ǯ122910˾ƲǤ줿World Englishes Ҳ𤹤 Voicy heldio ΥΰĤȤ#942. ԤȸWorld Englishes ١ʾƲ2023ǯ --- ڱŴȤΥɤαѸᤰ̡ۿޤڱʸءˤϡܽ4ϡ֥ɤαѸפԤ1ͤǤʤ⤦1ϲƣͳˡ33ʬۤɤβƥĤȤʤäƤޤ֤ΤȤˤİ
Ҳ𤤤4ϡ֥ɤαѸ (pp. 69--84) ϡʲιȤʤäƤޤˤϡָơޡץʡȻʸդƤޤ

ԡˡWorld Englishes ١Ʋ2023ǯ
19ΥɱѸ椹ȤΤϤɤȤΤ100ǯʾαѸǤϤˤ衤ˤȸƤ֤ˤϿ뤷ºݤ̤ۤɤळȤǤ롥19αʸؤѹʸ˴ؿȤΤǤʬ뤬19αѸ줽ΤΤ˴ؿͯȤΤϤɤȤ
µ줿Ѹˤ Manfred Görlach ϡ嵭Τ褦ɾ뤳Ȥ¿19ΥɱѸ˿øΩ1999ǯ˰ܤ路Ф English in Nineteenth-Century England: An Introduction Ǥ롥ܤƬ "Motivations for the present book" Ǥ롥ޤѤ褦 (1)
Interest in the history of English has recently focused on more modern periods than the traditionally favoured ones of OE and ME. However, whereas EModE is becoming a well-researched field, the investigation of the language after 1700 has been more patchy. The 18th century has, for various reasons, received more attention than the period between 1800 and 1900.
No comprehensive description of 19th-century English --- in particular that of England --- has ever been attempted. And yet such a study promises to yield important insights, for the following reasons:
19ΥɱѸܤ٤3Ĥͳ³ (1--5)
(1) The sociolinguistic foundations of PDE were laid in a period when the population expanded tremendously, especially in the industrial urban centres . . . , when the standard form of the language (St E) spread from the limited number of 'refined' speakers in the 18th century to a considerable section of the Victorian middle classes, and when general education began to level speech forms to an extent that is impossible to imagine for earlier periods.
(2) Comparisons between varieties of English in England and overseas are likely to provide evidence of the drifting apart of the colonial Englishes in spite of the retarding influences of British administration, the schools, and the influence of the high prestige of London English on educated speakers world-wide. Moreover, a description of the BrE of the time is a necessary precondition for evaluating the British linguistic input in overseas Englishes --- in regions where English is a native language (= ENL), like the American West, Upper Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the Cape and Natal, and in the great number of varieties of English used as a second language (= ESL) in Africa and Asia.
(3) A comparison of English in England with standard languages on the continent may well permit interlinguistic insights into parallels and differences in development within the framework of an increasingly similar West European material culture. Such comparisons might also prompt new questions and the application of new methods in cases where it has proved fruitful to look at sociolinguistic conditions in one culture which have been neglected in another.
3ĤλϤä꼡Τ褦ʼݤɤ
(1) 20ʹߤΥɱѸ߽ФھΤ
(2) ˳Ȼ ENL ESL μΤ
(3) 衼åѤνμҲŪоȤ
Görlach, Manfred. English in Nineteenth-Century England: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1999.
ѸûˤĻפȡˤƿ줬Ƴ줿ƤȤ礭ĬήĤळȤǤ롥ƳˡȤơ绨Ĥ (1) (borrowing) (2) (word_formation) 2ͤ褦Ѥ¾ˤñڤ뤳ȤǤ롥ϴ¸ǡʤ줬츻ŪˤǤѸǤˤȤˤ (derivation)ʣ (compounding)ʻž (conversion)û (shortening) ʤɤβФƿñФȤǤ롥
űѸ˸ˤ뿷Ƴ硥ƥťΥɸ줫μѤ¿ä
Ѹեƥ줫οƳ硥³
Ѹƥ䥮ꥷ줫οƳ硥ޤǤ˱ѸƱƤ¸ǤѤ⾯ʤʤ
ѸѸ硥ν줫μѤϷ³Ƥ롥
ˤäƼѤȸΥȤѲƤ̣绨ĤˤСűѸϸнšѸϼнšѸʹߤξԤΥХٲƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥줾λطʤˤͥʤɼҲʸŪʽΤбƤ롥
嵭Ϥޤ绨ĤĬήǤ롥ѤȸΥȤѲäѤСѸˤ̤ƾξˡѤƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤϤޤɸѸθûˤˤߤĬήǤ뤳Ȥˤդפ롥¾αѸѼθûˤͤʤС㤨ХɱѸʤɤ ESL (= English as a Second Language) ǰƬ֤ʤС塦ǤϸϤν줫θäΥץåȤϵʤ˭٤㤷ܿλʪȤ⤤Ѹ١Υԥ䥯쥪ǤϤɤդ˸ܿξʤĶǰޤƤѸѼθûˤˤⶽ̣ͯ
Ѹûˤ˴ؤ hellog Ǥ¿夲ƤˤפƤΤΤΤߤʲ˼
#873. ѸοˤʣΥХ ([2011-09-17-1])
#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1])
#1956. Hughes αѸάǯɽ ([2014-09-04-1])
#2966. Ѹä (2) ([2017-06-10-1])
#4130. Ѹä¿Ͳȳˤв "The OED in two minutes" ([2020-08-17-1])
#4133. OED ˤѸ˳ ([2020-08-20-1])
#4716. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פΥȡֱѸäˡפޤ --- ˤ˥λ ([2022-03-26-1])
