences in the 16th century, reflecting warfare, commerce, and colonisation, but at no point exceeds 1% of vocabulary recorded within a particular period.
ޤꥢ줫μѸ줬ʤΤϡ15Ǥ롥#1530. ɻʾɽƤ Compa ([2013-07-05-1]) Ǹڤ褦ˡ13Ⱦʹߡ16ޤǡꥢŪʾȡͻϥɷкѤ礭ʱƶͿƤ줬Ū;ȤȤʤäƸƤΤ15դ꤫Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥θ塤ꥢѸ18βѸήˤäƥԡޤ
ڥȥݥȥϡꥢ⤵ΩΤʤŪȤΤ16˸ꤵ롥ιȤȤ̾ڤξͺθŪʸȤ
Ƹ줫θüѤͻҤϡŪˤߤаʾ̤Ūʰ㤤ȼ̤ˤʤ (Strang 124--26)
(1) ꥢͤ꿢̱ꤹԤǤϤʤޤǥ衼åιͤǤääơꥢ줬ä⡤衼åŪʤΤ˸ꤵȤäƤ褤ͥȯϤȤȤ⤢ꡤݽѡڡʸءۤʬθä¿ȤϤޤǤʤʸʪ̤ƤȤϹ̣ǤιͤθͳơθäѸήȤߤ٤ȤƤϡեͳ褦ʷ֤äƤ뤳Ȥ¿
(2) ڥήϡɽ Mary ȥڥ Philip II η뺧ˤξ̩ʴط餦Ȥ¿ڥڤΤߤʤ餺Φͳ褹äξʤʤȤħǤ롥
(3) ڥʾŪʼѸΤϡ15--16˹ҳѤȯãؤŸݥȥθǤ롥ݥȥϡΦΤߤʤ餺եꥫ䥢¿θä衼åѤ˻ꡤ줬̤ȤƱѸˤ⤿餵줿
ŪʼѸϡ#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) Ȥ줿
Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ѸΥեȤդ礤ϸűѸڤ뤳Ȥʤ³Ƥ롥եüѤΥԡϡ#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1]) #117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) Ǹ褦1251--1375ǯθ⡤Ϥ̾ʤ⡤ѤϢʤ³ƤƤ롥ѸʹߤγƻΥեäμѤˤĤƤϡ#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1])#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1])#594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħ ([2010-12-12-1]), #678. ƥ衼åŪ18ΥեѸ ([2011-03-06-1]) Ȥ줿
ϡѸˤեѸ夲Schultz ϡOED Online Ѥơ1900ǯʹߤ˱ѸäƤեäĴSchultz եѸȤƼФǧꤷΤϡ1677Ǥ롥Schultz ʸǤϡ14Ĥΰ̣ʬʤȤʤ벼̶ʬˤȤץƤ뤬Ǥ12ʬ줾°οȳΤߤ (Shultz 4--6)
(1) Anthropology (11 borrowings, i.e. 0.7%)
(2) Metapsychics and parapsychology (11 borrowings, i.e. 0.7%)
(3) Archaeology (30 borrowings, i.e. 1.8%)
(4) Miscellaneous (46 borrowings, i.e. 2.7%)
(5) Technology (62 borrowings, i.e. 3.7%)
(6) La Francophonie (63 borrowings, i.e. 3.8%)
(7) Fashion and lifestyle (77 borrowings, i.e. 4.6%)
(8) Entertainment and leisure activities (86 borrowings, i.e. 5.1%)
(9) Mathematics and the humanities (92 borrowings, i.e. 5.5%)
(10) People and everyday life (154 borrowings, i.e. 9.2%)
(11) Civilization and politics (156 borrowings, i.e. 9.3%)
(12) Gastronomy (179 borrowings, i.e. 10.7%)
(13) Fine arts and crafts (260 borrowings, i.e. 15.5%)
(14) The natural sciences (450 borrowings, i.e. 26.8%)
20ΥեѸħϲ1ĤϡSchultz "the vocabulary recently adopted from French is characterized by its great variety, ranging from words related to everyday matters to highly specific terms in technology and science" (8) ȤޤȤƤ褦ˡ̣ʬ롥ݽѡʳؤŪ˶ΤȤƤϥޥȤäƤ褤ޥǤ뤳ȤѸΥեѸħˤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ顤ϱѸˤˤեüѤƻŪˤߤħȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ
ܤ٤ϡѸΥȤơɸեΤߤʤ餺եνѼ䥯쥪ʤɤޤޤƤ뤳Ȥֽ硤ʥ륤ʡեꥫʤɤΥեѼ狼μѸ줬ʤʤѸˤ⡤եΤߤʤ餺Ȥ櫓˥Υޥե (norman_french) äήƤʹߡ֥եפλؤϰϤȤȤȤˡѸѼ¿ͲƤȤȤ
μѸȤƤαѸͤƤߤƤ⡤ϥꥹɸѸ䥢ꥫɸѸ줬ۤͣμѸѼä⤷ʤߤǤϥԥ䥯쥪ޤƼαѸѼ郎ѸѼȤʤäƤ¤롥ƱȤեˤĤƤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤ
Schultz, Julia. "Twentieth-Century Borrowings from french into English --- An Overview." English Today 28.2 (2012): 3--9.
