Ѹ (world_englishes) ¿ȤСɸΤ褦ıѸѼ郎äȤƤäʤ3;ñ̾λѤˤƷŪ˽ζ̤ĤʤѼĤޤɸѸΤ褦 he she ʤ itˤζ̤ΤˤĤʤѼ郎ΤǤ롥
㤨С쥢եꥫѸޥ졼ѸǤϡФлؼоݤˤ餺3;ñ̾ѤȤMesthrie and Bhatt (55--56) ꡤطսѤ롥
Gender has proved --- despite its minor role in English --- susceptible to variation in New Englishes. Some varieties use gender in pronouns differently. Platt, Weber and Ho . . . report that in some New Englishes where the background languages do not make a distinction between he, she and it, pronouns 'are often used indiscriminately'. They offer the following examples:
41. My husband who was in England, she was by then my fiancé. (East Africa)
42. My mother, he live in kampong. (Malaysia)
Since Bantu languages do not make sex-based distinction with pronouns, and the spoken forms of the Chinese languages of Singapore and Malaysia do not differentiate gender in 3rd person pronouns . . . , substrate influences may well be at work here.
ɸѸΤߤΤäƤԤˤȤäơ϶ä٤ݤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸˤ椷ƤԤˤȤäƤϡޤää٤ȤǤϤʤѸǤϡˤ뤬Ф he Ȥ3;ñ֤̾ؼ뤫Ǥ롥ˤҤɤʡ˾ˤϡʤʣ;̾Ʊ he ɽ蘆줿ꤹ롥Ѹξˤϡ̣Ūζ̤ξüǤϤʤޤǷŪʹȤˤ̤ĤʤʤäȤȤǤꡤ嵭쥢եꥫѸޥ졼ѸΥȤϻ𤬰ۤʤΤָ World Englishes ϹפȶˡŪʱѸѼޤפȶǤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ŪˤХɱѸ䥤ɱѸΤ褦 "indigenised Englishes" ϡظȱѸȤθܿӸ (language_shift) η̤ȤѼǤꡤѸȤΰŪʴطݤƤȤ롥ʥ Saramaccan Τ褦 "English creoles" ϡѸȤθܿȤƤ뤬ǤѸȤľܤΰŪʴطΤʤѼȤ (cf. #463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1]))
嵭 indigenised Englishes English creoles 椵ݤνλǤ롥פ˥쥪ܿ㳰ŪʥȤȤ館ΩɽŪԤȤ Thomason and Kaufman Ƥ
ǯǤ indigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤ϡθĥ褦ܼΰ㤤ǤϤʤ٤ˤʤΤǤϤʤȤäƤƤ롥Τ褦ʸѤ Winford (196) ˼褦
This recognition has led to a growing rapport between the study of the New Englishes and the study of English-lexicon creoles in the last couple of decades. It has given impetus to an earlier tradition of research concerned with the relationship between the two types of contact Englishes, which dates back to the 1980s . . . . The links between the two fields have more recently been reaffirmed in the work of scholars . . . . It is now generally acknowledged that the creation of the New Englishes shares a great deal in common with creole formation, with regard to both the socio-historical circumstances and the processes of change that were involved. The challenge facing us is to show how these two dimensions of language shift---the socio-historical and the linguistic---interact in the emergence of contact varieties. On the one hand, the diversity of outcomes that resulted from the spread of English to various colonies provides support for Thomason and Kaufman's claim that 'it is the sociolinguistic history of the speakers, and not the structure of their language, that is the primary determinant of the linguistic outcome of language contact' (1988: 35). At the same time, the emergence and evolution of contact Englishes supports the view that different outcomes are also constrained by the same principles and processes of change that operate in shift situations generally. All of this suggests that the division between 'indigenized English' and 'creoles' is essentially an artificial one, since we find diversity within each group and significant overlap between the two.
Winford ˤȤäƤϡindigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤٤ǤꡤѤκǸˤ̤ꡤŪʶʬˤʤ褦Winford Ϥ1θ塤Schneider "Dynamic Model" ȤƵ³ƤΥǥˤĤƤϡ#4497. ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ Schneider Dynamic Model ([2021-08-19-1]) ȡ
Winford, Donald. "World Englishes and Creoles." Chapter 10 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 194--210.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ε#4501. αѸѼˡ --- McArthur "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥ ([2021-08-23-1]) ˰³Ʊ "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥǤϤ뤬 Görlach 1988ǯ1990ǯȯɽСǤ McArthur 1991ǯʸ (p. 20) ǿƤΤ

McArthur ΥǥȯۤѤʤ٤ŤƱߤƤΤħǤ롥¦鳰¦˸äơ"International English", "regional/national standards", "subregional ENL---ESL semi-standards", "dialects, ethnic E (creoles), semi-/non-standards" ȹäƤΤ˳¦ "pidgins (creoles), mixes, related languages" ΰ褬ߤƤ롥
褦 McArthur Υǥ˸줿Ƚϡ褽 Görlach ǥˤƤϤޤ롥㤨СƱߤκդ Tamil E Butler E ¤Ǥ뤬Τ褦ϰѼȼҲѼʤ˴ŤԥˤΤŬڤʤΤޤŪʴޤƤ餺Ūʥǥ˽ߤƤ뤭餤⤢롤
ѸѼ (model_of_englishes) ƤȤ館褦Ȥߤ¿ɡĹûꡤʣʸ¤줤ȤΤϻζȤǤ롥
Görlach, M. Studies in the History of the English Language. Heidelberg: Winter, 1990.
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (1991): 12--21.
