ε#5274. 19ΥɱѸ椹յ ([2023-10-05-1]) Ǽ夲Ѹˤ Görlach ˤ19ɱѸƬˤϡ19ȤѸ˾ζڤˤϡä˼ҲŪŪʺ櫓ǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥̤ (DeKeyser) ˤСϼ1ĤΥԡǤ1795ǯ Murray ˤʸˡȡ⤦1ĤΥԡǤ1906ǯ Fowler ˤ King's English ˶ޤ줿ȤŤƤϤ褦ղε̣Ϥ (Görlach 5)
ȤϤGörlach Ȥ⡤19ΥɱѸ椹ݤǰƬˤƤ٤̶ʬƤ뤷ϢҲʸŪʽŦƤ롥̶ʬȤơĹ19פ4ʬƤ (6)
1776--1800 William Pitt's coalitions; the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution; the separation of the United States; the colonization of Australia and occupation of Ceylon and Malta; the start of the Romantic Movement; th end of Irish independence; 1800--1830 The final phase of the Hanoverian reign, predating the great reforms; Napoleonic wars and the Regency; Romantic poetry; 1830--1870 The great reforms; the Chartist movements; the heyday of capitalist industrialism; the expansion of literacy and printed matter; increased mobility as a consequence of railways; 1870--1914 Late Victorian imperialism and the last phase of global 'stability'; general education; modern communication.
嵭β̶ʬȤ̤ˡ19˵äҲŪʴްդΤάǯɽηǼƤ (6) ⻲ͤޤǤ˵Ƥ
1824 the repeal of the Combination Acts; 1828 the emancipation of the Nonconformists; 1832 the First Reform Bill, which can be seen as a triumph of the middle class; 1833 the first important Factory Act restricting child work; 1834 the abolition of slavery; 1834 the Poor Law Amendment Act; 1838--48 the Chartist movement; publication of the People's Charter; 1846 the repeal of the Corn Laws; 1855 the final repeal of the Stamp Act of 1712 (making cheap newspapers available); 1867 the Second Reform Bill (1 million new voters) and Factory Acts; 1870 the Elementary Education Act (establishing compulsory education in the 1870s); 1884--5 the Third Reform Bill (2 million new voters)
Τ褦άǯɽį19ɤϼͳȤȤƤ褯ʬ롥λϡѸȤ줬Ū˳礷ƤǤȤȤˡǤ罰ŸƤäȤȤ館Ƥ褤
Görlach, Manfred. English in Nineteenth-Century England: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1999.
ε#5166. ¼ԡˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ʳҡ2023ǯˡ ([2023-06-19-1]) ǡȯ䤵줿ܤҲ𤷤ޤƱˤĤƤϡYouTube ְʼδѸظإͥפκǿǤ夲Ƥޤ#137. ʸˡ18λȳ̿ٹ뤬طʤ---λܻҤʱѸ졦Ѹ˸ԡˤ---Ǥɤ
YouTube ǤϡƱ4ϡ18ʸˡŪʸŪѲסʻܻҤɮ줿ϡˤθȾεҤ˥ԥ졼ơʤʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ҤƤϵϼ (prescriptivism)18Ȥߥ夬äΤˤĤƤäƤޤºݤˤ͡װΤǤƱϤ˴ŤȤ櫓ȳ̿ (industrial_revolution) ȤȼҲѲܤƤޤܤϡܽɤǤФȻפޤ
4ϤμɮԤǤ뻳ܻҤĻرءˤϡܽνǤˤµޤѸ˳ưhelˤμԤˤơϤԤıԤǤ⤢ޤǯνա2022ǯ46ˤϡ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פˤб餤ޤ#310. ܻȤ̡Ѹ춵ܻؤؤαѸˤΤİܻҤαѸ˸ؤΤ˿դĤġꤴ̽ʡꤤޤ
¼ԡˡҸ סʡ ҡ滳 ü ¼ˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ҡ2023ǯ
711 khelfʷѸ˥եˤˤرѸ˿ʹ2ȯԤ줿Ȥϡ#4824. رѸ˿ʹ2 ([2022-07-12-1]) ǤΤ餻ޤ24̤4αѸ˥ꤵƤޤôԤ碌Ȳ2022ǯ7泰Ȥư̸ޤɤ

伫Ȥ⺣ΥȴϢƤˤĤƵƤޤΤǡʲ˥ĥäƤޤŪˤȤ
ΡQ1 Ƥ뵬ʸˡΩǯˤĤơ
hellog #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])
hellog #2592. Lindley Murray, English Grammar ([2016-06-01-1])
hellog #4753. ֱʸˡפ250ǯۤ˵Ū˺夲줿 ([2022-05-02-1])
YouTube ֱʸˡʤߤʤˤȿͤ18εʸˡȤǤڰʼδѸظإͥ # 19 ۡ
heldio 18ȾФ˱ʸˡ夲 Robert Lowth ȤϤäԡ
ΡQ2 ƤǰλϤޤäǯˤĤơ
hellog #241. Caxton αѸ1475ǯ ([2009-12-24-1])
hellog #297. ѤƳϱѸɸಽʤݤ ([2010-02-18-1])
hellog #871. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ ([2011-09-15-1])
hellog #1312. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ (2) ([2012-11-29-1])
hellog #1385. Caxton ֻɸಽ˹ʤäȹͤ뺬 ([2013-02-10-1])
hellog #3243. Caxton ֻɸಽˤɤΤ褦˹ ([2018-03-14-1])
hellog #3120. ²˱Ѹΰʪ뤳Ȥˤ Caxton ([2017-11-11-1])
hellog #3121. ְѤȯȱѸפΤޤȤ ([2017-11-12-1])
hellog #337. egges or eyren ([2010-03-30-1])
hellog #4600. egges or eyrenʤ egges եȴ㤤ΤǤ礦 ([2021-11-30-1])