ε#4708. ѸŪǥη --- Strang, Quirk et al, Kachru ([2022-03-18-1]) Ǹ褦 Quirk et al. Kachru ˤͭ̾3ĤƱߥǥȤȤơStrang ˤ3ʬǥ뤬äȤStrang Ϲ¤ؤ˴ŤѸˤ̾1ĤǤꡤⲿ٤ɤǤѸʬ˴ؤ뵭ҤβսϤۤɥޡƤʤä褦ǡˤȤäƤʤʤȯä
Quirk et al. Τ ENL, ESL, EFL ϡStrang ζʬǤ A, B, C-speakers б롥ޤϡʬѤ (Strang 17--18)
At the present time, for instance, English is spoken by perhaps 350 to 400m people who have it as their mother tongue. These people are scattered over the earth, in far-ranging communities of divergent status, history, cultural traditions and local affinities. I shall call them A-speakers, because they are the principal kind we think of in trying to choose a variety of English as a basis for description. The principal communities of A-speakers are those of the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. There are many millions more for whom English may not be quite the mother tongue, but who learnt it in early childhood, and who lived in communities in which English has a special status (whether or not as an official national language) as a, or the, language for advanced academic work and for participation in the affairs of men at the international, and possibly even the national level. These are the B-speakers, found extensively in Asia (especially India) and Africa (especially the former colonial territories). Then there are those throughout the world for whom English is a foreign language, its study required, often as the first foreign language, as part of their country's educational curriculum, though the language has no official, or even traditional, standing in that country. These are the C-speakers.
ޤǤ Quirk et al. ٤Ƥ⡤ۤȤƱҤȤäƤ褤Strang (18--19) ³ˤơA-speakers Τߤʤ餺 B-speakers ζƱΤ⡤ơΡɸѸפȯŸƤƤΤǤQuirk et al. Ϥ˿Ƥʤˡ
. . . we know that American English is different from British English and within the two, US English from Canadian, Boston from Brooklyn, Southern, Mid-Western or West Coast, or Edinburgh from Liverpool, Leeds or Newcastle. These examples introduce us to an important principle in the classification of varieties. In fact, in all the communities containing A- and B-speakers a special variety of English has developed, used for all public purposes, Standard English. By and large, with rather trivial exceptions, this kind of English is the same wherever English is used, except in one area of its organisation --- the accent, or mode of pronunciation. Different accents characterise the spoken standards of say, England, Scotland and the USA. In England special status is accorded to an accent characterised by its having no local roots, namely RP. Communities with only C-speakers are characterised by having no fully developed indigenous Standard so that they model themselves largely on the Standard (including accent) of one of the major English-speaking communities.
Strang ϡENL ESL 줾ɸѼȯŸȤˤƤޤȤᤢQuirk et al. Ϥδ롼ơQuirk et al. 롼δ Kachru ƤӼ夲Strang ήؤȲȤΤ褦
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.
Kachru, B. B. "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle." English in the World. Ed. R. Quirk and H. G. Widdowson. Cambridge: CUP, 1985. 11--30.
2021ǯ125俷ʹī8̤ε֥ץ̳ʺ֡ʡ̱ήʬǡפɤ
衼åѤͣʬǹȡץ (Republic of Cyprus) 泤ǡȾʬۤɤѤϤ120ͤ餷Ƥ롥ץϡ16ꥪޥΤȤʤäƤ1878ǯ˥ꥹ˳졤θ1960ǯ˥ꥹΩ1974ǯ˥ꥷϽ̱¦ˤΥǥˡȥ륳Ͻ̱¦ˤȥ륳ݸΤȤΩεᡤ1973ǯˡ̥ץȥ륳¹פȤΩʹߡʬDzäϤ³ƤܲʲҤˤήθˤäΤƤȤºݡɻߤΤ˸ĺƤ褦¦γˤϥ⥹Ω¦γˤϥꥹޥΥߥ͡ƤȤ


ޤΤƤʤץϥ衼åѤǤϿʤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ϰ1ĤǤꡤϢˮˤ°Ƥcf. #4474. ESL ϰγѡ ([2021-07-27-1])#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) Ǥ EFL (English as a Foreign Language) ϰʬवƤꡤʬ̯꤬ؤäƤ褦ˤ衤McArthur (277) "English widely used" Ȥ̤ꡤҲŪ˹Ѹ줬ѤƤˤѤʤ
ʤߤˡ泤ϰǤϡۤ˥ޥ륿 (Malta) ȥ֥륿 (Gibraltar) ESLϰǤcf. #2228. ޥ륿αѸ (1) ([2015-06-03-1])#2229. ޥ륿αѸ (2) ([2015-06-04-1])#2920. Gibraltar English ([2017-04-25-1])ˡ
ץθ𡤤Ȥ櫓ѸѤμ¾ˤĤƤϾܤĴ٤ƤʤŪطʡ̱²ȤʣʼҲΤ褦Ǥ롥塤ؿƤ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ܤϡʥ륹οѰ۳֥ߥפκγФǰ顤եꥫι˿ݶŬѤϤŪˤϡեꥫ¹ʥߥӥХ֥ܥĥʡ쥽ȡƥˡ⥶ӡޥ饦ӥ9εԤˤϡ10֤Ե뤳ȤˤʤȤcf. #3289. Swaziland eSwatini ˹̾ѹ ([2018-04-29-1])ˡ