ѸѼˡȤŪ줿ǥ1Ĥ "Hub-and-Spokes" ǥ뤬롥͡ʱѸѼ狼鹽ƱߤοޤؤΥϥ֤ȥݡ˸ΩƤХǥΥǥˤ⤤ĤΥС뤬McArthur 1987ǯʸ ("The English Languages?", 11) ΤƤߤ1991ǯʸ ("Models of English", 19) ˺ƷǤƤޤƸ롥

ΥǥˤĤơMcArthur ("The English Languages?", 11) ϼΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
The purpose of the model is to highlight the broad three-part spectrum that ranges from the 'innumerable' popular Englishes through the various national and regional standards to the remarkably homogeneous but negotiable 'common core' of World Standard English.
McArthur ȤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡΥǥϤޤǤȤƤ줿ΤǤꡤ͡뤳Ȥͽۤ롥ºݡǤȽŪʥȤä뤳ȤǤ롥ġѼʬϤ̤ǹΤBBC English Norn Ʊ֤ƤΤϤΤǤϤʤޤ Australian English Tok Pisin ꡥܼŪ䤤Ȥơ⤽˿Ƥ "World Standard English" ȤΤϸ¤¸ߤΤ
οޤΤȤ World English ƤȤˤĤƤϡMcArthur ("The English Language", 10) ϡֵŪʻ¡פǤɾƤ롥
Within such a model, we can talk about a more or less 'monolithic' core, a text-linked World Standard negotiated among a variety of more or less established national standards. Beyond the minority area of the interlinked standards, however, are the innumerable non-standard forms --- the majority now as in Roman times, with all sorts of reasons for being unintelligible to each other. There is nothing new in this, and it is a state of affairs that is unlikely to change in the short or even the medium term. In the distinctness of Scots from Black English Vernacular, Cockney from Krio, and Texian from Taglish, we have all the age-old criteria for talking about mutually unintelligible languages. Nonetheless, all such largely oral forms share in the totality of World English, and can be shown to share in it, however bafflingly different they may be. This is a paradox, but it is also a fact.
McArthur, Tom. "The English Languages?" English Today 11 (1987): 9--11.
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (1991): 12--21.
#4492. αѸѼˡ --- Gupta 5ס ([2021-08-14-1]) #4493. αѸѼˡ --- Mesthrie and Bhatt 12ס ([2021-08-15-1]) ѸѼˤĤ2ĤθҲ𤷤¾ˤ͡ʥǥ뤬ꡤmodel_of_englishes Ǽ夲ƤǯäȤŪʥǥȤСSchneider ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ "Dynamic Model" 2001ǯ夲Ƥǥǡ乭ĤĤ롥ΥǥιҤΤˡSchneider (47) ΰʲʸϤѤ롥
Essentially, the Dynamic Model claims that it is possible to identify a single, underlying, fundamentally uniform evolutionary process which can be observed, with modifications and adjustments to local circumstances, in the evolution of all postcolonial forms of English. The postulate of some sort of a uniformity behind all these processes may seem surprising and counterintuitive at first sight, given that the regions and historical contexts under investigation are immensely diverse, spread out across several centuries and also continents (and thus encompassing also a wide range of different input languages and language contact situations). It rests on the central idea that in a colonization process there are always two groups of people involved, the colonizers and the colonized, and the social dynamics between these two parties has tended to follow a similar trajectory in different countries, determined by fundamental human needs and modes of behaviour. Broadly, this can be characterized by a development from dominance and segregation towards mutual approximation and gradual, if reluctant, integration, followed by corresponding linguistic consequences.
ΥǥˤäƤϡطʤˤ뤤ĤǤˤĤƤɬפ롥Schneider (47--51) ꡤɤվȴФƤߤ褦
Ρ4ĤΡˡ˼Ҳؤ
1. Language contact theory
2. A "Feature pool" of linguistic choices
3. Accommodation
4. Identity
Ρ2ĤΥߥ˥̮
1. The "Settlers' strand"
2. The "Indigenous strand"
Ρ4ĤΡˡ˼ҲŪȸŪȯŸδط˴ؤǡ
1. The political history of a country
2. Identity re-writings of the groups involved
3. Sociolinguistic conditions of language contact
4. Linguistic developments and structural changes in the varieties concerned
Ρ5ĤŵŪʳ
1. Foundation
2. Exonormative stablization
3. Nativization
4. Endonormative stabilization
5. Differentiation
Schneider ΥǥŪŪǤꡤλˡ Keller θʤȤ롥塤ɤΤ褦˵ŸƤڤߤǤ롥
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
ε#4492. αѸѼˡ --- Gupta 5ס ([2021-08-14-1]) ˰³αѸѼˡˤĤơ World Englishes ȤХܤ路 Mesthrie and Bhatt (3--10) ˤ12פؤʬҲ𤷤Ʊ͡Schneider (44) ͳƼ
(a) Metropolitan standards (i.e. the "respected mother state's" norm as opposed to colonial offspring, i.e. in our case British English and American English as national reference forms).
(b) Colonial standards (the standard forms of the former "dominions," i.e. Australian, New Zealand, Canadian, South African English, etc.).
(c) Regional dialects (of Britain and North America, less so elsewhere in settler colonies).
(d) Social dialects (by class, ethnicity, etc.; including, e.g. Broad, General and Cultivated varieties in Australia, African American Vernacular English, and others).
(e) Pidgin Englishes (originally rudimentary intermediate forms in contact, and nobody's native tongue; possibly elaborated in complexity, e.g. West African Pidgin Englishes).