heldio #183. egges/eyren륭㥯ȥͭ̾ʰá
ΡQ3 Ƥ뿩̾ˤĤơ
ֱѸ˥ƥ50פ#23. äư
hellog #85. It's time for the meal --- time meal δط ([2009-07-21-1])
hellog #221. dinner ([2009-12-04-1])
ΡQ4 Ƥưʪפ̣ñˤĤơ
ֱѸ˥ƥ50פ#4. deer ̣Ѳء̣ѲѸˤء
hellog #127. deer, beast, and animal ([2009-09-01-1])
hellog #128. deer Ρưʪפΰ̣ϤĤޤǻĤäƤ ([2009-09-02-1])
hellog #1462. animal νǯˤĤơ ([2013-04-28-1])
heldio #117. ưʪפ̣ deer, beast, animal
ι泰ޤرѸ˿ʹ2ˤĤơոۡޤ顤khelf ĥå @khelf_keio ꤪȤΥեꤤޤ
ֱѸ˴ؤʿ (complaint_tradition) ϡѸΤȷݤȤ⤤롥hellog Ǥ#3239. Ѹ˴ؤʿ ([2018-03-10-1])#4596. ֱѸ˴ؤʿפŪѲ ([2021-11-26-1]) ʤɤǤˤĤƹͤƤƤǤϸˡѡѤؤδؿ̤˹⤯#301. ѤȤѸθˡ Top 10 ([2010-02-22-1]) Τ褦ʵ褯롥ְ㤨Ȥǥߥ˥ξ㳲ˤϤʤʤʤˡۤȤɤʤΤΤ褦ʾˤʸפޤƤȤäƤ褤
Horobin κǽ "Why Do We Care?" ˤơΡʸפطʤõäƤ롥ϤĤ뤬礭3褦ɤ롥
(1) ѸüԤϡȤѸԾĹǯդäƤ̡ѸȤʤ˻äȤиĤᡤޤˡѡѤˤĤΩŪʻĤȤǤʤHorobin (153) θդС̤ꡥ
. . . as users of English, it is impossible for us to take an external stance from which to observe current usage. As we have all had to acquire the English language, negotiating its grammatical niceties, its fiendishly tricky spellings, and its unusual pronunciations, it is impossible for us to adopt a neutral position from which to observe debates concerning correct usage.
ñ㲽ƤäƤޤСֻϤʤ˥إƥʸˡФαѸĥäƽƤ顤¾γˤƱϫ̣äƤʤԸʿפȤ˶ᤤ
(2) ˡ˴ؤܡɤʸˡפ˴ؤܤϻԾͤꡤ褯롥ϤΤѲդ˴ؤˤʤѤλ줬С͡ϰ¿ΤǤ롥Horobin (155) ۩
Much of the success of style guides may be credited to society's tacit acceptance that there are rights and wrongs in all aspects of usage, and a desire to be saved from embarrassment. Rather than question the grounds for the prescription, we turn to usage pundits as we once turned to our schoolteachers, in search of guidance and certitude. In a fast-changing and uncertain world, there is something reassuring about knowing that the values of our schooldays continue to be upheld, and that the correct placement of an apostrophe still matters.
(3) ƥʸˡؤοƥ϶ޤ˭٤ʡΩɤʡǤꡤʸˡֻ2ǯΤѤäФơѸ϶ޤäǤꡤʸˡֻ⥫Ǥ롥ѸƥΤ褦ѤФθŪפĤ٤Ǥ롤ȤѡHorobin (162--63) β
Since Latin had not been a living language (one with native speakers) for centuries, it existed in a fixed form; by contrast, English was unstable and in decline. This view of Latin as a unified and fixed entity perseveres today, encouraged by the way modern textbooks present a single variety (usually that of Cicero), suppressing the wide variation attested in original Latin writings. Since the eighteenth century, efforts to outlaw variation and to introduce greater fixity in English have been driven by a desire to emulate the model of this prestigious classical forebear.
3ܤˤĤƤϡѲפª븫ȴϢ롥ˤĤƤϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1])#2543. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ (2) ([2016-04-13-1])#2544. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ (3) ([2016-04-14-1]) ȡֱѸ˴ؤʿפ٤Ѥϡ18εϼλ夫顤ۤȤѤäƤʤ褦
Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
ܸʤѸʤΡʸˡפȤΤϡüԽĤˤΤʤǰ˺夲ߤ˽äƤδǤΰ̣ǤϡܸʤѸʤˤ餫ʸˡפäȤȤϤޤǤ⤢ޤʹֽĤäȤǤϸ̩ˤäƿŪʸˡǤˤϰ㤤ޤۤɰռŪˤ館ʸˡǤϤʤȤʤŪʸˡ餷ΤǤäƤȤθСޤǼȯŪʸˡȤޤ
ФưռޤäƤζˤƤϡʸ̤Ūʸˡ館ȤưФƤޤꥹǤ¾㴳٤ޤ18ޤˤλǤ٤ϤȤưռŪ˺줿ʸˡȤ̣ǵʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ȸƤФޤλˤǤäֵϱʸˡפϰŪ˻ٻ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ˻ޤǡֱʸˡפȤСǥեȤǤλˤǤäƸ˼Ѥ줿ʸˡؤȤȤˤʤäƤޤܤμʸˡ TOEIC αʸˡ⤳Ǥ
Τ褦Ūʻ𤬤äȤƧޤϤɸΤ褦ˡ֡رʸˡ٤250ǯۤ˵Ū˺夲줿פȽҤ٤뤳ȤˤƤޤ䤿ǥեȤƤֱʸˡפȤΤϡ250ǯۤ˥ꥹμ֤ͤͭǡֱʸˡפ尴͡˼줿ִ֤ˡޤ줿ȤäƤǤϤޤĤޤֱʸˡפȤϡ餬ֱʸˡפ夲ִ֤ˤǤäʪȤȤˤʤޤˤϡֱʸˡפϤʤäΤǤ
ո줿 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ19Ƥֱʸˡʤߤʤˤȿͤ18εʸˡȤǤڰʼδѸظإͥ # 19 ۡȤȥǤήǴط̾ˤϤᡤ18εʸˡλäڤӤޤ
ơ YouTube Ƥơäʤäʬ٤κī Voicy Ǥ18ȾФ˱ʸˡ夲 Robert Lowth ȤϤäԡꤷơϢ뤳Ȥäޤεʸˡλˤǽʪ Robert Lowth ȤͤǤ