եꥫΤΰѤϡѸʻˡˤ˰ĤƤСפESLϰƤ롥եꥫ¹С¿ܿͤˤȤäơʤߤ¿դϿޤ⤢ޤ긫ƤʤΤǤϤʤ(C)ROOTS/Heibonsha.C.P.C ꡤեꥫϿޤǺܤƤ

οݶоݤȤʤäƤ9ˤĤƤСݥȥѸȤƤ⥶ӡơ٤ƤιѸѸʾʤȤѸ1ġˤȤƺѤƤʥեꥫˤѸѸϡ#3290. եꥫθѸ ([2018-04-30-1]) ȡˡΤˤϰαѸüԿ¿#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1]) οפȤȡͤȤϤ¸ߤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ŪʱѸϰ1ĤȤäƤ褤
եꥫαѸ첽ˤϡꥹˤ뿢̱ϲˤϢưƤ롥եꥫ¹αѸ첽ʥ¾٤18ˤΤܤ뤬¾19ȾˤϤή˴ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä¿20ȾаʹߤΩ̤콡θǤѸ줬ҿȤƸѸ˺Ѥ졤ߤ˻롥
եꥫ¹ȱѸܿˤʣǡޤǤ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#407. եꥫ¹ Afrikaans ([2010-06-08-1])#408. South African English American English Ѽﹽ ([2010-06-09-1])#1703. եꥫο̱ˤȹ ([2013-12-25-1])#3291. 11θѸեꥫ¹ ([2018-05-01-1]) ʤɤǾҲ𤷤ƤΤǡɤ
ŪˤХɱѸ䥤ɱѸΤ褦 "indigenised Englishes" ϡظȱѸȤθܿӸ (language_shift) η̤ȤѼǤꡤѸȤΰŪʴطݤƤȤ롥ʥ Saramaccan Τ褦 "English creoles" ϡѸȤθܿȤƤ뤬ǤѸȤľܤΰŪʴطΤʤѼȤ (cf. #463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1]))
嵭 indigenised Englishes English creoles 椵ݤνλǤ롥פ˥쥪ܿ㳰ŪʥȤȤ館ΩɽŪԤȤ Thomason and Kaufman Ƥ
ǯǤ indigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤ϡθĥ褦ܼΰ㤤ǤϤʤ٤ˤʤΤǤϤʤȤäƤƤ롥Τ褦ʸѤ Winford (196) ˼褦
This recognition has led to a growing rapport between the study of the New Englishes and the study of English-lexicon creoles in the last couple of decades. It has given impetus to an earlier tradition of research concerned with the relationship between the two types of contact Englishes, which dates back to the 1980s . . . . The links between the two fields have more recently been reaffirmed in the work of scholars . . . . It is now generally acknowledged that the creation of the New Englishes shares a great deal in common with creole formation, with regard to both the socio-historical circumstances and the processes of change that were involved. The challenge facing us is to show how these two dimensions of language shift---the socio-historical and the linguistic---interact in the emergence of contact varieties. On the one hand, the diversity of outcomes that resulted from the spread of English to various colonies provides support for Thomason and Kaufman's claim that 'it is the sociolinguistic history of the speakers, and not the structure of their language, that is the primary determinant of the linguistic outcome of language contact' (1988: 35). At the same time, the emergence and evolution of contact Englishes supports the view that different outcomes are also constrained by the same principles and processes of change that operate in shift situations generally. All of this suggests that the division between 'indigenized English' and 'creoles' is essentially an artificial one, since we find diversity within each group and significant overlap between the two.
Winford ˤȤäƤϡindigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤٤ǤꡤѤκǸˤ̤ꡤŪʶʬˤʤ褦Winford Ϥ1θ塤Schneider "Dynamic Model" ȤƵ³ƤΥǥˤĤƤϡ#4497. ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ Schneider Dynamic Model ([2021-08-19-1]) ȡ
Winford, Donald. "World Englishes and Creoles." Chapter 10 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 194--210.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ε#4492. αѸѼˡ --- Gupta 5ס ([2021-08-14-1]) ˰³αѸѼˡˤĤơ World Englishes ȤХܤ路 Mesthrie and Bhatt (3--10) ˤ12פؤʬҲ𤷤Ʊ͡Schneider (44) ͳƼ
(a) Metropolitan standards (i.e. the "respected mother state's" norm as opposed to colonial offspring, i.e. in our case British English and American English as national reference forms).
(b) Colonial standards (the standard forms of the former "dominions," i.e. Australian, New Zealand, Canadian, South African English, etc.).
(c) Regional dialects (of Britain and North America, less so elsewhere in settler colonies).
(d) Social dialects (by class, ethnicity, etc.; including, e.g. Broad, General and Cultivated varieties in Australia, African American Vernacular English, and others).