(f) Creole Englishes (fully developed but highly structured, hence of questionable relatedness to the lexifier English; e.g. Jamaican Creole).
(g) English as a Second Language (ESL) (postcolonial countries where English plays a key role in government and education; e.g. Kenya, Sri Lanka).
(h) English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (English used for external and international purposes; e.g. China, Europe, Brazil).
(i) Immigrant Englishes (developed by migrants to an English-dominant country; e.g. Chicano English in the United States)).
(j) Language-shift Englishes (resulting from the replacement of an ancestral language by English; possibly, like Hiberno English, becoming a social dialect in the end).
(k) Jargon Englishes (unstable pre-pidgins without norms and with great individual variation, e.g. South Seas Jargon in the nineteenth century)
(l) Hybrid Englishes (mixed codes, prestigious among urban youths; e.g. "Hinglish" mixing Hindi and English).
Ѹʻѡˤˡϰ̡ǽ4ĤΥѥȤ߹碌ʬȤ롥ºݤ¸ߤʤˤȤѸѼ夷Ƥ봶롥ϳ餵ʬȤ櫓ǤϤʤʬǤϡʣΥƥˤޤäƽ°Ƥޤ褦ʱѸѼ⤢ΤǤϤʤ
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
Ѹ (World Englishes) ǥ벽ߤϡ͡ˤʤƤܥ֥ model_of_englishes γƵǾҲ𤷤Ƥ̤Ǥ롥Ūʿޤɽǥ뤬¿ʤǡҲ𤹤 Gupta ˤǥñʥꥹȤǤ롥αѸѼ5פʬषƤ롥Schneider (44) Gupta ǥξҲʬѤ롥
Gupta (1996) proposed five types of variety settings, based on whether English is embedded in multilingual nations and on how it originated in a given country (with "ancestral" indicating settler transmission, "scholastic" denoting contexts in which formal education was important, and "contact" characterizing more mixed and creolized varieties):
"Monolingual ancestral English" (e.g. United States, Australia, New Zealand).
"Monolingual contact variety" (e.g. Jamaica)
"Multilingual scholastic English" (e.g. India, Pakistan)
"Multilingual contact variety" countries (e.g. Singapore, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea).
"Multilingual ancestral English" (e.g. South Africa, Canada)
Ϳѥ2Ĥ1ܤ¿ѤΤʤǤαѸѤݤ2ܤϡαѸʻѡˤεüԤΰܽˤΤˤΤ캮ˤΤȤ߹碌ˤŪˤ6פѼ郎̤뤬ºݤˤ "Monolingual scholastic English" ΤϤʤ㤨СܤαѸ춵餬ȯŸܸüԤߤʱѸظؤʤС "Monolingual scholastic English" ʬव뤳ȤˤʤʤꤽˤʤäǤϤ뤬ˡ
绨ĤǤϤ뤬˼ҲŪʴˤ븫̤Τ褤ˡȤ롥
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
Gupta, A. F. "Colonisation, Migration, and Functions of English." Englishes around the World. Vol. 1: General Studies, British Isles, North America. Studies in Honour of Manfred Görlach. Ed. by E. W. Schneider. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1997. 47--58.
ΤĤιϰˤϡѸüԤǤ뤬θѸ졤θ졤̸ʤɤȤƹѸѤƤ͡롥Τ褦ʹϰ ESL (English as a Second Language) ϰȸƤФƤ롥¤ ESL ϰϡ餯¿ɼԤפäƤʾˡ˹ʬۤƤ롥 Trudgill and Hannah (127--28) ˰͵ ESL ϰѤƤߤ
In the Americas, English is an important second language in Puerto Rico, and also has some second-language presence in Panama. In Europe, in addition to the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland where English is spoken natively, English has official status in Gibraltar and Malta and is also widely spoken as a second language in Cyprus. In Africa, there are large communities of native speakers of English in Liberia, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya, but there are even larger communities in these countries of second-language speakers. Elsewhere in Africa, English has official status, and is therefore widely used as a second language lingua franca in Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zambia, Malawi and Uganda. It is also extremely widely used in education and for governmental purposes in Tanzania and Kenya.
In the Indian Ocean, Asian, and Pacific Ocean areas, English is an official language in Mauritius, the Seychelles, Pakistan, India, Singapore, Brunei, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Guam and elsewhere in American-administered Micronesia. It is also very widely used as a second language in Malaysia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Nepal and Nauru. (In India and Sri Lanka, there are also Eurasian native speakers of English.)
ϰ¿ǤϡɸѸǤϤʤ岽ȼαѸ (indigenised English) ȯŸƤߤȯŸ³Ƥ롥 "New Englishes" ȤΤ졤äƤѸ¿Ͳ˹Ƥ롥
θ̤ ESL ϰѼˤĤơܥ֥Ǽ夲ƤΤ¿Τǡesl εȤ櫓ʲε⤴Ȥ
#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1])
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#2469. αѸ ([2016-01-30-1])
#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1])
#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])
Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.