ɸ˴ؤ롤OED2 CD-ROM ǤѤܳŪŪȯCulpeper and Clapham ˤΤǡĴˡ뤫ꡤ츻εǽȤʤ٤κʤ褦忴褦OED ʤɤѤŪϾʤʤˡθ̩˴դߤơĴΤ̤ȤƼƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥äȤ⡤ɮԤȤ OED ѤƸפ뤳ȤΰյפˤĤƿŤƤꡤ̤⤽˱ƿŤ˲ᤷʤФʤȤ⤷Ƥ롥äơʲεҤ⡤âʬ˰ռĤIJᤵ줿
Culpeper and Clapham ΰäŵ줪ӥޥȤϡŪˤϥƥ졤ꥷ졤ե졤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ濴ȤǤ롥ͤȤƤ٤礭ˤʤΤϡǽ4ۤɤǤ롥ɮԤϡOED Ǻܤ2,314,82θФ줫顤θľθȤѸ77,335Ф̡̤Ȥ⡤Ȥ˽Фäˤ뤽μѸγŻ뤷ơƼθͤФ
ĤҤȤĤοͤŪǤꡤ줾̣ᤷƤΤ⤪⤷ΤǤ Culpeper and Clapham (215) ʸκǸƤ礿ȯ7Ѥ褦
(1) Latin and French have had a profound effect on the English lexicon, and Latin has had a much greater effect than French.
(2) Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese are of relatively minor importance, although Italian experienced a small boost in the 18th century.
(3) The general trend is one of decline in borrowing from Classical and Romance languages. In the 17th century, 39.3% of recorded vocabulary came from Classical and Romance languages, whereas today the figure is 15%.
(4) Latin borrowing peaked in 1600--1675, and Latin contributed approximately 7000 words to the English lexicon during the 16th century.
(5) Greek, coming after Latin and French in terms of overall quantity, peaked in the 19th century.
(6) French borrowing peaked in 1251--1375, fell below the level of Latin borrowing around 1525, and thereafter declined except for a small upturn in the 18th century. French contributed over 11000 words to the English lexicon during the Middle English period.
(7) Today, borrowing from Latin may have a slight lead on borrowing from French.
7ȤäƤ⡤θǤۣäĴ̤ϿͤȤƶβƤꡤ狼䤹(1) ϡեȥƥǡɤ餬Ū¿μѸäѸˤ⤿餷ƤȤ䤤üŪΤǤꡤƥιΤ֤ۤä礭פȤƤ롥(7) ˤСΥƥ̤ͥϡ㴳κʤ⡤ѸˤĤƤ褦Ϣơ(6) 顤ι줬ե줫ƥڤؤäΤ16ȾǤ뤳ȤȽ뤷(4) 顤ƥΥԡ16Ȥ17Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼롥
(3) ǤϡʹߡˤѸΨäƤƤ뤳ȤƤ뤬ϡ#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ǤߤȤ礹롥(2) (5) Ǥϡƥȥեʳν줫αƶϡΤȤƶϾ뤤λˤ串ȤʤäȤ٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ѸˤˤѸפˤĤƤϡcat:lexicology statistics loan_word γƵȤ줿ܵȴϢơäˡ#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ȡ
Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.
ɸˤĤƤϡʲΰϢεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1])
#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2069. ؤءˡ ([2014-12-26-1])
˴ϢơRothwell ʸɤRothwell (50) ˤȡѸΤ˸ŪʵϿθ줬ƥ줫եءե줫Ѹܤޤ뤷ڤؤä (language_shift) ȤҲŪʻθʤФʤʤȤ
If the English language appears to embark on a far more extensive campaign of lexical borrowing from the later fourteenth century, this is because French had become the second official language of record in England, alongside and often in replacement of Latin. This means in effect that from the thirteenth century onwards French is called upon to cover a much wider range of registers than in the earlier period, when it was used in the main for works of entertainment or edification. This change in the role of French took place at a time when English was debarred from use as a language of record, so that when English in its turn began to take on that role in the later fourteenth century, it was only to be expected that it would retain much of the necessary vocabulary used by its predecessor --- French. . . . For successive generations of countless English scribes and officials the administrative vocabulary of French had been an integral part of their daily life and work; it would be unrealistic to expect them to jettison it and re-create an entirely new Germanic set of terms when English came in to take over the role hitherto played by French.
13--14ˤơե줬ˡΧطϤȤŪʸȤƤƤȤϡ#2330. 13--14ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) ǤߤΤ褦˥ɤˤƥեǸŪʵϿ봷ˤ錄äƳΩƤȤˡ14ȾѸ줬ƤΤǤ롥վΥХäȤϤ¿μ̻ˤȤäơ餳θؤˤϸǤääˡΧ˴ؤѸ¿ϡޤǥեñǤޤʤäƤƤꡤбѸϷ礱ƤΤ褦ʾǡ̻դѸؤȥեȤݤˡ줿եѸ¿ѤȤϼä
ѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤Ťȡ֤θüѤϡΤ褦̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥ϢǶȤơ#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia ([2015-09-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rothwell, W. "Stratford atte Bowe and Paris." Modern Language Review 80 (1985): 39--54.
伫ʬѤ n-gram Ȥʬϼˡ롥ѥؤǤ⤹ǤˤߤγǰǤꡤɽ (collocation) θʤɤǤΤ褦Ѥ褦ˤʤäΥѥΥեˤƤѤƤꡤ#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer ([2010-12-25-1]) Ǥ̾˴ޤޤƤۤɤܥ֥Ǥ COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English) N-gram ǡ١Ѥơ#956. COCA N-Gram Search ([2011-12-09-1]) ƤʤαѤϡ#953. ƬƧ2।ǥ ([2011-12-06-1])#954. ӱƧ2।ǥ ([2011-12-07-1])#955. ʸϤ碌2।ǥ ([2011-12-08-1]) ȡˡBNC ǤϡExplore Words and Phrases from the BNC ѤǤ롥