(e) Pidgin Englishes (originally rudimentary intermediate forms in contact, and nobody's native tongue; possibly elaborated in complexity, e.g. West African Pidgin Englishes).
(f) Creole Englishes (fully developed but highly structured, hence of questionable relatedness to the lexifier English; e.g. Jamaican Creole).
(g) English as a Second Language (ESL) (postcolonial countries where English plays a key role in government and education; e.g. Kenya, Sri Lanka).
(h) English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (English used for external and international purposes; e.g. China, Europe, Brazil).
(i) Immigrant Englishes (developed by migrants to an English-dominant country; e.g. Chicano English in the United States)).
(j) Language-shift Englishes (resulting from the replacement of an ancestral language by English; possibly, like Hiberno English, becoming a social dialect in the end).
(k) Jargon Englishes (unstable pre-pidgins without norms and with great individual variation, e.g. South Seas Jargon in the nineteenth century)
(l) Hybrid Englishes (mixed codes, prestigious among urban youths; e.g. "Hinglish" mixing Hindi and English).
Ѹʻѡˤˡϰ̡ǽ4ĤΥѥȤ߹碌ʬȤ롥ºݤ¸ߤʤˤȤѸѼ夷Ƥ봶롥ϳ餵ʬȤ櫓ǤϤʤʬǤϡʣΥƥˤޤäƽ°Ƥޤ褦ʱѸѼ⤢ΤǤϤʤ
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ΤĤιϰˤϡѸüԤǤ뤬θѸ졤θ졤̸ʤɤȤƹѸѤƤ͡롥Τ褦ʹϰ ESL (English as a Second Language) ϰȸƤФƤ롥¤ ESL ϰϡ餯¿ɼԤפäƤʾˡ˹ʬۤƤ롥 Trudgill and Hannah (127--28) ˰͵ ESL ϰѤƤߤ
In the Americas, English is an important second language in Puerto Rico, and also has some second-language presence in Panama. In Europe, in addition to the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland where English is spoken natively, English has official status in Gibraltar and Malta and is also widely spoken as a second language in Cyprus. In Africa, there are large communities of native speakers of English in Liberia, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya, but there are even larger communities in these countries of second-language speakers. Elsewhere in Africa, English has official status, and is therefore widely used as a second language lingua franca in Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zambia, Malawi and Uganda. It is also extremely widely used in education and for governmental purposes in Tanzania and Kenya.
In the Indian Ocean, Asian, and Pacific Ocean areas, English is an official language in Mauritius, the Seychelles, Pakistan, India, Singapore, Brunei, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Guam and elsewhere in American-administered Micronesia. It is also very widely used as a second language in Malaysia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Nepal and Nauru. (In India and Sri Lanka, there are also Eurasian native speakers of English.)
ϰ¿ǤϡɸѸǤϤʤ岽ȼαѸ (indigenised English) ȯŸƤߤȯŸ³Ƥ롥 "New Englishes" ȤΤ졤äƤѸ¿Ͳ˹Ƥ롥
θ̤ ESL ϰѼˤĤơܥ֥Ǽ夲ƤΤ¿Τǡesl εȤ櫓ʲε⤴Ȥ
#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1])
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#2469. αѸ ([2016-01-30-1])
#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1])
#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])
Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.