¿¿ͤ¸ߤѸѼɤΤ褦˥ǥ벽ƤȤ館뤫Ѹ (World Englishes) ˶ʬ뤫Ȥϡ¿ιͻƤܥ֥Ǥ model_of_englishes γƵǼ夲Ƥǥ뤽켫Τ¿¿ͤǤ롥
ǤΤƤΤϡ#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) ˤ Kachru ƱߥǥǤ롥ENL (English as a Native Language) αߤˤȤơμϤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ˼ EFL (English as a Foreign Language) ֤Ƥǥ줾 Inner Circle, Outer Circle, Expanding Circle ȤΤ롥
ΥǥϤȤƤʬ䤹̤ˤƤ뤬Ȥϰ¿Schreier (2117--19) ε˰͵ޤȤƤ
(1) 㤨եꥫ¹ŵŪ ESL ϰȤ뤬ƱοΤ ESL ŪʱѸѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤɤǤϤ뤬ѸüԤ⤤뤷뵡Τʤʤ̿͡ϱѸäʤESL EFL ȤäʬϡѸѤФ븽¤ˤ¸ߤʤͤʽȤƤޤäƤ롥
(2) Τɤ줯餤γο͡ѸäƤСESL ϰǤȸƤ٤ΤñʿǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥षѸѤμҲˤɤΤ餤礵Ƥ뤫ȤҲŪפʤΤǤϤʤҲΤɤؤѸ褯ѤɤؤޤѤʤΤιθɬפ
(3) Kachru ǥϡENL, ESL, EFL Ȥäʬƥꥫ뤫ѤǤȤΩäƤ뤬ϸ¤ȿǤƤʤ㤨ХɱѸϡߤǤ ENL ϰȤƤߤʤƤ뤬Ūˤϥɸ줫θؤФƤΤǤꡤβϴˤäƤ ESL ϰȸƤ֤Τդ路äޤ˥ϥꥹΩ她ҥŪʸȤƺѤ̤ȤƱѸ¸ߴΩ⾮ʤäƤ뤬ϥ˥ ESL ϰ褫 EFL ϰؤȰ֤ŤѤƤȤȤǤϤʤ
פˡKachru ǥϰμҲŪΰ䥫ƥꥫѤζʬȤƤ뤬ºݤˤϾϰͤǤϤʤʬ⤽ۤΤǤϤʤȤȤѤ⤹롤ȤȽäȥʥߥåǽ٤ǥ뤬ɬפ
ʥߥåإǥȤƤϡ㤨С#414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ ([2010-06-15-1]) #1096. Modiano Ʊߥǥ ([2012-04-27-1]) ƤƤ롥ޤϢơ#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
Schreier, Daniel. "Second-Language Varieties: Second-Language Varieties of English." Chapter 134 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2106--20.
ˤ͡ʱѸѼ郎ꡤҤä World Englishes New Englishes ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿䥢եꥫˤŪʷаޤ ESL (English as a Second Language) Ѽ郎¿¿ΥեꥫѼ˶̤Ƹ뱤ΧħĤŦƤ롥Ǥ2褦1Ĥ "syllable-timing" ȸƤФꥺ (rhythm) ⤦1Ĥϸζ (stress) ΰ֤˴ؤ뷹Ǥ롥ʲ Mesthrie and Bhatt (129) ȤƲ⤹롥
syllable-timing Ȥϡꥺδθ1ĤǡɸѸ줬 stress-timing ֤ΤǤ롥Ԥϲʥ⡼ˤֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡܸե줬Ԥ϶ֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡɸѸɥĸ줬cf. #1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])ˡ
եꥫϤνˤ syllable-timing ĤΤ¿δؤξ˾äƤ ESL Ѽˤ syllable-timing ΥꥺबۤȤȤ㤨СɷեꥫѸ졤ͷեꥫѸ졤쥢եꥫѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ʱѸ졤ɱѸ졤ѥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤եԥѸʤɤ syllable-timing Υꥺħ̤ħȤơѼˤϡ첻ˤ첻ŪƤݤȤ⤢롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥϡsyllable-timing ΥꥺϤ̣ǤͥȤäƤ褤
Ѽˤϡζ˴ؤƤⶦ̤Ƥߤ뷹롥ФɸѸȤϰۤʤ֤˶֤뤳Ȥrealíse Τ褦˶֤¦˴ΤȤ櫓¿롼ѸʤɤǤ adólescence Τ褦˺¦˴Τߤ롥ޤѼǤɸѸ ábsent (adj.) absént (v.) Τ褦ʡʻˤäƶ֤ư븽 (diatone) ϤߤʤȤ
ŪˤСظαƶβDZΧε§άΤȤäƤ褤ܸüԤˤȤäơͥױΧħǤꡤŸˤܤƤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
źΡѸˤơ3ñưϤɤΤ褦˶ޤƤΤĹ餯ɤƤǡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤ 3sp γƵǼ夲Ƥ
#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1])
#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1])
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1])
#2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1])
#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])
ߤΡѸˤƤϡ3ñθϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (66--67) εҤޤȤƤ
3ñ -s ȥؤ륱ϡ¿𤵤Ƥ롥ʥꥢѼ쥢եꥫѼϤᡤꥫǥѼѼɷեꥫѼեꥫѼեԥѼ (e.g. He go to school.)ݡѼʿѼʤɤ롥
ɸѸȿФԤ̣Ѽ⤢롥ñǥȤʤꡤʣ -s ȤʬۤꥫǥѼΤʤǤ⥤쥿²Ѽ (Isletan) ǤϡΤ褦ʸ㤬ǧȤ
there are some parties that goes on over there.
Some peoples from the outside comes in.
All the dances that goes on like that occur in the spring.
The women has no voice to vote.
Maybe the governor go to these parents' homes.
About a dollar a day serve out your term.
This traditional Indian ritual take place in June.
By this time, this one side that are fast have overlapped.
The governor don't take the case.
쥿²ѼƱͤηʿѼǤǧȤ (e.g. They drink and they makes a lot of noise.)