ԥ塼ѤʬϼˡȤʹ뤬n-gram ιͤϻäñǤ롥ʸ٥ 2-gram (bigram) ͤƤߤ褦ĹαñȤ pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis (#63. پɤϱѸǺǤŤµ ([2009-06-30-1])) ˤȤ롥ޤƬ2ʸ1Ȥ pn Фˡ2ʸܤ˿ʤƱ褦 ne Ф3ʸܤ˿ʤ eu 4ʸܤ˿ʤ um 롥Ʊ褦ˡ1ʸıˤ餷ʤ顤Ǹ is ޤ2ʸ1ȤȽäƤ44Ȥ2ʸȤˤʤ롥ȤΤʤǡic co ȤȤ߹碌ϳơ3ꡤos, si, no, on Ȥ߹碌ϳơ2졤ʳȤ߹碌Ϥ1٤Ǥ롥äơñˤƺǹ٤2ʸ1Ȥ ic co Ȥʤ롥
n-gram ñ̤ϡΤ褦ʸǤɬפϤʤǤǤ褤礭ñ̤ǤǤǤ褯礭ʶʤɤΤ礭ñ̤Ǥ褤Ѹ쥳ѥؤǤϡȤñ̤ǹͤΤ̤Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have a Dream αΥƥȤǸñ̤ 4-gram ȡǤ¿4Ȥ߹碌ϡͽ̤ "I have a dream" 8"will be able to" Ʊ8롥"Let freedom ring from" 7Ȥ褯롤ʬϤǽȤʤ롥Ǥ4ȤפꤷΤ 4-gram ȸƤФ뤬ܤ뤤Ĥʸθ뤫ˤ 1-gram (unigram), 2-gram (bigram), 3-gram (trigram) 5-gram ʾͤ뤳ȤǤ1-gram ξ硤ꥹȤϡ¾ƸɽǤˡ
祳ѥ줿 2-gram 3-gram ΰϡ켫ΤɽθʤɤǤϴܥǡȤʤ뤿ᡤ־Ǥ⤤ȸƤ롥ܸǤN-gram ѥ - ܸ쥦֥ѥ 2010뤷ѸǤ COCA n-gram ǡ١ 롥ޤBigram Plus Ǥϡ˱Ѹ쥳ѥޤƼѸ쥳ѥ N-Gram Search Ԥʤ뵡ǽƤ롥ۤˤǤդΥƥȤ䥳ѥоݤ n-gram ƼΥġ䥽եȤ⡤־ǽ
n-gram ʬϤθʬؤαϰϤϹʲʸˤϲȤͽ¬ǽȤطᡤˤ벻ǧʬϡȽꡤưڥåõΡʸѥǥåκʤɤ˳Ѥ롥ɽθǤϡܤˤԲķμʤȤʤäƤ롥n-gram ϤäѤȤɽ̲줿ƥȤоݤȤؤˤ빽¤ˤޤä뤳ȤʤᡤʸˡΤ褦ʸ̤Ƚ褦ܤϡn-gram in Wikipedia ȡ
n-gram ϹǡޤޤȤƻꤽ˱ѸƥȤˤ⡤ѤƤ
ʸ嵭2015/09/12(Sat) Sketch Engine N-grams ⻲ȡ
#2305. Ѹ25Ͽޡ ([2015-08-19-1]) 11ܤȤƵƤ Tristan da Cunha ˤĤդä롥Tristan da Cunha ϡեꥫꥫΦΤɤ餫Υ줿䳤θ硥եꥫ2400ꥫ3360ΥƤ롥6Ĥξ礫ʤꡤͭ Tristan da Cunha Gough Island 2ĤΤߤǤ롥ηϡ1506ǯ˥ݥȥͤγ Tristão da Cunha ˤäȯ줿17ʹߡ٤ˤ錄ä꽻λߤäԤΤ1816ǯΥꥹַˤΤǤ롥St. Helena ήˤ줿ʥݥ쥪ε߽Ф˻ߤ뤿ʼȤ롥1816ǯ˱ѹΤȤʻ礵줿1817ǯ˷űषʹߤϡ˻ĤäμԤȡˤ衼åѿͤɺήԤ̱ΤۤȤɤǤä1886ǯˤ97ͤȤ𤬤롥1938ǯˤ St. Helena ݸΤȤʤä2009ǯˤϰ̤ϲä졤ѹ St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ΰȤʤäƤ롥2015ǯߡ259ͤǤꡤΤۤȤȤѸȤ ENL ϰǤ롥

ʲϢ볰ĥäƤ
Website of the Tristan da Cunha Government and Tristan Association
Wikipedia ˤ Tristan da Cunha ε
BBC ˤ St Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha profiles
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
Edgar Allan Poe ˤ The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) Chapter 15 ˡTristan da Cunha ŪŪʾܤҤ롥
ʤSt. Helena ˤĤƤϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǤڤƤ롥
ʸ嵭2015/09/01(Tue) McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992. "TRISTAN DA CUNHA" (1056) ι⻲ȡαѸѼϡHighland English ƱħͭȹͤƤ롥
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
#2249. ֻ; ([2015-06-24-1]) Ǽ夲ꡥ̤δѸֻ;ͤƤߤ褦
Roman alphabet Τ褦ñʸηϤˤäƤϡ1ʸ1ǤбΤŪ˾ޤŪŪ¾λǡۤϤޤ¸ʤȤäƤ褤¤ۤ11æƤΤǤϡŪˤϤɤٰæƤΤ
ǡ#1159. MRC Psycholinguistic Database Search ([2012-06-29-1]) ѤơʸȲǤбٹ礤褽¬Ƥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥⤷̤ñʸηϤǤСñֻʸȡȯ벻ǿϰפѸäñˤĤơʸȲǿᡤΤʿͤʤɤͤФСŪʻɸϤֻ;Ū (redundancy) ǤȤȤϤޤǤεͽۤȤǤϤ뤬Ūˡʸвǿϡ2:1 ٤ʤΤ 3:1 ٤ʤΤɤʤΤ
ޤϡMRC Psycholinguistic Database Search ʲΤ褦˸ơñ줴ȤΡʸǿξԤʡ;λɸˤΰSQLʸ where ʲϡӽ뤿ξˡ