ܤϡ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) ϤȤ lowth 뤤 prescriptive_grammar γƵ
2 (double_negative) ˤĤƤϡߤ YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥνȤʤäֱѸءפäƤʤˡ--ऺֱѸפֳءפ֤櫓ǤϤޤǤ⾯˼夲
ŪˤСI don't have any money. 뤤 I have no money. ΰ̣ǡI don't have no money. ȸäƤϤʤȤ§ͳϡƱ꼭2ġʰʾˤˤ⤫餺Τΰ̣ȤƤ1ȤΤŪ̷⤷Ƥ뤫ȤȤˤʤ롥
ܥ֥ double_negative ˴ؤ뵭ˤƤ⡤ޤƱ˻䤬 Voicy ΡֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸äְʼ YouTube ϡäǤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡ2ŪˤϢʤ³Ƥ칽¤Ǥ롥
ѸǤ⡤ɸѸ⳰˽ФС2¿ϤǤ㤬äƤ롥㤨 Siemund (619) ѤƤ2Ĥۤɵ褦
Yes, and no people didn't trouble about gas stoves then. (Southeast of England)
We didn't have no use for it noways. (Appalachian English)
ޤŪˤѸѸǤϤ̤츽ݤäѸ줫ȤơSiemund (620) Ƥ1ĵ롥
I thinke ye weare never yet in no grownd of mine, and I never say no man naye.
θϤƤ⡤2Ϥʤ̤ΤȤΤ褦Siemund (620) 206θĴԸȤΤ170θǤλ㤬ǧ줿Ȥ𤷤Ƥ롥ɸѸΤ褦2꤬Τϡ鷺11ΤߤäȤŪˤϡɸѸ쥿פʤΤ
ǤϡʤɸѸϤۤɤޤǤ˴ʤ2ΤºݡϽפʱѸ˾Ǥꡤ͡˵Ƥаޤ롥2꤬褦ˤʤäŪطʤȤƤϡ#2999. ɸѸ줫꤬äͳ ([2017-07-13-1])#4275. 2ŪǺᤷǽεʸˡ Greenwood ([2021-01-09-1]) Ȥ줿
Siemund, Peter. "Regional Varieties of English: Non-Standard Grammatical Features." Chapter 28 of The Oxford Handbook of English Grammar. Ed. Bas Aarts, Jill Bowie and Gergana Popova. Oxford: OUP, 2020. 604--29.
äƤ顤αѸˤǤФȤƤ18ᵬϼλפв褦ˤʤäƤ18ᵬϼλפȤŪѤʤεʸˡȤ٤ϡʬŪˤϵŪ¦̤ʤꤢäߤδ֤˲ٺ⤢äȤä˺ɾʤǤΤǤ롥ηˤĤƤϡ#2815. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (1) ([2017-01-10-1])#2816. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (2) ([2017-01-11-1]) ǿ줿
ŪˤϡRobert Lowth (1710--1787) A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) ǶŪ٤ΤФơ饤Хطˤä Joseph Priestley (1733--1804) The Rudiments of English Grammar; Adapted to the Use of Schools with Observations on Style (1761) DzǵŪ٤Ȥ椵Τä
ԸȤ (100) ˤȡֵʸˡȤ˶ᤤѤͭƤȤ Priestley ⡤ǤǤϡprescriptive comment Ϥ鷺 22 comments Ǥä2ǤǤϡ238 comments10ܰʾäǧƤפȤLowth ܤˤơǤä Priestley εʸˡȤžȤȤˤ⸫롥̤ˡ֥饤Хطפˤäȸ뤬¤ Priestley Lowth ˥饤Х뤷ƤȤȤΤ褦ʻܡp. 98ˡ
Ĥʸˡܤ夲 Lowth Priestley ΰоȤ塤 (108) ϼΤ褦äƤ롥
Lowth Priestly ɮʸˡϡȤ˵ŪǤꡤŪǤäȤϸޤǤʤά͡ŪʻˤĤƤϡŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥǧ줿ʸˡϡʸˡܤˤäưۤʤ뵬ϤŬѤƤǤʤεϤϻѶŪˡˤϾöŪǤäȤܹƤǤLowth ϡط̾ξάˤĤơηǡδ侩ʤĤޤ궯Ū٤Priestley ϴط̾ that λѤˤĤơLowth ˶ŪΩȤäƤư̾ˤĤƤϡξԤȤѶŪ˵ŪʥȤȯƤ뤬ӤФƤϡLowth ϡŪΩPriestley ϡŪΩ줾ȤäΤ褦ˡLowth Priestley ʸˡˤϡʸˡܤФ more proscriptive more descriptive ǤϤʤmore proscriptive less proscriptive Ȥäܺ٤٤ޤȿǤƤ18εʸˡθζ̣1ĤϡʸˡȤθѤ̯õ᤹뤳Ȥˤȸ롥
ҡ2ͤεʸˡȡRobert Lowth Joseph PriestleyסĻرءʹֲʳס10桤2019ǯ93--111ǡ
Ѹ˸ǤϡѸȤ櫓18ɸŪȯƱȿƤ18ȤСλפǤꡤˤĤƤФޤ˵ϼ (prescriptivism) λǤ롥#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) ɽȤơɸŪǵŪȯ뼭ȽǤ줿äɸŪϰҲϿ;ϤʤɤʤȿƤ
ͤƤߤСϼθȤΤϡ֡ȤȯˡѤ٤פȤǤϤʤ֢ȤȯˡѤ٤餺פ⤯Ȥ¿Ĥޤꡤػߤ٤Ȥ֢פɸŪʸɽ路ƤΤȲǤΤǤ롥äΤ뤳ȤϡʤΰŪʸ촷뤳ȤˤĤʤΤǤ롥ʸؾξڵ (evidence) ɥȤưΤɤǤ֤ȤäƤ褤Beal ʸϡޤˤΤɤǤ֤ϪƤƤ롥Beal (345--46) ηѤ褦
I hope that I have demonstrated that, even though the authors of these works [= prescriptive works] were prescribing what they viewed as 'correct' pronunciation, a proto-RP used by educated, higher-class speakers in London, they were often acute observers of the variants which were proscribed. In telling their readers which pronunciations to avoid, they provide us with a record of precisely those non-standard features that were most salient at the time. Such evidence can fill in the gaps in the histories of dialects, provide answers to puzzles such as those surrounding the reversal of mergers, and, perhaps most importantly, can provide time-depth to the 'apparent-time' studies so prevalent in current variationist work.