ˤ͡ʱѸѼ郎ꡤҤä World Englishes New Englishes ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿䥢եꥫˤŪʷаޤ ESL (English as a Second Language) Ѽ郎¿¿ΥեꥫѼ˶̤Ƹ뱤ΧħĤŦƤ롥Ǥ2褦1Ĥ "syllable-timing" ȸƤФꥺ (rhythm) ⤦1Ĥϸζ (stress) ΰ֤˴ؤ뷹Ǥ롥ʲ Mesthrie and Bhatt (129) ȤƲ⤹롥
syllable-timing Ȥϡꥺδθ1ĤǡɸѸ줬 stress-timing ֤ΤǤ롥Ԥϲʥ⡼ˤֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡܸե줬Ԥ϶ֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡɸѸɥĸ줬cf. #1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])ˡ
եꥫϤνˤ syllable-timing ĤΤ¿δؤξ˾äƤ ESL Ѽˤ syllable-timing ΥꥺबۤȤȤ㤨СɷեꥫѸ졤ͷեꥫѸ졤쥢եꥫѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ʱѸ졤ɱѸ졤ѥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤եԥѸʤɤ syllable-timing Υꥺħ̤ħȤơѼˤϡ첻ˤ첻ŪƤݤȤ⤢롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥϡsyllable-timing ΥꥺϤ̣ǤͥȤäƤ褤
Ѽˤϡζ˴ؤƤⶦ̤Ƥߤ뷹롥ФɸѸȤϰۤʤ֤˶֤뤳Ȥrealíse Τ褦˶֤¦˴ΤȤ櫓¿롼ѸʤɤǤ adólescence Τ褦˺¦˴Τߤ롥ޤѼǤɸѸ ábsent (adj.) absént (v.) Τ褦ʡʻˤäƶ֤ư븽 (diatone) ϤߤʤȤ
ŪˤСظαƶβDZΧε§άΤȤäƤ褤ܸüԤˤȤäơͥױΧħǤꡤŸˤܤƤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
#4463. ְѸס ([2021-07-16-1]) ȡ#4464. ɱѸˤλʬ ([2021-07-17-1]) ǥɱѸ (Indian English) 夲ɱѸ˸¤ʤΤESL (English as a Second Language) EFL (English as a Foreign Language) ʤɤѼѻȡʤɸѸȰۤʤħ¿⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥Τ褦ħɤߤ뤫˴ؤ2ĤΩΩ줬롥
1ĤϡüԤǥȤꤷƤɸѸԴˤǤʤä椨θŪæȸΩǤ롥줿Ѹ״ѤȸƤǤ⤦1ĤϡħŪȤȤ館ޤƼΩѸѼǤȸΩ岽Ѹ״ѤȸƤǤ1990--91ǯ줿Ѹ״Ѥ Randolph Quirk ȡ岽Ѹ״Ѥ Braj Kachru δ֤褬äѸθˤˤͭ̾Ǥ롥
Ω줬¤θƤΤŪʴϡơθħˤĤƤεȯãĴꡤ2콬θȤʤɤȽǤȤˡϤǤϲ褷ˤʤȤΤϡϽ˸ŪȤϡѼФ١äȤи쥤ǥ
ɱѸ츦˴ؤƤСεǻȤƤ Sharma (2089--90) ˤȡθϤ褽줿Ѹ״ѤΩĤΤ¿äǶǤϡ岽Ѹ״ѤΩĤΤƤƤȤѸ쵬ϤѼʤɳ˶Ĥ "exo-normative" ʸ顤ϤȤۤ夲 "endo-normative" ʸذܹԤƤƤ褦Sharma (2090) θդȤ "Indian English . . . undergoing a shift from exonormative to endonormative stablization but not as fully nativezed and diversified as native varieties" ȽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡߤΥɱѸϡξˤ֡ϴŪʰ֤ŤˤȤΤ¤Τ褦˻פ롥
Sharma, Devyani. "Second-Language Varieties: English in India." Chapter 132 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2077--91.
ǯɤϹŪ¸ߴƤ뤬ȼäƥɤѤѸ졤륤ɱѸ (Indian English) ؤܤޤäƤƤ롥ΥɱѸˤϰճĹˤ롥ʤߤƤ400ǯۤɤϤ롥
Sharma (2077--85) ϡɱѸˤҲŪʴˤ4Ĥλ˶ʬƤ롥ñ䤤ʤʲ˼
(1) The early presence of English in India (17th--18th century)
ꥶ٥11600ǯ쥤ɲҤΩ졤ꥹȥɤθפܳŪ˻Ϥޤä쥤ɲҤϡ1858ǯΥꥹˤľޤdz³뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϱѸȥɤȤܿϼŪʤΤǡߤθԴ˽٤ˤȤɤޤä18ϥꥹȶعΩ졤˱ѸѤɤο͡δ֤˹äƤä
(2) Colonial language ideologies (18th--19th century)
1757ǯ쥤ɲҷץå襤ǥ٥뷳˾ɤФ륤ꥹλ۸Ωɤ100ǯ1857ǯ˥ȿȤȯð줿塤1858ǯϥꥹˤľϤޤäꥹˤϡ̱ϥɤФ2ĤΩ륤ǥäθʸǧ "Orientalist" ȡꥹθʸˤäƥɤؤ褦Ȥ "Anglicist" ȤǤ롥Orientalist ΩȤƤϡѸؤĤȸƤФ William Jones ʤɤΩ18ˤͥä19 Anglicist ΥǥޤäƤΥԡ1835ǯ Thomas Macaulay "Minute on Indian Education" ˷¤ƤꡤǤϱѸͥΤ줿ɿͤμͤΤʤˤ Rammohun Roy Τ褦 Anglicist ΩȤΤcf. #3315. ֥ϥɸס ([2018-05-25-1])ˡη̡19桤顤ǡˤѸѤ¤ä
(3) English and the Independence movement (19th--20th century)
1塤ꥹۤΩܻؤ̱²ưäѸǤϤʤλѤʤ Mahatma Gandhi αư˾ħ褦ˡȿѸΥǥƬƤ̱ɤλƳԤǸ˥ɤνȤʤä Nehru ѸؤƤӤ1947ǯΩ뤲ȡŪʴϱѸݻʤȤĴ褷ƤʹߡɤǤαѸѤϷ³ƤĤƤΤ褦ʥꥹɸѸؤƴݤĥɿͤϸäƤ
(4) English in independent India: planning and use (20th century)
ʤѤä415θ줬ѤƤ륤ɤǤϡʣ¿Ѥ꤬ߤ롥Τʤ22θ줬ϰѸȤǧƤ롥ܤθȤƤϥҥǥ줬ѸȤơѸ줬ѸȤƻꤵƤ롥Ωľˤ϶Ȥƥɤ줬졤Ѹ̤ɬװȤݻΤΡϻѤʤʤäƤ٤ΤͽƤ¤ˤ֤ŪȤ꤬ꡤȤΩŪΩˤѸλѤߤޤ뤳ȤϤʤäߤǤϥҥǥ줬ͥǤϤ뤬㤤DZѸΥХ̤ȤʤäƤƤꡤ֥ɤѸפȤȤ館äƤƤ롥
Sharma, Devyani. "Second-Language Varieties: English in India." Chapter 132 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2077--91.