select WORD, NLET, NPHON, NLET/NPHON as REDUNDANCY, PHON from mrc2 where NPHON != "00" and WORD != "" and PHON != "";
ΰȤˡƼͤФ褤ʸȲǿʿͤϡ1.192025 ä0.2ߤˤȤäٿʬۿޤ

ʸ̤ʿͤȤäƤߤȡ̣Ȥ3ʸʲñǤ; 1.166174 ˤȤɤޤꡤΤʿͤ꾮ʤ롥4ʸ7ʸޤǤñǤʿѤ⤤ 1.231737 Ȥͤ8ʸʾˤʤȺƤ;Ͼʤꡤ1.157689 Ȥʤ롥ʸǿ٤Ĺñ;⤯ûñĹñǤϤषŪ;㤤褦ͳˤĤƤϾܤʬϤƤʤ#1160. MRC Psychological Database Ƽפв ([2012-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡñǺǤ¿8ʸ6ǤǤȤȤ䡤final_e ϤȤۻ (silent_letter) ʬۤȲ餫δط뤫⤷ʤ
ơΤʿ 1.192025 Ǽ;٤ɤ줯餤ΤΤʤΤۤоݤʤΤɾˤˤŪˤۤ 1.0 Ƴȳ֤äƤʤʤȤݤǤ롥ñˤʸȲǤδطϡ#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡȡ ([2015-08-06-1]) ȤǤС褯ĥ줿ûΥפǷФ줿طȤ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
οͤˤĤդ٤ϡñˤʸȲǤбĤҤȤľȤ餷碌ƤϤФΤǤϤʤϤäʣбϤξԤδط줾ĹȤͤȤäΤˤʤȤȤǽŪ˵ֻ;ΤΤǤϤʤ鼨ɸȤäۤ褤Ǥ⡤ܰ¤Ȥʤˤϰ㤤ʤ
üԿˤĤơƼפʲεǰäƤ
#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])
#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])
#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1])
#398. ²Ⱦʬ ([2010-05-30-1])
#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])
#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1])
#1375. ͥåȤλѸȥå10 ([2013-01-31-1])
ϡ־ INFOGRAPHIC: A world of languages - and how many speak them ꤹ뵭ȰʲΤ褦ʿޤĤΤǡҲ𤷤Ƥ

ƤüԿ˴ؤפϡEthnologue ˴ŤƤ褦Ǥ롥ǹԤʤƤ7102θΤ5ͰʾüԤʤƤΤ23ΤߤǤꡤ2341ͤСȤ
绨ĤʿޤʤΤǿŤɤޤʤФʤʤˤĤνζʬɽƤʤɡ褯פƤ롥ˤϳؽƤΥ⤢ꡤΤѸϷȴƤΥȥåפ15ͤγؽԤʤȸޤƤ롥
522ʶˤ23ڡˤˡʡ縩來Ԥǡ來ʿΡ祵ߥå2015פ롥ܡȥꥢޤᡤʿνä륵ߥåȤǡʿϰ߳뤳ȤȤ롥ۥȹǤܤϡߥåȳŤ˹碌콵515˶ߤǥ˥塼ɼΤΥ˥ (Niue /niˈuːeɪ/; ̱̾ȷƻ Niuean /n(j)uːˈ(w)eɪən/) Ⱦǧ뤳ȤꤷܤǧȤϤ195Ȥʤ롥˥塼ɡɤʤɤäƹȾǧƤ뤬ϢˤϲƤʤ
˥ϡ˥塼ɤ2400km˰֤Ѥ259ʿkmʼ縩ǷȤۤƱˡ1,500ͤǤ롥Ԥ AlofiʲˡϿޤȹ

άˤCaptain James Cook 1774ǯ˾Φ̱μŨդˤʤ "Savage Island" ̿̾1830ǯ붵Ĥ礷1852ǯ̱ꥹȶ1900ǯ˱ѹ⥢ʬΰȤƥ˥ʻ礷1901ǯˤϡ˥塼ɤåΰȤƱʻ礷1904ǯˤʬΥƼΤȤʤä1974ǯ˥˥塼ɤȼͳϢȤ༫ܤΩŪˤϤΤȤ˻¾ΩäƤ褤̱ϥ˥塼ɻ̱Ǥꡤɱҡϥ˥塼ɤǤդǰ¸Ƥ˥塼ɤؤΰܽԤ¿
ѤƤˤĤƤСEthnologue Niue ιˤС˥ (Niuean) ȱѸ줬ѸȤʤäƤ롥̱ΤۤȤɤ˥äѸѤ롥˥ϡȥͥ²ݥͥɤ°ܤȥ䥵⥢롥
ѸˤδˤǤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥ롥˥깭Ū˹ȾǧΤϺΤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ˾ǧ뤳Ȥǡ˥ϡֱѸѸȤƤĺǾιפΥȥʥåȤˤʤ롥#1747. ѸѸȤƤĺǾι ([2014-02-07-1]) Ǽ夲ʥϡѤǤϥ˥⤺äȾΰ̣ǤϤޤֺǾפˤĤƤХʥ1ͤΤФ˥ɴͤȤϤǤ뤫ֺǾפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ѸȤʬۤ˴Ϣפ¾ξɬפƤ
Ϣơľܥ˥ꤳޤޤƤʤ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ʤɤȤ줿ѸγȻȤδϢǤϡ#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ȡ
˥˴ؤ볰ȤƤϡʲΤΤ롥
̳ʤˤ˥åǡ
CIA: The World Factbook ˤ Niue Υǡ
Wikipedia ˤ Niue ε
˰³La Francophonie ˤĤơLa Francophonie θǸեեˡ ˡե˴ؤפޤ͡ʿǺܤƤ롥οϡOIF (Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) ˤ2014ǯ4ǯȤ˹ˤ˴ŤΤȤĤ
La Francophonie 80ιϰ褬äϢ54β23Υ֥С3ν
եϱѸȤȤ5ΦäƤǤ
27400ͤΥեüԡʤ5Φ21200ͤȤƻѡ