ʸؤˤƤϾڵ꤬ǽפǤ뤳ȤƹͤƤ롥
Beal, Joan C. "Marks of Disgrace: Attitudes to Non-Standard Pronunciation in 18th-Century English Pronouncing Dictionaries. Methods and Data in English Historical Dialectology. Ed. Marina Dossena and Roger Lass. Bern: Peter Lang,2003. 329--49.
2 (double_negative) 뤤ϤŪ¿ (multiple negative) ϡʸˡˤǺᤵƤǤܤǤcf. #301. ѤȤѸθˡ Top 10 ([2010-02-22-1])ˡŪˤСȤƤϸűѸ줫ΤƤꡤ̣ǽȤƤ꼭ĤĤ̾Ρʤ뤤϶Ĵ줿ˡפä꼭ĤˡǤääơֹפȤŪȯۤʤɡȤȤʤäΤǤ롥λפǤ18˥֡Ȥʤäϼ (prescriptivism) Ȥθʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ˤꡤ2ǡȤƱѸΥˤΤ夬äȤ롥
κǽλųݤͤϡAn Essay Towards a Practical English Grammar (1711) 路 James Greenwood Ǥ롥 Benjamin Franklin ȽȤʸˡʸˡǤ (cf. #2904. Ѹˤˤ Benjamin Franklin ([2017-04-09-1])ˡ1753ǯ ǤȤ p. 182 ˤ "Two Negatives, or two Adverbs of Denying, do in English affirm." ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
θ塤 Greenwood Ρפ¾εʸˡȤˤ⥳ԡ졤γعʸˡˤޤǾäפĤȤˤʤäƶĴƤGreenwood λϤλˤƤ⡤2Ͻ̣Τ˾ѤƤɽǤ롥ɽǤʤСդ˿侩ɽǤʤ˥塼ȥ롤˼夲뤳Ȥʤۤɤʿޤɽˤʤä줬Greenwood ʤȤɿԡˤˤʰǡͥƥʲͤդ줿ȤΤ⡤λνȤϤԻĤǤ롥Horobin (64) ƱݤǡʤƤ롥
As is usual in such works, no support for the claim is offered; it is certainly not based on practice, since double negatives had been common since Old English. A famous instance appears in Geoffrey Chaucer's description of the knight in the Canterbury Tales, who 'nevere yet no vileynye [evi] ne sayde . . . unto no maner wight [person].' Since there are four negatives here (nevere, no, ne, no) a prescriptivist might be inclined to claim that Chaucer is signalling the knight's rudeness, but this is self-evidently not the implication; the incremental build-up of negatives is intended to underline the knight's purity of speech and good manners.
This is not just a quirk of the English language; multiple negation as a form of reinforcement is found in other languages, like French, where 'je ne veux rien' uses both the negative ne and rien 'nothing'---'I don't want nothing'.
ǡGreenwood ʤȤɿԡˤˤʰǡǺᤵ줿ȽҤ٤ΤΡȤϰۤʤ븫 --- ޤǤ2λѤϲФˤʤäƤΤǤϤʤ --- ФƤ뤳ȤոƤˤĤƤϡ#2999. ɸѸ줫꤬äͳ ([2017-07-13-1]) ȡ
Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
ջȤ˴ؤơסʤפɾ뤳ȤӤǤ롥ȴդʤʷϵȯϡ֤դפǤϤʤ֤դפˤ֤פǤϤʤˤ֤ϡפν̤˸ջȤˤϵŪȿƤꡤ˾Ȥ餷ȽǤ櫓
Ūˤ --- ҼŪˤ --- ջȤˡפ¸ߤʤʤפȤܤäȤƤ⡤ϡʤפȤϡष̤ʤפ֤դ路ʤפ˶ᤤȤ¿
Hughes et al. (16) ϸջȤ "correctness" ˤĤơ3̤Ƥ롥
The first type is elements which are new to the language. Resistance to these by many speakers seems inevitable, but almost as inevitable, as long as these elements prove useful, is their eventual acceptance into the language. The learner needs to recognize these and understand them. It is interesting to note that resistance seems weakest to change in pronunciation. There are linguistic reasons for this but, in the case of the RP accent, the fact that innovation is introduced by the social elite must play a part.
The second type is features of informal speech. This, we have argued, is a matter of style, not correctness. It is like wearing clothes. Most people reading this book will see nothing wrong in wearing a bikini, but such an outfit would seem a little out of place in an office (no more out of place, however, than a business suit would be for lying on the beach). In the same way, there are words one would not normally use when making a speech at a conference which would be perfectly acceptable in bed, and vice versa.
The third type is features of regional speech. We have said little about correctness in relation to these, because we think that once they are recognized for what they are, and not thought debased or deviant forms of the prestige dialect or accent, the irrelevance of the notion of correctness will be obvious.