ɸѸεդԤѼʸˡ⤢̣ǤϹŪȤ롥줬ñǤм̾ˤҸưˤ -s 줺줬ʣǤФˤ -s ղäȤǰӤƤ뤫Mesthrie and Bhatt (66) ϡηϤ "-s plural symmetry" ȸƤǤ롥
"-s plural symmetry" Ѽ inherent variety ʤΤ뤤üԸĿͤɸѸʤɤɸȤƲ꽤 (hypercorrection) ̤ӸݤʤΤϡĴԤʤФʤʤޤѼ郎ɤŪ Northern Present Tense Rule (nptr) Ū̴طΤɤ⿵Ť˸ƤʤФʤʤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ߡǸϲѸ줬ѤƤꡤΤ "Englishes" ȸƤФƤ롥Franglais, Singlish, Taglish ʤɤ̾ΤƤΤ¿"nativized Englishes" 뤤 "hybrid Englishes" Ȥ롥"nativized Englishes" "hybrid Englishes" Ȥ2ĤθƾΤδ֤ˤϡ̯ʥ˥奢ΰ㤤롥Gramley (360) "hybrid Englishes" ˤĤơΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
Hybrid Englishes are forms of the language noticeably influenced by a non-English language. Examples include Franglais (French with English additions), Spanglish (ditto for Spanish), Singlish (Singapore English --- with substrate enrichment), TexMex (English with Spanish elements), Mix-Mix (Tagalog/Pilipino English), which may be more English (Engalog) or more Tagalog (Taglish). Such Englishes do not have the extreme structural change typical of pidgins and creoles. Rather, the non-English aspect of these hybrids depends on local systems of pronunciation and vocabulary. Marginally, they will also include structural change. The are likely, in any case, to be difficult for people to understand who are unfamiliar with both languages. In essence hybrid forms are not really different from the nativized Englishes . . .; the justification for a separate term may best be seen in the fact that hybrids are the result of covert norms while nativized Englishes are potentially to be seen on a par with StE.
"nativized Englishes" "hybrid Englishes" ܼŪˤƱΤؤȹͤƤ褤ԤҲˤɸѸƱ뤤Ϥ˽ऺͤĤȤߤʤƤѼްդΤФơԤϤΤ褦ʲͤ⤿ʤѼްդ롥#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) #2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1]) ǻȤäѸǤСԤ endonormative ѼԤ exonormative ѼؤȤäƤ褤뤤ϡԤϰҿȷӤĤ overt norms η̤ǤꡤԤķȷӤĤ covert norms η̤ǤȤ⤤롥ޤκۤϡɸѸʤ Standard English) äɸѸʤ General English) ΰ㤤ȤʿŪǤ褦˻פ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
γȤŪŸϡѸȱѸ̤̤뤳ȤΤǤʤȥԥåǤαѸ˾ΰյˤĤơ饤 (HTML) ˤޤȤƤߤޤɤȤƤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ޤ
ȯŸ
(1) Ѹɸಽϲ岡ơѸˡֵῴϡפ⤿餷ǡ
(2) Ѹ¿ͲѸˡֱϡפ⤿餷
ߤ̤αѸΤδäۤ
ܺ٤ϳơΥڡܥ֥εƼؤΥ˭٤ĥäƤޤ
1. γȱѸ
2.
3. (1) ȯŸ
4. Ϣǯɽ (#777, #1377, #2562)
5. (2) Ѹεῴ --- ɸಽϲ
6. ɸಽȵϲ
7. 18εϼ
8. ʸˡȯ
9. ʸˡ
10. (3) Ѹα --- ͡ʱѸ
11. ͡ʱѸѼ
12. ѸѼνʬˡ
13. 21ῴϤȱϤΤ礤
14. ޤȤ
15. ʸ
¾Ρ֤ޤȤ饤ɡפȤơ#3058. ֱѸˤˤ¤ΰյפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-09-10-1])#3068. ֽפȱѸˡפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-09-20-1])#3089. ֥ꥫΩȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-11-1])#3102. ֥ꥹȶȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-24-1])#3107. ֥ΥޥȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-29-1])#3121. ְѤȯȱѸפΤޤȤ ([2017-11-12-1]) ɤ
ܤʸˤʤɤꥢԡ뤷ꤹݤˡȤƱѸѤ٤Ȥȯۤϡ̤ǤϤʤȤ̱²Υǥƥƥ˴ؤѸΤ褦 lingua_franca Ѥȯ뤳ȤϡܤǤΤȡ侩٤ȤȹͤƤ롥
¾ϰǤϤɤäˡեꥫ䥢¿֤Ƥƿ̱Ϥο͡ιȤ̱²Υǥƥƥ˸ڼ¤ɽȻפȤȤƵ콡ι줿ѸѤȤȤϡ̷ޤǤϤʤƱȤϡƿ̱Ϥʤ餺Ȥ⡤äαѸѼȤѤƤ륫ֳϰʤɤˤƤϤޤ롥ºݡΥޤϡܡʿ͡ˤˤȤäƤ̵ǺߤξʤϰǷ㤷ŪȤʤäƤǤʸɽԤǤʸŤˤơϤȤǮ
Crystal (279--80) ꡤΥޤȤιˡܼˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥս
The problem is greatest for poets, novelists, and dramatists in the newly independent nations, where there is often considerable antagonism towards English, seen as a symbol of colonial oppression. The dilemma is acute. Should they use the 'enemy's' language, with all the alien awkwardness that comes with the use of a second language for literary expression, in order to achieve an international audience? Or should they use their mother tongue, for which they have an immediate sensitivity, but which will place severe constraints on their potential readership? The solution, many writers maintain, is to concentrate on developing the English of their own region, making it into a language which belongs to them, and with which they can identify. 'Our method of expression', wrote the Indian author Raja Rao, 'has to be a dialect which will some day prove to be as distinctive and colorful as the Irish or the American . . . The tempo of Indian life must be infused into our English expression.' And the call for new Englishes, personal, evocative, and dynamic, has been echoed by second-language writers around the world, in South-east Asia, East and West Africa, and by first-language writers in Jamaica, South Africa, and New Zealand.