12500ͤΥեؽԡ7600ͤȤơ4900ͤȤƳؽ
衼åѤ7700ͤŪʥեüԡڤ5200ͤΥեǽϤͭ
5ܤˤ褯ä
3ܤζ̳Ѹʥ衼åѤǤ2ܡ
4ܤΥͥåѸ
2ܤ˹ݵؤѤƤ
嵭ΥȤˤϥե˴ϢϿޤ⤤ĤǺܤƤ롥ʲŽդ褦



2ܤϿޤˤ褦ˡLa Francophonie ˤ54β (États de gouvernements membres de l'OIF)23Υ֥С (États observateurs), 3ν (États associés) η80ιϰ褬äƤ롥ϰ褴Ȥ̾褦
Afrique de l'Ouest
ѸοƳˤƤϡʣ (compounding) (derivation) 礿ˡȤʤäƤƤꡤ (borrowing) ι٤Ū㤤1ۤɤοܤߤƤ⡤ѤγŪܸꤷƤ (cf. #873. ѸοˤʣΥХ ([2011-09-17-1]) #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]))
Ū˸äƤƤȤϤüѤϸѸǤ³Ƥ롥#874 Algeo ξܺ٤ʶʬΤʤǤ⼨Ƥ褦ˡѤ餺¿ͤǤ롥#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1])#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])#142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1]) ǤϡѸؤθԤȤưƳܸ줬ͭϤǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ܸʤɤޤ̤Τܤ礬ΤꤿȤ
Algeo (78) ϡGarland Cannon (Historical Change and English Word-Formation. New York: Peter Lang, 1987. pp. 69--97) Ĵ˴Ťơ20ȾäƤѸäΥ̳Ƥ롥Ūˤϡ褽1963--88ǯδ֤˱ѸäƤѸϿ4ĤμĴоݤȤ̤˼Ѹ夲줾γФ4ĤμȤϡ(1) The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963 (1973), (2) The Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1980), (3) Webster's Third (1961), (4) The Barnhart Dictionary Companion Index (1987) Ǥ롥줾줫407, 332, 523, 1661428ξýǤϤ뤬˴ŤưʲĴ̤줿
| (1) BDNE | (2) BENE2 | (3) 81W3 | (4) BDC | Rank | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| French | 31.4% | 17.5 | 21.2 | 12.0 | 1 |
| Spanish | 6.6 | 10.8 | 6.1 | 12.7 | 2 |
| Russian | 3.4 | 5.4 | 2.1 | 24.1 | 3 |
| Japanese | 7.9 | 9.3 | 6.3 | 9.0 | 4 |
| African | 6.1 | 7.2 | 6.7 | 3.0 | 5 |
| Italian | 4.7 | 4.5 | 10.7 | 2.4 | 6 |
| German | 5.9 | 5.4 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 7 |
| Greek | 6.9 | 4.8 | 8.0 | 1.2 | 8 |
| Latin | 5.2 | 5.1 | 9.4 | 9 | |
| Yiddish | 5.7 | 2.7 | 5.0 | 3.6 | 10 |
| Arabic | 2.0 | 3.9 | 1.7 | 6.0 | 11 |
| Chinese | 1.7 | 4.2 | 3.6 | 6.0 | 12 |
| Portuguese | 1.0 | 2.7 | 1.0 | 1.8 | 13 |
| Hindi | 2.2 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 2.4 | 14 |
| Hebrew | 0.7 | 1.5 | 0.4 | 1.2 | 15 |
| Sanskrit | 1.7 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 16 | |
| Persian | 0.2 | 1.2 | 1.8 | 17 | |
| Afrikaans | 0.5 | 1.5 | 0.4 | 18 | |
| Dutch | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.8 | 19 | |
| Indonesian | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 20 |
| Malayo-Polynesian | 2.1 | 0.2 | 21 | ||
| Norwegian | 0.2 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 22 | |