1ΤΤϡѲˤäƤ⤿餵줿ɽतǤ롥ԤޤˤĤݼŪʿرĤ顤ФСʤפȥåƥŽˡʤɤǤ롥¿ϻ֤ȤȤ˸춦ƱΤΤʤǹ졤ˡؤȳʾ夲Ƥ
2ΤΤϡˡΤΤȤϡѤְ̤㤨ƤޤȤregister δΡ֤դ路פȤʬ䤹ӥˤ뤳Ȥ켫ΤʤҤΤȤȤȤƤʬ䤹
3ΤΤϡϰ˴ؤǤ롥ɸѤͽʸ̮ϰθˡѤȤ뤳Ȥ뤬ñϰθˡäʬꡤСջȤȤϤߤʤʤʤ
ǤջȤʤפȻפäȤ줬ҼŪΩ줫ɤΤ褦˲Ǥ뤫Ť˹ͤƤߤȤ⤷
Hughes, Arthur, Peter Trudgill, and Dominic Watt. English Accents and Dialects: An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of English in the British Isles. 4th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2005.
ε#4151. ɸಽȵϲδط ([2020-09-07-1]) ǰѤʸϤΤʤˡAnson ΰѤޤƤAnson ʸϡꥫѸˤ color, humor, valor, honor ʤɤ -or ֻȯŸˤ¾ŪĴǤ롥1740--1840ǯ˥ꥫȯԤ줿ʹΥॵץѤĴη̤ä˿ͤ롥ꥹѸֻ -our Ф륢ꥫѸֻ -or ϡ̤ Noah Webster (1758--1843) θӤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ϤۤɴñǤϤʤʲAnson (47) ˤĴΤޤȤʬǤ롥
Most obvious is the appearance of both -or and -our through the century, but gradual change can be detected from the -our extreme in 1740 to the -or extreme in 1840. Only small and sporadic change occurred around the time of Webster's strongest influence, which suggests that if he did contribute to the dropping of -u, his contribution was slow to take effect.
A key year appears to be 1830 --- after the appearance of Worcester's dictionary and the public attention, during the previous decade, to Webster's and Worcester's battle of dictionaries and spellers. . . .
On the whole, then, the American usage chart shows a slow but steady movement toward the -or spelling. No doubt the movement spilled at least into the first quarter of the twentieth century, when sporadic cases of -our were still to be seen. Aided by later dictionaries, which have looked to usage or other American authorities, the shift to -or is now virtually complete.
ĴɤȡWebster ʤȼԻä Worcesterˤֻؤαƶ1830ǯʹߤ˾Ϥ뤬ŪʱƶȤۤɤǤϤʤäȤ -our -or ؤΥեȤδϡ줫ͥ˿ǯԤʤФʤʤäΤǤ롥Webster ϡեȤοޤȤƤˤȤɤޤäƤȤ
λ㸦椫顤Anson (48) ϸѲɸಽȵϲδط˴ؤ뼡ΰƳФȤƤ롥
. . . usage and authority work mutually and each tends to influence the other and be influenced by it. A highly respected dictionary may influence the way an educated public spells debated words; on the other hand, no authority --- even Webster --- can hope to change a firmly entrenched spelling habit among the general public. The chances are good that, had the public not been moving steadily toward -or forms, we might still be spelling in favor of -our, despite Webster. While Webster may have served as a catalyst for some spelling changes, he was not, for spelling reform, the cause celebre many have assumed. Most of his reforms never caught on. Curiously, spelling reform on a large scale, like Esperanto and other synthetic languages, has never appealed to the public as have changes introduced organically and from within. Proponents of spelling reform argue quite convincingly that their proposals meet a real public need for simplicity, precision, and uniformity; yet often the public allows linguistic changes that work in just the opposite direction. Usage, then, is a highly resistant strain when it comes to 'curing the ills' of the language, and it ultimately determines its own future.
εμݤ˾Ȥ餻СΰƬ "usage" ɸಽȡ"authority" ϲɤؤƤ褤
Anson, Chris M. "Errours and Endeavors: A Case Study in American Orthography." International Journal of Lexicography 3 (1990): 35--63.
ɸϡ#1245. ʣŪβȤƤνȤɸѸȯŸ ([2012-09-23-1])#1246. Ѹɸಽȵϼδط ([2012-09-24-1]) ǤƤǤ롥Ѹξ˴ؤǯͤɤǤȡεϲȤΤϡɸಽٿʤǤʤ¤ϤޤʤΤǤϤʤȤ¿ʤäƤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤϼθ̤ϴ¸ɸಽη˰첡äۤɤΤΤǤꡤɾƤϤʤȤǶɤ Percy (449) ƱݤεŸƤ롥
With increasing precision, scholars have independently established that mid-eighteenth-century prescription more often "reinforced" than "triggered" the stigmatization of specific grammatical variants. Studies of spelling have revealed similar trends. In general, such popular lexicographers as Samuel Johnson . . . and Noah Webster followed rather than established norms: in Anson's words, though "usage and authority work mutually ... no authority---even Webster---can hope to change a firmly entrenched spelling habit" (1990: 48)
In the case of double negation, it seems clear that "natural" standardization preceded explicit prescription. Sociohistorical corpus studies of late medieval English documented that double negation receded from educated usage long before eighteenth-century grammarians condemned it. Key contexts seem to be writing generally and professional language specifically . . . .
ʤƶϤΤĿͤ佸ĤǤ⡤λѼԤΤǤҲ߽ФήܼŪѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ뤤ϾʤȤƶˤϡƱդ롥
ΰѤǿƤ롤"double negation" ¤ϵϼषƤȤŪʻŦˤĤƤϡ#2999. ɸѸ줫꤬äͳ ([2017-07-13-1]) ȡ
Percy, Carol. "Attitudes, Prescriptivism, and Standardization." Chapter 34 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Oxford: OUP, 2012. 446--56.
