ѸˤϡʹߤϢʤ³ "the complaint tradition" ʿˤꡤ"the complaint literature" ʿʸˤѤƤ㤨С#301. ѤȤѸθˡ Top 10 ([2010-02-22-1]) ǼतΡ֤ʱѸϼʤפȤӤΤȤǤ롥ŵŪ˿ʹʤɤ˴Ƥ
ϡɸѸ줬ۤܳΩǡϼŪĬ褦ˤʤäƤŤλ̤롥̾ͤǤСJohn Dryden (1631--1700) 䡤 Jonathan Swift (1667--1745) κǽôȤcf. #3220. ɻ˾αѸ쥢ǥߡɤ Dryden αѸ˾ɾ ([2018-02-19-1])#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ([2014-08-26-1])ˡ
Milroy and Milroy ˤСˤ2ĤΥפȤξԤϽŤʤ⤢뤬ŪۤʤäƤꡤŪˤʪȹͤɬפ롥ޤ Type 1 顥
Type 1 complaints, which are implicitly legalistic and which are concerned with correctness, attack 'mis-use' of specific parts of the phonology, grammar, vocabulary of English (and in the case of written English 'errors' of spelling, punctuation, etc.). . . . The correctness tradition (Type 1) is wholly dedicated to the maintenance of the norms of Standard English in preference to other varieties: sometimes writers in this tradition attempt to justify the usages they favour and condemn those they dislike by appeals to logic, etymology and so forth. Very often, however, they make no attempt whatever to explain why one usage is correct and another incorrect: they simply take it for granted that the proscribed form is obviously unacceptable and illegitimate; in short, they believe in a transcendental norm of correct English. / . . . . Type 1 complaints (on correctness) may be directed against 'errors' in either spoken or written language, and they frequently do not make a very clear distinction between the two. (30--31)
Type 1 ϡǤŵŪʥפǤꡤȤñƤʿǤ롥ָȽפȤäƤ褤ΥפɸѸݻ (maintenance) 뵡ǽôäƤȤŦ⤪⤷
˵ Type 2 Type 1 ۤΤƤʤϤ Swift ˤޤ̤롥
Type 2 complaints, which we may call 'moralistic', recommend clarity in writing and attack what appear to be abuses of language that may mislead and confuse the public. . . . / Type 2 complaints do not devote themselves to stigmatising specific errors in grammar, phonology, and so on. They accept the fact of standardisation in the written channel, and they are concerned with clarity, effectiveness, morality and honesty in the public use of the standard language. Sometimes elements of Type 1 can enter into Type 2 complaints, in that the writers may sometimes condemn non-standard usage in the belief that it is careless or in some way reprehensible; yet the two types of complaints can in general be sharply distinguished. The most important modern author in this second tradition is George Orwell . . . (30)
Type 1 "the correctness tradition" ȸƤ֤ʤСType 2 "the moralistic tradition" ȸƤǤ褤Ѥˤ褦ˡGeorge Orwell (1903--50) Ǥ̾ʼ羧ԤǤ롥Type 2 ɽǯưȤƤϡ1979ǯ˻Ϥ줿 "Plain English Campaign" 롥ŪʾˤïˤǤʬʸո٤ȼĥȿǤꡤʱѸǽ줿ʸ "Crystal Mark" դưԤʤäƤۤǯʱѸФƾޤ£äƤ롥
Milroy, Lesley and James Milroy. Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation. 4th ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2012.
#3231. ɸ˼ Blake αѸ˻ʬ ([2018-03-02-1]) εǼꤢBlake ˤѸ˶ʬ61798ǯ?1914ǯˤˤĤƹͤ롥ޥε1˶ޤ줿λϡɸѸǰƬˤѸˤδϡѼŪ¿ռ줿Ȥ롥19Ťȡ18ħä줷ϼ꤫餢ٲ褦ˤʤꡤˤƼȯŪʸոºŤ졤ɸѼ郎ľѸ켫ͳѸвλۤȯȤäƤ褤𤲤ϵ줬ħŪˡWordsworth and Coleridge ˤ Lyrical Ballads (1798) νǤäBlake (13) ۩
This collection of poetry [= the Lyrical Ballads] attacked the idea of a prescriptive language for poetry and raised the concept that it should deal with 'the real language of men'. It was inspired in part by the French Revolution of 1789, which had called into question the very bases of the old order and its assumptions of regulation and conformity. This attitude gradually spilled over into language as well, for there seemed to be a profound attack on the nature of authority and the assumption that those at the top could dictate what was right and acceptable to the rest of society. While such attitudes did not change overnight, we can accept that there was a new spirit abroad which provides us with a convenient boundary in 1798.