ܥ֥ǤѸ (waseieigo) ˤĤ͡ʳ٤ƤDZѸ줬2ȤѤ졤ѸǤƸ˼ޤƤǡѸΤۤˡ֡ѸפʤΤѻ줿ȤƤԻĤϤʤºݡä4ˤ錄äƱѸդäƤɤѤ륤ɱѸ (Indian English) ΤƤߤȡְѸפȤ٤ɽ¿Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥Sharma (2087) ꡤĤƤߤ褦
ޤɤɽѸǤ˰ܤؤ (loan_translation) ʤ (calquing) ˤѸ줬롥äƤʤȱӤؤ open hair ȸƤꡤ֤äȴƻ롦Ĥפΰ̣ to stand on someone's hand ȤѤꤹ륱
ȤȤʤɽˤʤ˱ѸǤѤ¤줷Τ⤢롥eve-teasing ʥϥˡprepone 롤夲ˡrevert back ʥåֿˤʤɤϡˤѸ餷ߤ뤬ʤȤɸѸǤѤʤprepone ʤɤϷȤ٤ǡɸѸ postpone ʱ롤겼ˤǥȤȿդƬ֤Ǥ롥ɸѸǤϤʤѤʤΤȵդԻĤ˻פäƤޤۤɡŪˤ̣Ūˤʬ䤹
ɱѸ˸¤餺 ESL (English as a Second Language) ˤƤϡ¿쾯ʤ줳μΡ֡ѸפȤ٤ɽϤդƤ˰㤤ʤޤܥ֥Ƿ֤夲Ƥ褦ˡѸˤˤƤֱסֱסֱʩפɽ̤߽Ф졤ѤƤcf. #4101. Ѹޤפεåȡ ([2020-07-19-1])ˡźܿȤǤϡ֡פθݤӤäΤǤϤʤ
ʤ֡Ѹפɽ魯ѸѸä¸ߤʤ˺äƤߤ "indigenised English expressions" ȤäȤѸʤ "indigenised English expressions in Japan(ese)"Ѹʤ "indiginised English expressions in India(n English)" դϤ
Sharma, Devyani. "Second-Language Varieties: English in India." Chapter 132 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2077--91.
եꥫեꥫ¹ȥ⥶ӡ˰Ϥޤ줿Φ Swaziland ʥ兩ɡˤ (King Mswati III) ȯĤˤꡤ̾ eSwatini ʥƥˡˤѤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤBBCεȡˡ
ιϡ֥եꥫΥפȤΤ⸶ǡ130ͤʤ롥90%ХȥϤΥ兩²ǡ兩ʥƥ; Swazi, SwatiˤäѸϥ兩ȤȤ˱Ѹ줬ѤƤ롥19ꡤꥹΥ̱ϤܡͤΰϤ줾ݸäܡ1902ǯ˥ꥹ̳ΤȤʤäǤŪ֤졤¸³1960ǯΥեꥫΩ˻ɷ1968ǯ˥兩ɲȤΩ֥ե2ĺΩȤʤä1986ǯѼ褤Фơॹƥ3¨̤зߤĤĸߤ˻롥Ϣˮ˲Ƥʡ#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡŪˤؤΰ¸٤⤫äΩ衤кѤȯŸ¸٤㤯ʤäƤȤHIVΨ⤤ʤɿƤǤ⤢롥

ѸȤδطǤСѸ줬Ѹ1ĤȤƺѤƤΤǡESLǤ롥#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1]) Ǽ褦ˡѸѤ5ͤۤɤȿפƤ롥αѸѼϡ#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤESL EFL ŪʡѼȤ롥ˤĤƤϡEthnologue Swaziland ȡ
ޤιȤˤĤƤϡBBC Swaziland country profile Swaziland chronological profile ʤɤȡ
Ϣοٹեꥫ¹αѸˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#407. եꥫ¹ Afrikaans ([2010-06-08-1])#1703. եꥫο̱ˤȹ ([2013-12-25-1]) ɤ
̾ϤǤ륤ҥޥ仳̮ϼΥ (Darjeeling) 絬Ϥʥȥ饤3³Ƥ롥٤ƤबĤޤäƤꡤ6̤ϺǯƱ1ۤɤˤȤɤޤꡤ»ۤ45ԡ76ߡˤȤȤȼ˽ưǽ̱˻˴ԤФƤ롥

Ȥطʤˤ̱²ȸ꤬롥ͥѡ˶ᤤˤϥͥѡ (Nepal) ȤͥѡϽ̱¿٥뽣Ωơ֥륫ɽפƤ褦Ȥ뱿ư1980ǯ夫³Ƥ롥غǯ5٥뽣ܤθѸǤ٥ (Bengali) ζ̳ȸɽǤϼ˥ͥѡѸ줬Ƥꡤ̱ϤΥ٥ζȿȯ6絬ϤʥȤϤȤ櫓ܤɬűȤϼޤäƤʤ
Υꥢ̱²˴ؤƹäΤϰǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥ܥ֥ꡤϢĤ褦
(1) #3009. üԿˤȥå252017ǯǡˡ ([2017-07-23-1]) ˤȡ٥24200ͤüԤʤ6̤Ǥ롥
(2) ν̱ȴطοͥѡǤϡͥѡ¤DZѸȤƤ롥#2469. αѸ([2016-01-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡͥѡǤ700ͤۤɤѸ2 (ESL = English as a Second Language) ȤäƤꡤ#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1]) 1ĤǤ롥
(3) ɤθ¿Ϥ褯ΤƤ롥#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) ǤߤȤꡤ445ۤɤθʤ롥¿ؿ 0.940 ⤤
˥塼ɤ3000km⤫֥å (Cook Islands) ϡ˥塼ɤȼͳϢȤ༫Ǥ롥̾ϡCaptain Cook 1773ǯˤν˾ΦȤˤʤࡥ1888ǯ˥ꥹ°ΤȤʤä塤1901ǯˤϥ˥塼ɤ°ΤذܹԤ1965ǯ17٤οꡤ8٤ݥͥϤΥåޥ²Ǥ롥åޥȱѸ줬Ȥ˸ѸȤʤäƤ롥ʲϿޤǺܡʹޤϡ#2215. NiueѸѸȤƤĺǾιʺǿǡˡ ([2015-05-21-1]) ȡˡ

Avarua Τ Rarotonga 400kmۤɤΤȤˡPalmerston Island Ȥ礬⤫Ǥ롥ǤϡΩΤ褯ΤƤ Palmerston English ȸƤФѸѼ郎äƤ롥Trudgill (100) εҤڤ褦
Palmerston English is spoken on Palmerston Island (Polynesian Avarau), a coral atoll in the Cook Islands about 250 miles northwest of Rarotonga, by descendants of Cook Island Maori and English speakers. William Marsters, a ship's carpenter and cooper from Gloucestershire, England, came to uninhabited Palmerston Atoll in 1962. He had three wives, all from Penrhyn/Tongareva in the Northern Cook Islands. He forced his wives, seventeen children and numerous children to use English all the time. Virtually the entire population of the island today descends from the patriarch. Palmerston English has some admixture from Polynesian but is probably best regarded as a dialectal variety of English rather than a contact language.
¾åδܾϡCIA: The World Factbook ˤ Cook Islands̳ʤΥååǡȡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#2469. αѸ([2016-01-30-1]) ˰³ϥեꥫαѸοפˤĤơGramley (307, 309, 311) "Anglophone Southern African countries", "Anglophone West African countries", "Anglophone East African countries" ɽǺܤ褦 * *
| country | significant UK contact | colonial status | independence | total population | English speakers | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| percentage | total number | |||||
| Botswana | 19th century | 1885 | 1966 | 1,640,000 | --38% | 630,000 |
| Lesotho | protectorate | 1966 | 1,800,000 | --28% | 500,000 | |
| Malawi | 1878 | 1891 | 1964 | 13,000,000 | --4% | 540,000 |
| Namibia | 1878 | 1920 (S. Afr.) | 1990 | 1,800,000 | --17% | > 300,000 |
| South Africa | 1795 | 1795 | 1910 | 47,850,000 | > 28% | 13,700,000 |
| Swaziland | 1894 | 1902 (UK) | 1968 | 1,140,000 | --4.4% | 50,000 |
| Zambia | 1888 | 1924 | 1953, 1964 | 13,000,000 | --15% | --2,000,000 |
| Zimbabwe | 1890 | 1923 | 1953, 1980 | 13,300,000 | --42% | 5,550,000 |
| Cameroon | 1914 | 1916 | 1960 | 18,500,000 | --42% | 7,700,000 |
| Gambia | 1661, 1816 | 1894 | 1965 | 1,700,000 | --2.3% | 40,000 |
| Ghana (formerly gold coast) | 1824, 1850 | 1874, 1902 | 1957 | 23,480,000 | --6% | 1,400,000 |
| Liberia | USA 1822 | none | 1847 | 3,750,000 | --83% | 3,100,000 |
| Nigeria | 1851 | 1884, 1900 | 1960 | 148,000,000 | --53% | 79,000,000 |
| Sierra Leone | 1787 | 1808 | 1961 | 5,800,000 | --83% | 4,900,000 |
| Kenya | 1886 | 1895, 1920 | 1963 | 39,000,000 | --9% | 2,700,000 |
| Tanzania | 1880s | 1890, 1920 | 1961 | 42,000,000 | --11% | 4,000,000 |
| Uganda | 1860s | 1888, 1890 | 1962 | 31,000,000 | --10% | 2,500,000 |
In most of these countries a kind of indigenization or nativization is currently taking place, a process in which the domains of the language are expanding and in which increasingly endonormative standards are becoming established for usages which were once stigmatized as mistakes. This is opening the way to wider use of English in creative writing and to the institutionalization of local forms in schools, the media, and government . . . . English may well still be far from being a language of the emotions among the vast majority of its users; indeed, the institutionalization of English may be making it ever more difficult for those without English to close the social gap between "the classes and the masses." All the same, English is more and more firmly a part of everyday linguistic experience.