Anson, Chris M. "Errours and Endeavors: A Case Study in American Orthography." International Journal of Lexicography 3 (1990): 35--63.
Merriam-Webster ΥȤ "A Word on 'Descriptive' and 'Prescriptive' Defining" ꤹ뵭ɤ˴ؤ뵭Ҽ (descriptivism) ȵϼ (prescriptivism) Ūʬ䤹ƤܸˤѸˤ衤Τ褦ŪΤפȥꥫʸջȤΤȻפ碌롤줿Ȼפʸ˾äΩȡ̤Ǥ롥
Descriptivism reflects how words are actually used.
Prescriptivism dictates how words ought to be used.
ʤɤ˸ؤѸؤʬƳݤˡĤΤϡޤˤεҼȵϼζ̤뤫Ȥ¸롥ǯ֤ʸˡؤǤơǤ⸽ʸʸʸˡؤǤʤΤߤʤ餺̤ο͡ˤˤȤäơϼλߤȤȤϼǤꡤƤǤ⤤롥äȤСαѸǤʻαѸǤ⡤ջȤˤϡؤƱͤˡΤΤȿǤ롥ʸˡʤȯʤ˽вȡɤƤ⤽줬꤫ȤǸƤޤΤΤ褦˵ϼŪʸˤɤäפ꿻äƤޤäƤ뤿ˡ줬ȤʤäơҼλդߤȤؤ§ȤƺΤäƤΩʤ뤳ȤΤ⤷ʤؤϵϼǤϤʤҼΩΩäƤ롥ޤϡä뤳ȤפǤ롥
ǯαѸˤΤ褦ˡ˼ҲŪȯۤѶŪ˼ؤʬˤƤϡդФ뵬ϼȯãյΤΤͻоݤˤȤΩäƤƤ롥еϼΤΤҤƤȤߤޤҼȵϼȤϼ¤Ϣ³ΤǤꡤ٤ˤʤȤƶФ褦ˤʤäƤ
ҼȵϼϡʲεǤͤƤʲγơ뤤εåͳǡƹͻƤ餤
#747. Ҥȵϡ ([2011-05-14-1])
#1684. ʸˡȵʸˡ ([2013-12-06-1])
#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1])
#2630. ϼѸˡʵҡˤ礹뤳ȤˤĤơ ([2016-07-09-1])
#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1])
#3047. ؼԤȵϼԤäɬס ([2017-08-30-1])
#3323. ֤ȤФεϰռϡưǤס ([2018-06-02-1])
Cockney ȯȤΤ h-dropping ˤϡŪطʤ롥ѲȯֻδطüѡҲŪɾʤ͡ʴͻɬפꡤѸ˸ˤƺǤä1ĤȤäƤ褤ܥ֥Ǥ h γƵǰäƤȤ櫓#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1899. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (3) ([2014-07-09-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1]) Ȥ줿
h-dropping ؤ (stigmatisation) ޤäΤ17ʹߡä˵ϼǤ18ΤȤǤ롥ֻɸಽˤäƸ츻Ū <h> 경ȯˤƤб /h/ ¸٤ǤȤϤ줿h ϡɸŪֻ츻μʡᶵܡˤ̵ͭ¬롤ҲŪʥȥޥȤƤεǽΤǤ롥
Minkova ˤСλΩĥͥˡΤȯ h ޤ८ꥷ줫μѸ줬̤ήƤȤ⡤h-dropping ̵ܤϢ뤳Ȥ˹Ȥ#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡΤ15--17ˤϥꥷγؽѸ줬¿ѸήθäϹ⤤ܤȶӤĤƤꡤֻȯ h ޤޤƤ뤫ɤΤäƤ뤳ȤϡοͤζܤХȤʤꥷѸ¸ߤϡ17ʹߤ h-dropping ȽΤΩƤȤ櫓ѸŪդ줿ƶ٤ŦȻפMinkova (107) Ѥ롥
Orthographic standardisation, especially through printing after the end of the 1470s, was an important factor shaping the later fate of ME /h-/. Until the beginning of the sixteenth century there was no evidence of association between h-dropping and social and educational status, but the attitudes began to shift in the seventeenth century, and by the eighteenth century [h-]-lessness was stigmatised in both native and borrowed words. . . . In spelling, most of the borrowed words kept initial <h->; the expanding community of literate speakers must have considered spelling authoritative enough for the reinstatement of an initial [h-] in words with an etymological and orthographic <h->. New Greek loanwords in <h->, unassimilated when passing through Renaissance Latin, flooded the language; learned words in hept(a)-, hemato-, hemi-, hex(a)-, hagio-, hypo-, hydro-, hyper-, hetero-, hysto- and words like helix, harmony, halo kept the initial aspirate in pronunciation, increasing the pool of lexical items for which h-dropping would be associated with lack of education. The combined and mutually reinforcing pressure from orthography and negative social attitudes towards h-dropping worked against the codification of h-less forms. By the end of the eighteenth century, only a set of frequently used Romance loans in which the <h-> spelling was preserved were considered legitimate without initial [h-].