ΤäȤơɿͤλ Kamala Das μѼŪʱѸѤƤߤ褦 (Crystal 280)
. . . I am Indian, very brown, born in
Malabar, I speak three languages, write in
Two, dream in one. Don't write in English, they said,
English is not your mother-tongue. Why not leave
Me alone, critics, friends, visiting cousins,
Every one of you? Why not let me speak in
Any language I like? The language I speak
Becomes mine, its distortions, its queernesses
All mine, mine alone. It is half English, half
Indian, funny perhaps, but it is honest.
It is as human as I am human, don't
You see? It voices my joys, my longings, my
Hopes, and it is useful to me as cawing
Is to crows or roaring to the lions . . .
The Old Playhouse and Other Poems (1973)
ϡɸѸܻؤῴϤ¿ͲѸѼαϤ븽ˤơ٤ʴפǥåγʹȤʤ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
ǯѸѼؤδؿ⤯ܥ֥Ǥ world_englishes new_englishes ȤΤȤǡ ͡Ѽ˿ƤϡBayley ˤ "Latino Varieties of English" ꤹʸʤȤϾҲˤ˽äơꥫˤƥꥫϰ̱Ȥλ¹ѤѸѼ "Latino English" ˤĤơñ˽Ҥ٤褦
ǿפǤϤʤ2004ǯλǡƹΥƥꥫϿ40,424,000ͤۤɤǤꡤˤΤ14%롥βȾϲǥڥѤ³ƤȤǤѸΤߤäľ20ǯۤɤδ֤¤ƤƤȤBayley (522) ˰ѤƤ Brodie et al. 2002ǯפˤС̱1ˤͤǤϼȤƥڥΤߤä礬72%ǰݤƤ뤬2Ǥ47%Ѹ졦ڥΥХǤꡤˤۤƱȤƱѸäȤ3ʹߤˤʤȡ1Ⱦž78%ȤƱѸѤȤ롥Ĥޤꡤƥꥫϥꥫͤ2ʹߤȤƱѸ褦ˤʤäƤꡤäѼαѸ줬 "Latino English(es)" ȸƤФΤǤ롥ѼϡڥȤͤѸǼ interlanguage Ȥϰۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
Latino English ˤʣѼ郎̤뤬Bayley ˤС̤ηŪϤۤɿʤǤʤȤ̡2Ĥμ礿ѼǤ "Chicano English" "Puerto Rican English" ȤƤ롥Chicano English ϡȤƥե˥ barrio ʥƥꥫϵサˤʹѼǤ롥Puerto Rican English ϼȤ New York City ޤ쳤ߤʹ롥Ѽ⡤ǯƥꥫϿꥫdz礷Ƥ뤿ᡤ嵭ϰʳǤʹ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥㤨СChicago, Georgia, North Carolina ʤɤǤϡƥꥫϿäǤ롥
ѼθŪħȤƤϡظȤƤΥڥθ̤ͿƤȹͤΤ뤬ƥꥫϱѸѼʿŪħ⸫졤ظ줫αƶɾϿŤˤʤʤФʤʤषPuerto Rican English ǤϡŪ be ˡϢ (copula) ηǡ3ñ -s ηǡ˴ؤơAAVE αƶȸƤ롥
塤¿¿ͤʥƥꥫϿ礷ưܿεƤͽۤ뤬ƥꥫϱѸѼγơϤɤΤ褦ȯŸɤ뤳ȤˤʤΤġХХȯãΤ뤤1Ĥ "pan-Latino English" ȸƤ٤褦Ѽ郎ȯã뤳ȤˤʤΤưꤿ
ϢȤơ#256. ƹ Hispanification ([2010-01-08-1])#1657. ꥫαѸѸ첽ư ([2013-11-09-1]) ȡ
Bayley, Robert. "Latino Varieties of English." Chapter 51 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 521--30.