"New Englishes" λѤ˴ؤ˼ҲŪʻˤĤƤϡ#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) Ȥ줿ޤեꥫαѸΤĤϰˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1])#514. Nigeria ˤѸΰ֤Ť ([2010-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤΤǡGramley αѸ˳ѥ˥ꡤβPDFեΤʤ "colonial expansion into West Africa" εͭѡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
αѸˤĤƤϡʲε¾Ǽ夲Ƥ
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENL, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#273. αѸ ([2010-01-25-1])
#375. ENLESL οΨ ([2010-05-07-1])
#759. 21ιϢͽ¬ ([2011-05-26-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#1590. ѸνѼ ([2013-09-03-1])
#1593. եԥαѸ (2) ([2013-09-06-1])
Ѹ̤ꤦǡѸüԤ˴ؤפϽפʰ̣ġ͡ʸ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥ Gramley (313, 314) "Anglophone South Asian countries" "Anglophone Southeast Asian countries" ɽɥåΤ *
| country | significant UK contact | beginning of colonial status | independence | total population | English speakers | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| percentage | total number | |||||
| Bangladesh | 1690 | 1858 | 1947 | 162,000,000 | --2% | 3,500,000 |
| India | 1600 | 1858 | 1947 | --1.2 billion | > 20% | > 230,000,000 |
| Nepal | none | 25,000,000 | > 25% | 7,000,000 | ||
| Pakistan | 1857 | 1858 | 1947 | 164,000,000 | --11% | 18,000,000 |
| Sri Lanka | 1796 | 1802 | 1948 | 20,000,000 | --10% | 2,000,000 |
| Singapore | 1819 | 1867 | 1965 | 5,000,000 | --80% | --4,000,000 |
| Hong Kong | 1841 | 1842 | 1997 | 6,900,000 | --36% | 2,500,000 |
| Philippines | USA: 1898 | 1898 | 1946 | 97,000,000 | > 50% | 50,000,000 |
| Malaysia | 1786 | 1795 | 1957, 1963 | 27,000,000 | --27% | 7,400,000 |
ε ([2015-06-03-1]) ˰³ޥ륿αѸˤĤơޥ륿 ESLǤȤäƤ⡤ɤʥꥢΤ褦ŵŪ ESLȤϰۤʤꡤĤðäƤ롥衼åѤ˰֤ESLǤ뤳ȡ衼åѤͣѼαѸĤȤϺεǿ줿̤Mazzon (593) Ϥ˲ä3ޥ륿θðŦƤ롥Ȥ櫓ꥢȤ diglossia Ĺˤȥޥ륿Ωˤβ⤬פǤ롥
There are various reasons for the peculiarity of the Maltese linguistic situation: 1) the size of the country, a small archipelago in the centre of the Mediterranean; 2) the composition of the population, which is ethnically and linguistically quite homogeneous; 3) its history previous to the British domination; throughout the centuries, Malta had undergone various invasions, its political history being intimately connected with that of Southern Italy. This link, together with the geographical vicinity to Italy, encouraged the adoption of Italian as a language of culture and, more generally, as an H variety in a well-established situation of diglossia. Italian has been for centuries a very prestigious language throughout Europe, since Italy has one of the best known literary traditions and some of the oldest European universities. Maltese is a language of uncertain origin; it was deeply "restructured" or "refounded" on Semitic lines during the Arab domination, between 870 and 1090 A.D. It has since then followed the same path as other spoken varieties of Arabic, losing almost all its inflections and moving towards analytical types; the close contact with Italian helped in this process, also contributing large numbers of vocabulary items.
ߤΥޥ륿ȱѸ2ѾطʤˤϡåʸȤƤαѸؤοƶᴶ롥¿ESLϰˤơѸФ븫ɬŪȤϸ¤ʤޥ륿ǤϾۤʤäƤ롥ˤϡ̱ "integrative motivation" ͿƤȤ
The role of this integrative motivation must always be kept in mind in the case of Malta, since the relative cultural vicinity and the process through which Malta became part of the Empire made this case somehow anomalous; many Maltese today simply deny they ever were just a "colony"; young people seem to partake in this feeling and often stress the point that the British never "invaded" Malta: they were invited. There is a widespread feeling that the British never really colonialized the country, they just "came to help"; the connection of the Maltese people with Britain is still quite strong, not only through the British tourists: in many shops and some private houses, alongside the symbols of Catholicism, portraits of the British Royal Family are proudly displayed on the walls. (Mazzon 597)
Τˡޥ륿ESLϰΤʤǤðۤ¸ߤΤ褦Ǥ롥ޥ륿θʱѸ˻ϡҲ˸Ū˶̣Ǥ롥
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
ޥ륿¹ (Republic of Malta) ϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ衼åǤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ιǤ롥Ʊ衼åѤǤϢˮ˽°ƤǤ⤢ (cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡ˥衼åѤͣȤäƤ褤ѼαѸ줬äƤǤ⤢롥ޥ륿ȱѸȤζ̩ʴؤˤϡ1814ǯʻ礵줿ȤŪطʤ (cf. #777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1])ˡŪˤŪˤ⡤¾ ESL ϰȤϰۤʤäƤȤܤͤ뤬ޥ륿αѸˤĤƤξܤϤޤ긫ʤϢʸ1ɤൡäΤǡ˴Ťƥޥ륿αѸάҤ
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[S]ince the year 1950, the most important steps in language policy have been in the direction of the promotion of Maltese and of the extension of its use to a number of domains, while English has been more and more widely learnt and used for its importance and prestige as an international language, but also as a "fashionable, chic" language used in social gatherings and as a status symbol . . . .
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
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