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ϤϤסָθפतνŸʽŤͤȤСˤϡѸǤ "redundancy", "pleonasm", "tautological expression" ʤɤȸڤ롥Usage and Abusage "TAUTOLOGY" ιܤβˡμζ礬ȵƤ롥ĹꥹȤ⤷Τǰʲ˰Ѥ褦
adequate enough, and etc., appear on the scene, ascend up, at about (e.g. 3 p.m.), attach together, attached hereto, both alike, burn down and burn up, classified into classes, collaborate together, connect together and connect up, consolidate together, continue on and continue yet, co-operate together, couple together, debate about (v.), descend down, discuss about, divide off and divide up, drink up and drink down, early beginnings, eat up, enclosed herewith (or herein), end up, equally as, file away (commercially), final completion, final upshot, finish up (v.t. and v.i.), first begin, flood over, follow after, forbear from, forbid from, free, gratis, and for nothing, fresh beginner, from hence, from thence, from whence, funeral obsequies, gather together, good benefit, have got (for 'have' or 'possess'), hoist up, hurry up, important essentials, in between, indorce on the back, inside of, join together, joint co-operation, just exactly, just merely, just recently, lend out, link together, little birdling, meet together, mention about, merge together, mingle together, mix together, more inferior, more preferable, more superior, mutual co-operation, necessary requisite, new beginner, new creation, new departure and entirely new departure, new innovation, not a one, (it) now remains, open up (v.t.), original source, outside of, over again, over with (done, ended, finished), pair of twins, past history, peculiar freak, penetrate into, plan on (v.), polish up, practical practice, (one's) presence on the scene, proceed on(ward), protrude out, raze to the ground, really realize, recall back, reduce down, refer back, relax back, remember of, render a return, renew again, repay back, repeat again, repeat the same (e.g. story), (to) rest up, retire back, return back, revert back, revive again, rise up, seldom ever, (to) separate apart, settle up, shrink down and shrink up, sink down, steady on!, still continue, still more yet, still remain, study up, sufficient enough, swallow down, taste of (for taste, v.), termed as, than what, this next week, twice over, two halves (except when from different wholes), two twins (of one pair), uncommonly strange, unite together, used to (do something) before, we all and you all, where at, where to, whether or not, widow woman, young infant
ʤۤɤȻפΤ⤢뤬ΩƤۤɤǤʤ䡤츻̩˲ᤷ츻ˡ⤢ (cf. #720. ȥåŪȥݥȤƤθ츻 ([2011-04-17-1])) Ȥ meet together ʤ together ȼ㤬¿ưˤΰ̣ޤƤ뤫ɤưΡ˰̣ǤꡤҸؤΩ줫ϡ̣̻ŪѲƤʤ뤤϶ŪѰۤƤˤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥ϤϵϤǤȤΤǧˤ衤ǵҤϵҤȤΩ⤢뤳ȤϲƤ
ξĹɽϡŪˤ̵̤¿ȤȤˤʤ뤬ŪˤϤθ̡ʶĴǰۣ椵βʤɡˤôäƤꡤ켫Τ¸߰յʤȤΤϸȤäơǧƤ櫓ǤϤʤҲŪˤϥƥޤȼᡤѤŪˤϿ侩ʤȤäƤΤŪʤȤդϰŪˤɾǤʤʪʤΤ
Partridge, Eric. Usage and Abusage. 3rd ed. Rev. Janet Whitcut. London: Penguin Books, 1999.
2֤ε ([2019-08-24-1], [2019-08-25-1]) ˰³Wittgenstein θѤˤĤơWittgenstein 쥲 (Sprachspiel, language-game) ȤȤ館ȤˤäơηŪ椬ԲǽǤ뤳ȤƤȹͤ롥쥲ȸ츦ԲǽϤɤΤ褦˷ӤĤΤ (206--08) ιͻѤ褦
ȥ奿ϤʤΤ褦˹ͤΤεФ餫ǤϤʤĤͳʤȻפΡˤ仡뤳ȤϤǤ롥
ȥ奿ϸѤˤʤ館ƹͤΡ쥲פȤɽ¿Ѥ롥㤨Сָ쥲ˤ֤פȤĤϤä̾ؤƤΤס̾ؤȤϤǤϸ쥲ˤưǤϤޤäʤסȤ쥲ȸΤ٤Ƥ˶̤벿ĤΤΡʤ쥲ܼʤɤȤΤϡˤСʤΤǤ롥ˡ͡ʸ쥲ϸߤ˻̤äƤϤ뤬˶̤Τ¸ߤʤ²ŪƤʤΤǤ롥ֻϤ²ŪȤˤʳɤħŤѤΤʤסϻˡ⤷ʳŪõ椬Ǥ츦оݤܼ¸ߤõ椹ΤȤʤСˤܼʤɤ⤽ʤΤǤ뤫顤ˤĤƲʳŪõȤȤϤꤨʤȤˤʤ