#2469. αѸ([2016-01-30-1]) ˰³ϥեꥫαѸοפˤĤơGramley (307, 309, 311) "Anglophone Southern African countries", "Anglophone West African countries", "Anglophone East African countries" ɽǺܤ褦 * *
| country | significant UK contact | colonial status | independence | total population | English speakers | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| percentage | total number | |||||
| Botswana | 19th century | 1885 | 1966 | 1,640,000 | --38% | 630,000 |
| Lesotho | protectorate | 1966 | 1,800,000 | --28% | 500,000 | |
| Malawi | 1878 | 1891 | 1964 | 13,000,000 | --4% | 540,000 |
| Namibia | 1878 | 1920 (S. Afr.) | 1990 | 1,800,000 | --17% | > 300,000 |
| South Africa | 1795 | 1795 | 1910 | 47,850,000 | > 28% | 13,700,000 |
| Swaziland | 1894 | 1902 (UK) | 1968 | 1,140,000 | --4.4% | 50,000 |
| Zambia | 1888 | 1924 | 1953, 1964 | 13,000,000 | --15% | --2,000,000 |
| Zimbabwe | 1890 | 1923 | 1953, 1980 | 13,300,000 | --42% | 5,550,000 |
| Cameroon | 1914 | 1916 | 1960 | 18,500,000 | --42% | 7,700,000 |
| Gambia | 1661, 1816 | 1894 | 1965 | 1,700,000 | --2.3% | 40,000 |
| Ghana (formerly gold coast) | 1824, 1850 | 1874, 1902 | 1957 | 23,480,000 | --6% | 1,400,000 |
| Liberia | USA 1822 | none | 1847 | 3,750,000 | --83% | 3,100,000 |
| Nigeria | 1851 | 1884, 1900 | 1960 | 148,000,000 | --53% | 79,000,000 |
| Sierra Leone | 1787 | 1808 | 1961 | 5,800,000 | --83% | 4,900,000 |
| Kenya | 1886 | 1895, 1920 | 1963 | 39,000,000 | --9% | 2,700,000 |
| Tanzania | 1880s | 1890, 1920 | 1961 | 42,000,000 | --11% | 4,000,000 |
| Uganda | 1860s | 1888, 1890 | 1962 | 31,000,000 | --10% | 2,500,000 |
In most of these countries a kind of indigenization or nativization is currently taking place, a process in which the domains of the language are expanding and in which increasingly endonormative standards are becoming established for usages which were once stigmatized as mistakes. This is opening the way to wider use of English in creative writing and to the institutionalization of local forms in schools, the media, and government . . . . English may well still be far from being a language of the emotions among the vast majority of its users; indeed, the institutionalization of English may be making it ever more difficult for those without English to close the social gap between "the classes and the masses." All the same, English is more and more firmly a part of everyday linguistic experience.
"New Englishes" λѤ˴ؤ˼ҲŪʻˤĤƤϡ#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) Ȥ줿ޤեꥫαѸΤĤϰˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1])#514. Nigeria ˤѸΰ֤Ť ([2010-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤΤǡGramley αѸ˳ѥ˥ꡤβPDFեΤʤ "colonial expansion into West Africa" εͭѡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
αѸˤĤƤϡʲε¾Ǽ夲Ƥ
#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])
#215. ENL, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1])
#273. αѸ ([2010-01-25-1])
#375. ENLESL οΨ ([2010-05-07-1])
#759. 21ιϢͽ¬ ([2011-05-26-1])
#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])
#1590. ѸνѼ ([2013-09-03-1])
#1593. եԥαѸ (2) ([2013-09-06-1])
Ѹ̤ꤦǡѸüԤ˴ؤפϽפʰ̣ġ͡ʸ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥ Gramley (313, 314) "Anglophone South Asian countries" "Anglophone Southeast Asian countries" ɽɥåΤ *
| country | significant UK contact | beginning of colonial status | independence | total population | English speakers | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| percentage | total number | |||||
| Bangladesh | 1690 | 1858 | 1947 | 162,000,000 | --2% | 3,500,000 |
| India | 1600 | 1858 | 1947 | --1.2 billion | > 20% | > 230,000,000 |
| Nepal | none | 25,000,000 | > 25% | 7,000,000 | ||
| Pakistan | 1857 | 1858 | 1947 | 164,000,000 | --11% | 18,000,000 |
| Sri Lanka | 1796 | 1802 | 1948 | 20,000,000 | --10% | 2,000,000 |
| Singapore | 1819 | 1867 | 1965 | 5,000,000 | --80% | --4,000,000 |
| Hong Kong | 1841 | 1842 | 1997 | 6,900,000 | --36% | 2,500,000 |
| Philippines | USA: 1898 | 1898 | 1946 | 97,000,000 | > 50% | 50,000,000 |
| Malaysia | 1786 | 1795 | 1957, 1963 | 27,000,000 | --27% | 7,400,000 |
ε ([2015-06-03-1]) ˰³ޥ륿αѸˤĤơޥ륿 ESLǤȤäƤ⡤ɤʥꥢΤ褦ŵŪ ESLȤϰۤʤꡤĤðäƤ롥衼åѤ˰֤ESLǤ뤳ȡ衼åѤͣѼαѸĤȤϺεǿ줿̤Mazzon (593) Ϥ˲ä3ޥ륿θðŦƤ롥Ȥ櫓ꥢȤ diglossia Ĺˤȥޥ륿Ωˤβ⤬פǤ롥
There are various reasons for the peculiarity of the Maltese linguistic situation: 1) the size of the country, a small archipelago in the centre of the Mediterranean; 2) the composition of the population, which is ethnically and linguistically quite homogeneous; 3) its history previous to the British domination; throughout the centuries, Malta had undergone various invasions, its political history being intimately connected with that of Southern Italy. This link, together with the geographical vicinity to Italy, encouraged the adoption of Italian as a language of culture and, more generally, as an H variety in a well-established situation of diglossia. Italian has been for centuries a very prestigious language throughout Europe, since Italy has one of the best known literary traditions and some of the oldest European universities. Maltese is a language of uncertain origin; it was deeply "restructured" or "refounded" on Semitic lines during the Arab domination, between 870 and 1090 A.D. It has since then followed the same path as other spoken varieties of Arabic, losing almost all its inflections and moving towards analytical types; the close contact with Italian helped in this process, also contributing large numbers of vocabulary items.