| Swedish | 1.0 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 23 | |
| Korean | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 24 | |
| Vietnamese | 1.0 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 25 | |
| Amerindian | 1.2 | 0.6 | 26 | ||
| Bengali | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 27 | |
| Danish | 0.5 | 1.0 | 28 | ||
| Eskimo | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 29 |

衼åѤμפʸΤʤǡɥĸϱѸμѸ쥽ȤưճΩʤŪˤ٤εϤǥɥļѸ줬ΤϸѸ줫Ǥꡤ϶ϾǤ롥Ѹɥĸ⥲ޥ (Germanic) °̤εĤȤȤΤƤˤϡξ֤ǼѤȤδطϴǤ롥
Ѹ˥ɥĸθŪƶʤȤ Jespersen (143) ڤۤ (258) ʤɤαѸ˳ǤƤ̤ɥĸѤʤȤϤäƤեƥ٤ƤäǤäơºݤˤϤ٤οϼȤѸȤäƤƤ롥ǯˤƤΤ褦 (Algeo 80; #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])) #2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" Ǥ⡤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Other European languages remain steady, contributing 3--4% of new words throughout the centuries. The exception is German, which starting in the eighteenth century begins to increase its contribution to English vocabulary, reaching 3% of new words all by itself, and nosing ahead of French by the twentieth century.
Ʊꤷ OED ˴ŤפǥɥļѸŪܤղȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

켣 (115--17) ˤСɥĤ16˹ۻѤѤĹƤΤǡαƶ17--18ˤѸäȿǤƤʥդǤμ㴳ιޤ16Ǥˡ17ʹߤϿ̾μѤ¿ޤɥĤ19ůؤؤޤŪȯŸ뤲ᡤŪѸ䳵ǰѸؤήʥվ19˥ԡޤˡ̾μѤΤۤ (loan_translation) ¿Τɥĸ줫μѤħȤ뤫⤷ʤʲʬ̤˥ɥļѸѤޤˤ褦
ιۻ
cobalt, gneiss, meerschaum, quartz, zinc
ůءʸɾ
folksong, gestalt, leitmotif, nihilism, objective, subjective, superman, transcendental, zeitgeist
Ӹء
ablaut, schwa, strong [weak] (declension), Umlaut
ζ١
kindergarten, semester, seminar
ʪءء
aniline, dynamo, ohm, protein, relativity, saccharine, sarin, uranium
ΰءء
aspirin, heroin, pepsin, Roentgen-ray [X-ray]
οʡ
delicatessen, frankfurter, hamburger, lager, noodle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut, schnitzel
ɥļѸˤĤƻ䤤ƤѸ˳¿ʤCarr, Charles T. The German Influence on the English Vocabulary. London: Clarendon, 1934. Ȥ褦Ǥ롥
Ϣơ#150. ꥫѸؤΥɥĸι ([2009-09-24-1])#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ʸ嵭2015/09/06(Sun)Begoña Crespo ("Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britan. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. p. 29.) ˤСǤѸ15ˤ⡤ϥɥĸ줫ιʪؤ˴ؤѸ줬äƤȤ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
Algeo, John. "Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 57--91.
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