1798ǯ˻Ϥޤꡤ1ȯ1914ǯޤǤλϡĹ19ɽƤ褤Blake ˤСλϡŪˤߤ (1) ¿ɸѼºš(2) ŪζδȤ2ħŤȤ줾ʬѤ褦
Firstly, the previous age had been concerned with regulating language and discovering the principles which underlined a language on the assumption that all languages followed the same structure. The nineteenth century was interested in the diversity of languages and varieties of language. The growth of the empire promoted interest in a whole range of languages other than the classical languages which had hitherto been the model for all linguistic structure. And scholars in England began to record the various regional dialects found in the United Kingdom. Whereas before these dialects may have been considered provincial and little more than barbarous, their use in poetry and the novel and the collections and studies based on these forms gradually meant that they were seen as real means of communication, even if they were not as socially acceptable as the standard. The respect for non-standard varieties increased, though this was a gradual process which even today has not made these dialects socially acceptable. One problem that such varieties faced, and still face, is that they do not usually exist in a regulated written form and thus may be regarded as inferior.
Secondly, the nineteenth century saw an enormous growth in the historical study of language. Many of the changes in English and its ancestors which will be outlined in the book were discovered in the nineteenth century. The development of the concept of a family tree for languages and the recognition that English was a Germanic language which belonged to the Proto-Indo-European family of languages (also known simply as Indo-European) were among the advances made at this time. Not unnaturally this put English and the classical languages into a different perspective. Their nature was not different from that of other languages, and English dialects could be regarded as closely related to standard English in origin and development; they had simply not been chosen to form the standard.
ǤСɸѸƱѸ줽ΤΤвª߽Ф줿ȤˤäŪʻ줿櫓ǤϤʤޤŪʻ¤ΩĤ褦ˤʤäȤȤǤ롥Ūʻϡ21κǤ⽽ʬƤΤ
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.
Blake αѸ˽ϡѸɸಽ (standardisation) ɸѸηȤ˾碌ͥ줿Ѹ˳Ǥ롥Ȥ櫓ܤ٤ϡΤΤȤ礭ۤʤѸˤλʬˡ (periodisation) Ǥ롥ѸˤθˤˤơޤǤ͡ʻʬƤƤBlake ΤϰӤɸ˼ҲŪʴƤǤꡤܤФ褦ʿ (Blake, Chapter 1) 7ʬƤ롥ʲˡȤȤ˵
(1) եå粦λ (?9Ⱦ)ɸŪѼ郎¸ߤ͡Ѽ郎ΩƤ
(2) 9Ⱦ?1250ǯȥνɸबƶϤä
(3) 1250ǯ?1400ǯɸȤǰʤ塨ɸΤ˶ޤ줿 "the Interregnum"
(4) 1400ǯ?1660ǯɸνաʤȤ櫓ֻȸäΥ٥ˤơˤΩƤ
(5) 1660ǯ?1798ǯɸλ
(6) 1798ǯ?1914ǯѼŪ¿ռ줿
(7) 1914ǯ?ѸʬԳΤħŤ
(1) եå粦λ (?9Ⱦ) ϡѸ줬ѸȤ1Ĥñ̤ȤƸƤȤ⡤ѸνѼ郎¤٤뽸ΤȸƤǤ롥äơ1ĤɸȤȯۤ¸ߤʤ
(2) եå粦λʹߡȤ櫓10--11ˤƥȥűѸνդɸȤƤϰ̤1066ǯΥΥޥϳΤ˱ѸμҲŪϰ̤ȤȥɸϱѸҶǺ١³1250ǯޤDZƶϤĤʤȤ⡤ϤƱѸȤꤿ¸ߤƤѸ˾塤ɸ줬ΩȤƽפǤ롥
(3) Ƥɸ줬ƶϤʤɸ줬ޤǤζ̴ (the Interregnum) Ѽ郎Ω1Ĥɸ줬ʤ塥
(4) Ѹ˾2ܤνդɸ줬졤夷Ƥ塥15Ⱦ Chancery Standard ΡʤΰˤǤȹͤ롥ޤȤȯۤϵǤ롥
(5) 뵬ϼλ塥ʸˡ¿蘆졤ɸܻؤ줿塥ڤǯϡ (Restoration) 1660ǯȡޥȤʤ Wordsworth and Coleridge ˤ Lyrical Ballads Ǥ줿1798ǯħŪǯǤϤ뤬Τ˴֤˶ޤ줿ϡסס«פȤäɤ礦Ǥ롥
(6) Lyrical Ballads 1 (1914) ޤǤλ塥Ĥ餢ټͳˤʤꡤѼؤδؿޤꡤɸвƸ褦ˤʤä塥夫εϼޤƤΤ¡
(7) 1狼鸽ߤޤǤλ塥Ѹ줬ʤʬԤƩʾ"fragmentation and uncertainty" (Blake 15) ħŤ塥
ŪʡָűѸסѸסֶѸפζʬȾۤƤϤ褤
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.