ߤΥޥ륿ȱѸ2ѾطʤˤϡåʸȤƤαѸؤοƶᴶ롥¿ESLϰˤơѸФ븫ɬŪȤϸ¤ʤޥ륿ǤϾۤʤäƤ롥ˤϡ̱ "integrative motivation" ͿƤȤ
The role of this integrative motivation must always be kept in mind in the case of Malta, since the relative cultural vicinity and the process through which Malta became part of the Empire made this case somehow anomalous; many Maltese today simply deny they ever were just a "colony"; young people seem to partake in this feeling and often stress the point that the British never "invaded" Malta: they were invited. There is a widespread feeling that the British never really colonialized the country, they just "came to help"; the connection of the Maltese people with Britain is still quite strong, not only through the British tourists: in many shops and some private houses, alongside the symbols of Catholicism, portraits of the British Royal Family are proudly displayed on the walls. (Mazzon 597)
Τˡޥ륿ESLϰΤʤǤðۤ¸ߤΤ褦Ǥ롥ޥ륿θʱѸ˻ϡҲ˸Ū˶̣Ǥ롥
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
ޥ륿¹ (Republic of Malta) ϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ衼åǤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ιǤ롥Ʊ衼åѤǤϢˮ˽°ƤǤ⤢ (cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡ˥衼åѤͣȤäƤ褤ѼαѸ줬äƤǤ⤢롥ޥ륿ȱѸȤζ̩ʴؤˤϡ1814ǯʻ礵줿ȤŪطʤ (cf. #777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1])ˡŪˤŪˤ⡤¾ ESL ϰȤϰۤʤäƤȤܤͤ뤬ޥ륿αѸˤĤƤξܤϤޤ긫ʤϢʸ1ɤൡäΤǡ˴Ťƥޥ륿αѸάҤ
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[S]ince the year 1950, the most important steps in language policy have been in the direction of the promotion of Maltese and of the extension of its use to a number of domains, while English has been more and more widely learnt and used for its importance and prestige as an international language, but also as a "fashionable, chic" language used in social gatherings and as a status symbol . . . .
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
Mesthrie and Rakesh (12--17) ˡ"INTEGRATING NEW ENGLISHES INTO THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE COMPLEX" ꤹϤꡤWorld Englishes 뤤 New Englishes ȤŪʻαѸˤΤȤ館Ƥꡤ
ѸγȻϡͭ˰鸽ߤޤǡ4Ĥ crossings ˤʹԤƤȤ1 crossing ϡ5ȾФޥ̱²֥ƥϤäƤΰܽάؤʳ顤ݥȥ˥뤢뤤ϥݥȥ۵褦ʣαѸѼ¿֡ܿǤ¸ߤƤʣαѸѼȤƤϡ²²塼²ʤɤδ֤̱²Ѽζ̤ܽ餫餢äܽϰѼҲѼȯãߤ줿¿֤ӸܿȤƤϡظȤƤΥȸαƶظȤƤΥƥȤܿ˵ظȤƤθťΥɸȤκʤɤŦ롥ȥˤäƤϡ1000ǯ˱Ѹ˾ƽդɸबȯŸ³ΥޥˤषοϡѸɸѼ "the first decline" ȸƤ٤ (13)
2 crossing ϡѸ1164ǯ Henry II ɤݤΡѸγȻؤΤȤѸ줬ɤذܿ줫̤ȤƤ夹뤳ȤϤʤäषɤο̱ԤϥɤƱƤ椭Ѹ⼺줿ܤϡ#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) Ȥ줿
Ѹ줫ѸˤơѸ˾2ܤνդɸಽưɤˤȯɸѼϡʹߡߤ˻ޤǡѸˤøŪϰ̤Ƥ20äƤΥꥫѼȯŸˤꡤޤ20Ⱦߤ褦ˤʤäɸѼ狼æ뷹ѼĹˤꡤøŪϰ̤Ū˲äƤƤ롥ϰ̤㲼ϡɤδߤСѸɸѼ "a second decline" (16) ȸƤ٤"a second decline" ˤƤϡ"the first decline" ΤȤΤ褦ɸѼ綠ΤΤ䤨櫓ǤϤʤȤդϤޤ¸ߤ³ƤꡤꥫѼ䤽¾ѼȤδ֤Ūϰ̤㲼ƤȤˤʤ
ǡѸʹߤϡˤϤο̱ϻۤŸƤѸγȻˤĤƤϡ#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ϤȤơܥ֥Ǥ¿夲ƤѸϤΥꥹʤȥꥫˤηǤ뿢̱ϼΤȤǡΥ뤳ȤˤʤäΥˤϡȤƤαѸѼ郎üԤȤȤ˰ܿ줿 ("colonies of settlement") ⤢СкŪŪȤ뿢̱ϻۤˤƱѸ줬2Ȥƽ줿 ("colonies of exploitation") ⤢äԤ the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, St. Helena, the Falklands ʤɤΤ ENL ϰ衤Ԥϥեꥫ䥢Τ ESL ϰбʡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) ӡ#409. ̱ϲͼǤߤ World Englishes ʬ ([2010-06-10-1]) ȡˡƤο̱ϻۤäƤʤݸΤȤƤϰ̤и Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq ʤɤǤϡESL EFL ŪʱѸѼ郎ߤ롥ޤ20ʹߤϱƤο̱ϻۤˤľŪˤϷиƤʤȤ⡤ܡϤϤǡEFL 뤤 ELF ȤƤαѸѼ郎ؤФƤ롥ǤϡѸüԤοưɬȼʤѸ4 crossing äƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤѸ˾ơѸȤ줬üԤ̤ΰưȼ鷺˳ȻƤΤ
Ѹ˾4Ĥ crossings ˤϤ줾˰㤤ߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ݥȥ4 crossing ռǡ crossings ֤ȡѸ˵ҤΤοƶΤǤϤʤλ¤ϡꥹˤ˴ѤȤ̤Ȥ롥
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
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