ޤΤ褦ʤȤͤ롥ʳؤDzƤ뤫ȤȤõ椹롥ȤȤФ줬ؼΤʸ̣ΤȤ褦䤤ϸδ֤δط䤦Ƥ롥äơϥȥ奿ˤвʳŪ䤤ǤϤʤϡٰ͡बѤƤ븫Ǥ롥ȤС⡤ˤĤƤβʳŪõؤŪ٤ФǤ
뤤ϤޤΤ褦ȯۤ⤢Τ⤷ʤˤϵ§ʤˡ§ȤФи롥勞˴ؤˡ§ε§̣ε§ơºݡؼԤůؼԡʤΰˤϤˡ§䵬§Фȯ褦ϤƤΤǤ롥ʤ顤ˤΤ褦ʵ§ȤƤ⡤ϲʳŪõоݤȤʤ褦ʼΤΤʤΤȥ奿ˤСѤ˴ؤꡤ֤٤ƤϤभФˤˤΤǤ뤫顤٤ΤϲʤסʰϻˤΤǤ롥ФơαԤˡ§丶ҤοˤĤƤˡ§ʤɤϡ֤भФˡפƤϤʤäơפᤵ뤳ȤäƤ
ʳؤˡ§ȸ츽ݤ˸뵬§---Τ褦ʤΤȤƤäǤ뤬---δ֤ˤϤ˸㤬褦˻פ롥ȤΤϡԤε§ϤȤƤäƤ뤫Ǥ롥ȤСʪؤˡ§˽äƱưƤʪΤϤΤ褦ֱư٤פ餽Τ褦˱ưƤ櫓ǤϤʤñˤʪΤαưˤϤΤ褦ʵ§ФˤʤФơڤפȤ褦ɽ̾ѤʤȤˤϡñˤΤ褦ʵ§ȤǤϤʤïֻڤ٤ȤפȽҤ٤ʤС֤ϤסѤɽס֤Τ褦ʸϤ٤ǤϤʤסȻŦ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥ƱΤ褦뤳ȤǤ롥ʤʳؤˡ§ξ硤ˡ§ˤ褦ʻ---ȿڻȸ---Ф줿ʤСˡ§⤽ˡ§ǤϤʤäȡΤФơ츽ݤ˸뵬§ξ---ǤϤʤ¿μҲݤ˸뵬§ξ---ˤϡȿڻȸΤФ줿Ȥˤϡλ˴Ϳ͡㤨Сֻڤ٤Ȥפȸäͤϡֵ§ˤäפȤȽ졤פ褦ΤǤʸ츽ݤǤʤҲݤƱͤΤȤäˤϡֹŪǤʤסŪפȤȽ뤫⤷ʤˡƱʼξʤĤβҤ䤵ƤȤˤϾԤʤ¤㤦Ȥ§ĥ줿Ȥ褦ΤȤͤ⤤äʤСε§ʤäȤΤǤϤʤषοͤŪǤʤäȤ櫓Ǥ롥
ȥ奿θۤˤСˤܼʤäƲʳؤоݤȤϤʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϳصŪоݤˤϤʤޤǥθˤΤ¸ߤӸݤˤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
͵ظů١Ҧ˼2003ǯ
1017俷ʹīˡ֥ʸ졡ѤơפꤹǺܤƤ
ʸģֹ˴ؤĴǤϡʤɤΥʸ줬ɤƤ뤫ˤĤƤĴԤʤޤ֥Хɡפΰ̣ΤäƤͤ4ͤ1ͤäȤȤǤ餺ľˡˬιԼԡפɽФ褤ΤǤ֥ɥ饤פ⡤ֻؿˡפɽФ狼䤹Ȼפޤ
ǯܿͤϥʸǤ蘆줹ǤϤʤǤ礦ΤˡʹΤǡ͡Ȥ뷹ˤΤȻפޤºݡɴҡλʤɥʸָȤ⤤ޤ
ĴǤϡֽդøդƻȤ٤ȻפפȲͤȾޤʸѤơ狼䤹ܸȤޤ礦
ѸˤϡʹߡϢʤȤ³ "the complaint_tradition" ʿˤ롥ֺǶμԤθոϤʤäȤסָͤΤ褦ʸˡѤʤƤפȤäतʪǤʡ#3239. Ѹ˴ؤʿ ([2018-03-10-1]) ȡˡܸˤ⡤٤Ϥ䲺䤫ǤϤ뤬Ʊͤꡤ嵭Τ褦1
֥ʸˤĤƤϡ͡Ω줬ʥʸ줬ƤƤʤȼ´Ϥ뤷ä뤳Ȥʤˤ⤢餺ܤܸ쥦åȤ٤뼫ʬˤⵤŤԤϰܸüԤȤƤΩ졤ԤϸѻԤȤƤΩǤꡤĿͤΤʤξԤʻ¸Ƥ롥ĿͤΤʤǤȾˤäƸۤʤΤ顤Ŀʹ֤Ǥδո㤬뤳Ȥ
ϡ֥ʸ褹Ȥ⡤֥ʸƤߤ뤳ȤΤۤڤȻפפǤ롥¿ʬĥäƲ褹٤ȤƤǤϤʤΤ˲褵ȤƸƤ뤫夬ʤᤴƤ뤦ˡ륫ʸϤĤƤȿмԤˤͼƤꡤ̤ΥʸϤĤƤοʼԤˤ˺ƤפʤΤϡʤΤ褦ʵ夬Τͤꡤ̤Ƹդռ뤳ȼΤˤΤǤϤʤ
ʤʸˤĤơѸо˸ؤδ#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1]) ǻϪȤΤǡҤɤ¾#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]) ȡ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) ⻲ȡ
#2772. ɸಽȵϲλߤϡâʸˡȯν (1) ([2016-11-28-1])#2773. ɸಽȵϲλߤϡâʸˡȯν (2) ([2016-11-29-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤˤɸಽϲήΤʤȯåȤˤ줿ΤϺǤ٤ä18ȾȯǤϤΤäܳŪȯ "codification" ߤ줿ΤϤ1塤IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet; ݲɸʸˤ߽Ф줿19ȾΤȤäơή2021ؤ³Ƥ롥Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (307--08) βѤ褦
It is only relatively recently that the norms of standard British (or rather English) English pronunciation were first systematically codified. Attempts were made to that effect in pronunciation dictionaries in the late eighteenth century by Walker (1791) and, in particular, Sheridan (1780). However, a more detailed codification did not become possible until the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into existence and began to be used by Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones and their fellow phoneticians in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Jones' works ran into a large number of editions, An Outline of English Phonetics, first published in its entirely in 1918, into as many as nine. His English Pronouncing Dictionary came out in 1917 and underwent a series of revisions first by Jones himself, and later by A. C. Gimson and Susan Ramsaran (14th edition, 1977). Its sixteenth edition, prepared by Peter Roach and James Hartman, came out in 2003. The most comprehensive recent work in the field is John Wells' Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (1990), which shows both RP and General American pronunciations.
ѤǤϡȯεϲȤʤä18ȾǤȤ櫓ƶϤäΤȤ Walker Ƥ뤬ˤĤƤϡ#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) ȡWalker θȤ Longman Pronunciation Dictionary ̾Ƥ뤬ȯܥ֥ǤȯˤȤ˲٤ȤʤäˤʤäƤ
ȯɸಽϲȤϤäƤ⡤դȷӤĤ䤹ֻʸˡȰۤʤꡤȯäդΰ°ΤʤΤǡɸಽϲ˾ȤƤñΤǤϤʤޤܻؤ٤ŪʥåȤǤ롥
Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.
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