γȤŪŸϡѸȱѸ̤̤뤳ȤΤǤʤȥԥåǤαѸ˾ΰյˤĤơ饤 (HTML) ˤޤȤƤߤޤɤȤƤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ޤ
ȯŸ
(1) Ѹɸಽϲ岡ơѸˡֵῴϡפ⤿餷ǡ
(2) Ѹ¿ͲѸˡֱϡפ⤿餷
ߤ̤αѸΤδäۤ
ܺ٤ϳơΥڡܥ֥εƼؤΥ˭٤ĥäƤޤ
1. γȱѸ
2.
3. (1) ȯŸ
4. Ϣǯɽ (#777, #1377, #2562)
5. (2) Ѹεῴ --- ɸಽϲ
6. ɸಽȵϲ
7. 18εϼ
8. ʸˡȯ
9. ʸˡ
10. (3) Ѹα --- ͡ʱѸ
11. ͡ʱѸѼ
12. ѸѼνʬˡ
13. 21ῴϤȱϤΤ礤
14. ޤȤ
15. ʸ
¾Ρ֤ޤȤ饤ɡפȤơ#3058. ֱѸˤˤ¤ΰյפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-09-10-1])#3068. ֽפȱѸˡפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-09-20-1])#3089. ֥ꥫΩȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-11-1])#3102. ֥ꥹȶȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-24-1])#3107. ֥ΥޥȱѸפΤޤȤ饤ɡ ([2017-10-29-1])#3121. ְѤȯȱѸפΤޤȤ ([2017-11-12-1]) ɤ
֡Ѹ˾ˤ⥤ѥȤΤä (black_death) ˤĤƽŪ˹ͤƤϢ¢إڥȤʸ٤ɤǤȤˡǰȸδǰ˻Ƥ¦̤뤳Ȥ˵Ť
¢ (326) ˤСԷȤǰΤϥͥʹߤǤꡤΩʤǰܳŪ˸줿Τ18դ19ƬȤεǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (325)
ħؼԤΥᥢ饹ˤСֱȤϡФͣ줫ĸ䤷ݤǤϤꤨʤĤޤꡤ줬ȤˤɬηϤ¸ߤΤŬǤεݤ̣뤫ˤơȤϻʪηŪŤʬȤʪפȤƤˤСޤ줬ԷʤΤȤƽˤϡ٤ΤỌ̇̄Ť롤ŪʤĿŪؤΰռ¸ߤʤФʤʤˤϡҤȤͥƵŪʥ륷ͤư줿ϤԲķȤʤ롥
ȴ뤿ˤϡ֤Ф봶ɬפǤ롥ԷϡֱǰפȤΤȤǾ˥ڥǤ롥Ϲ¤ȯۤΤΤ
ƱȤϡʸˡˡˤĤƤ롥ȴ뤿ˤϡ֤ѤФ봶ɬפǤ롥ϡָŪǰפȤΤȤǾ˥ڥǤ롥
ѸʸˡˡδǰΤ˸줿Τϡ18դ19ƬȵʸˡǤ줿Ǥ롥λˤϡΤʰ̣ǤθΡָѡפȡѡפϤʤäȤäƤ褤ʸˡΡָפȤϡ18ʸˡ߽ФԷפΤȤäΤǤ롥
¢ Ի顡إڥȤʸ衼åѤ̱ʸȱ¡١īʹҡīӡ1995ǯ
ФƤȤ٤˴ؤơФХץθؼԤȥݥԥ顼ʸ쥳ơΩ롥ؼԤϡҼŪΩꡤѲѰۤϸܼǤꡤͰŪ˥ȥ뤹뤳ȤʤɤǤʤȹͤƤ롥ϼŪʥơϡŪŪʸˡʸˡιܤæꤢѤȤǺᤷѤĥ롥
Τ褦ξԤϤФΩ뤬ºݤ˲в֤餹ȤȤϰճȤʤȯŸȤҲŪʸݤˤʤȤȤϡޤʤΤܤǤѸǤ⤽Τ褦ʥϳ̵ǤϤʤΤΡ̱Ūˤʤ뤳ȤϾʤνäʿ¤ݻƤȤФʤΤ⤷ʤͳߤ̵ؿ̵ܿˤȤΤ䤷ؼԤϼŪѤȤɤ礦äͤǡݥԥ顼ʸ˻äƤȤϡäȤäƤ褤ϼΥơȤ˼뤳ȤɬפȻפС褬ˡäƤȤŪ꤫Ϥޤäˤ衤˸Ȥϲɤ٤Ȥä˿εäƤǽ⤤̤ȤơͿԤߤʤˤĤƿ˹ͤ뵡Ȥʤ롥餷Ȥ
Horobin (165--66) ⡤ǯǤ줿Ѹ˳ξϤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The dismissive manner in which professional linguists have typically ignored prescriptivist approaches has also contributed to the lack of dialogue and continued misinformation. Since prescriptivist approaches are widely held and have a demonstrable impact upon the use of English and its future, it is clearly incumbent upon professional linguists to accord its proponents due attention and to engage in public debate.
ҸؤȵϼδطˤĤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿#1229. ϼ4Ĥή ([2012-09-07-1])#1684. ʸˡȵʸˡ ([2013-12-06-1])#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1])#2630. ϼѸˡʵҡˤ礹뤳ȤˤĤơ ([2016-07-09-1])#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1])
Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
Ѹˤˤ³ˡϡͿˤɤäƤȤäƤ褤Τ˸Ǥⴰ˾ä櫓ǤϤʤ#326. The subjunctive forms die hard. ([2010-03-19-1]) #325. mandative subjunctive should ([2010-03-18-1]) Ǥ줿̤ꡤǴ궯Ѥ³ƤꡤषѤƤȤܤΰ褹餢롥³ˡοϡ礫ʬϤظѸˤΰŪʸѲĬή (synthesis_to_analysis) ˾äƤꡤ˾塤硹ŪʵήȤϤʤ
硹ŪʵήϤʤäΤΡäȤήǤиѸˤä16˿ष³ˡϿΰӤéäƤ18Ⱦ19ˤơȤڵ롥Tieken-Boon van Ostade (84--85) ϤͳμҲư (social mobility) ȵʸˡαƶϤˤȤߤƤ롥
The subjunctive underwent a curious development during the LModE period. While its use had rapidly decreased since the end of the sixteenth century, it began to rise slightly during the second half of the eighteenth century and into the nineteenth, when there was a sharp decrease from around 1870 onwards . . . . The temporary rise of the subjunctive has been associated with the influence of normative grammar, and though, this may explain the increased use during the nineteenth century, when linguistic prescriptivism was at its height and its effects must have been felt, in the second half of the eighteenth-century it must have been because of the strong linguistic sensitivity among social climbers rather than the actual effect of the grammars themselves. This is evident in the language of Robert Lowth and his correspondents: in Lowth's own usage, there is an increase of the subjunctive around the time when his grammar was newly published, and with his correspondents we found a similar linguistic awareness that they were writing to a celebrated grammarian . . . .
Tieken-Boon van Ostade ϡʸˡαƶϤäȤƤ⤪餯ŪǤꡤȤ櫓18Ⱦ³ˡäΤäȶ "social climbers" ԡˤξ徺ָȿǤռˤȤߤƤ롥
³οѸˤΡּʡήȤߤʤΤǤСѸΤäȤήϡʹּҲΤֿŪˡ߽ФήȤȤˤʤ#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1]) Ȥפʤ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
ʸػ˾塤18--19 "the Age of Prose", "the great age of the personal letter", "the golden age of letter writing" ʤɤȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥͡ȼᡤ路Ǥ롥ǯѸŪˤơλμˤոεŪʸˡѤȿǤƤͻҤʤɤؤδؿޤäƤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ҲؤδΥץ
18--19˼ȤҲŪʥ֡ȤʤäطʤˤĤơTieken-Boon van Ostade β (2--3)
Letter writing became an important means of communication to all people alike, largely as a result of the developments of the postal system. With the establishment of the Penny Post throughout Britain in 1840, postage became cheaper and was now paid for by the writer instead of the receiver. The result was phenomenal: while according to Mugglestone (2006: 276) 'some 75 million letters were sent in 1839', they had increased to 347 million ten years later. Just before the widespread introduction of the Penny Post, the average person in England and Wales received about four letters a year (Bailey 1996: 17), which rose to about eight times as many in 1871, and doubled further at the end of the century. The effects on the language were significant: more people write than ever before, either themselves or, as with minimally schooled writers, through the hands of others who had had slightly more education. Letter-writing manuals, such as The Complete Letter Writer (Anon., 2nd edn 1756), had been appearing in increasing numbers since the mid-eighteenth century, and they gained in popularity during the nineteenth, both in England and in the United States.
Υ֡ϡѸ˿ʽդΥ뤬ܳŪ˳쿭ĥȤ̣ФǤϤʤޤǽƤ͡ޤޤ褦ˤʤäȡƤ˽פʤȤˡޤǽȤΤʤä͡ޤǤȤ٤ôȤʤϤȤ̣롥ˡν˴ؤޥ˥奢뤬Ǥ褦ˤʤꡤ줬ҲŪʤʤߤȤƵϲƤäǤ⤢뤳Ȥ̣롥
λϡɥ쥹ɤˤոˤ衤ˤĤƤ֤ʤߡפλäȤ٤⡤Τ褦ʻĬΤʤǼҲȤ߹ޤƤä⤦1ĤΤʤߤäȤȤˤʤ
1619ޤǤμλˤĤƤϡTieken-Boon van Ostade ˤ Correspondences Υڡȡ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
ε˰³18εϼȳơʸˡȤŪˤĤƤꡥεǿ줿褦ˡ18˹Τ褦˵ʸˡǤ졤ʤˤ֤褦줿Τ⤢äʸˡԾιޤȳʸˡȤŪȤϡʤطˤäΤ
ɤ顤Ūʸˡޤ졤줬Ūʰ̣礤äƼƤ졤Ծ碌ȤȤǤϤʤषԾˤʸˡο͵ŪˤȤˡŪȤǤäꡤǤƤȤȤȤΤ褦ʸˡζȤʤäȤɽǤºݤˤϤޤǰ褦˶Ȥ줿櫓Ǥʤ褦ǤꡤBeal (101) Ѥ롥
The 'doctrine of correctness' was thus invoked by writers of all political persuasions, so it would be a mistake to argue that any set of political circumstances created the market for grammars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It might be wiser to agree with Crowley that 'language becomes a crucial focus of tension and debate at critical historical moments, serving as the site upon which political positions are contested' (2003: 217). Thus, the emergence of these grammars and the accompanying discussions about language and power are symptomatic of the turbulent times in which they were written.
ܵɸǤϡ18εϼפǤäBeal εϡΰѤˤ⤢̤19ˤƤϤޤȤɤ߿ʤȡ20--21ˤ̤ȤҤ٤Ƥ롥츫ȡʸˡȤΤϷӤĤʤ褦˻פ뤬ʸˡˡνפȲ᤹СʸˡȤΤҲŪʡפȷӤĤ˶ꤦ뤫ȤȤ褦ҤƤϡˤˤƸդϾäȤΤ⤷ʤ
ʤΰѤǸڤƤ Crowley ϡCrowley, T. Standard English and the Politics of Language. London: Palgrave, 2003. ΤȤǤ롥
Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.
Ѹ˾塤18 "doctrine of correctness" ħŤ줿ϼλǤɾƤΤˤˤϡȾ50ۤɤΡȾˤ200ĶʸˡǤ졤ϱʸˡȤäƤǤϤʤ
Beal ϡ5 "Grammars and Grammarians" ˤơ18Ϳ줿ŪɾˤĤƺƹͤ¥Beal (90) ϡ18ˤϵϼĬΤϴְ㤤ʤäΤΡȤΩϡŪ䥤ǥ˱͡ʣǤꡤñ˵ŪȤäɾǤԽʬǤƤ롥
[E]ighteenth-century grammarians had a range of motives for writing their grammars, and . . . these and later grammars, far from being uniformly 'prescriptive', would be better described as occupying different points on a prescriptive-descriptive continuum.
Ѹ˴ؤΤȤϡơŪѸˤĤȯƤ㤨СSwift Ann ȷȤݼʪư⤷Ƥޤ1707ǯ֥ƥϢ粦ΩơɸŪʱѸѸᡤåȥɿͤʤɤˤ餹ɬⴶƤϼطʤˤϡŪǤäΤǤ (Beal 97)
Whilst it is perfectly valid to see eighteenth- and nineteenth-century grammars both as the necessary agents of codification and as self-help guides for the aspiring middle classes, it cannot be denied that many of the authors of these works were politically and/or ideologically motivated.
Beal (111) ϡФΩ Lowth Priestley ˤڤξԤΰ㤤ΰ㤤ʴްդȤŪΰ㤤ˤǤȤƤ롥
These two grammarians [= Lowth and Priestley] were writing within a year of each other, so any norms of usage to which they refer must have been the same. Although both used a classical system of parts of speech, neither is influenced by Latin here: they both describe preposition-stranding as a naturally occurring feature of English, more suited to informal usage. The difference between Lowth and Priestley is one of emphasis only, far from the prescriptive-descriptive polarization which we have been led to expect.
18ʵڤӤʹߡˤθŪϼˤĤơɤäƤȤ¤ܤ٤ȤˤǼ줿Beal κɾɤǡɾ礭ۤʤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ褦˻פ줿Ǥϡ18ϵϼλǤȤ¤Фơ礭ʽϲäƤʤBeal Ǥ "prescriptive-descriptive continuum" ȤɽʤƤ뤬ϡִܤ prescriptive Ǥꡤ prescription Ȥ reason-usage continuum äפȹͤ뤳Ȥϡ³ǤǤ롥λä "descriptive" ȤƻѤ뤳Ȥϡޤ᤹ΤǤϤʤ
Ϣơ#141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1])#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])#2778. Joseph Priestley --- ѽŻӤʸˡȡ ([2016-12-04-1])#2796. Joseph Priestley --- ѽŻӤʸˡ (2) ([2016-12-22-1]) ȡ
Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.
Noah Webster ꥫѸϰ̤˿ʤôäȤϱѸ˾褯ΤƤ뤬ظDZƤäΤΡ1ͤζ̣оʪȤ˺ƤϤʤʤꥫ2 John Adams (1735--1826) Ǥ롥Adams ϡѸ٤ǥߡΩ뤳Ȥ˰ߤƤäȤ Jonathan Swift ΥꥫǤȤäȤο˽ä1780ǯ95˥ॹƥफIJĹ˰ƤơꥫˤѸȤνפ⤯Ƥ롥Baugh and Cable (355) ˰ѤƤʸϤƸ褦
The honor of forming the first public institution for refining, correcting, improving, and ascertaining the English language, I hope is reserved for congress; they have every motive that can possibly influence a public assembly to undertake it. It will have a happy effect upon the union of the States to have a public standard for all persons in every part of the continent to appeal to, both for the signification and pronunciation of the language. The constitutions of all the States in the Union are so democratical that eloquence will become the instrument for recommending men to their fellow-citizens, and the principal means of advancement through the various ranks and offices of society. . . .
. . . English is destined to be in the next and succeeding centuries more generally the language of the world than Latin was in the last or French is in the present age. The reason of this is obvious, because the increasing population in America, and their universal connection and correspondence with all nations will, aided by the influence of England in the world, whether great or small, force their language into general use, in spite of all the obstacles that may be thrown in their way, if any such there should be.
It is not necessary to enlarge further, to show the motives which the people of America have to turn their thoughts early to this subject; they will naturally occur to congress in a much greater detail than I have time to hint at. I would therefore submit to the consideration of congress the expediency and policy of erecting by their authority a society under the name of "the American Academy for refining, improving, and ascertaining the English language. . . ."
Ǹ "refining, improving, and ascertaining" ɽƤ뤬Ͽǯ˥ɤμͤͤƤ#2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1]) ۵뤷äȤ Swift "Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining" ΤʤǤ롥ΰ̣ǤϡAdams μĥϤޤäΤǤϤʤषȤ⤤롥ޤΤ褦Ƥˤ⤫餺ɤϥꥫˤƤ⥢ǥߡΩʤäȤ⡤Adams μĥϤʤ
Adams ꥹˤƥꥹѸ˴ؤĥƤΤǤϤʤꥫˤƥꥫѸ˴ؤĥƤȤפǤ롥Adams ϡꥹǤΥǥߡΩεñʤ֤ȤǤϤʤꥫȤŷϤǤδ˾ߤȤơμĥƤꥫѸؤλΤȤäƤ褤Ʊͤ Webster ưǼꥫѸؤοAdams ʤˡǼȤȲǤ
ʤΰѤ2ˤ롤ѸϼʹߡθȤʤȤ Adams ͽϸäबƤסɤαƶϡꥫιݴط̤ͥʤɤͽκ⡤ŬڤȤۤʤФ˾ȼƤȤפȡǤϤ뤬Adams ηŴ㡤٤餺Ǥ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ε ([2016-11-28-1]) ³ԡϡѸˤˤɸಽȵϲλߤâʸˡȯνǿʤǤäΤϤʤȤ䤤ˤĤƹͤƤߤν֤˴ؤϤޤɤʤͻƤߤͤϤꤽ
ޤŪ¤ƳǧƤ褦ˡ褽âʸˡȯνǿʤȤȤϸդʤФʤʤΤϡ줾ɸಽϲδ֤ˤʤ饪Сåפʬ뤳ȤääƤʸˡϤޤꡤʸˡäƤȯϤޤäȤ褦ʿŪʶڤΤ褵ǧ櫓ǤϤʤϼԤǽ餫3ڤʬλ֤ "divide and conquer" 褦ȷײ褷Ƥ櫓Ǥʤ
1ĹͤΤϡνɸಽϲμȤߤ䤹ȴϢƤΤǤϤʤȤȤɸಽϲȤȤоݤȤʤΤϡƤäդդǤ롥ϡդ˴ؤ뵬§ۤꡦɽڤ䤹Ȥ𤬤äθ̤⡤դȤ³ŪΤ˻Ĥۤɾ䤹ɸಽϲŪȤΰҿ⳰˼ȤˤäȤСθ̤Ϥޤܤ˸Ǹ졤ĤäƤʤȺΤǤ롥ȤСäֻǤ⸫䤹ŪˡüդȤȤˤʤꤽ
ˡäŪǤϤ뤬ϤաפȶӤĤǤʸˡåȤȤʤ롥ƽդʡáˤȹʡʸˡˤСѸ줫ɸಽϲβϺ¤ΤȤã줿Ȥˤʤ
ˤ⤦ʤȤʤСåȤդäդذܤۤĤƤʤ͡äդȤȤϡźǤ롥ºݡ#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) ξϡǧȯ (rp) ȯãȤʤϤºݤǧȯѤ褦ˤʤäͤϡߤ˻ޤǾɤǤꡤ¿ΰ罰ȯϡפƤʤĤޤꡤȯɸಽϲϡäʸˡ٤ơƤפȤϸʤäȤ⡤äʸˡȤơɤޤǡƤפΤϲŪˤФƤפ褦˻פˡ
Ѹˤˤɸಽϲϡ嵭Τ褦ˡȤθ̤θ䤹мȤߤ䤹νǿʤȤȤǤΤǤϤʤ
ѸѸȾФˤƵäѸɸಽȵϲĬήˤĤơ#1237. ɸѸΥǥȱѸɸಽ ([2012-09-15-1])#1244. ʤϼ18˵Ĺ ([2012-09-22-1])#2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1]) 濴Ȥơstandardisation prescriptive_grammar γƵˤƤήˤĤħŪĶ̣ϡΥСåפϤˤ衤âʸˡȯν˵ϲλߤʤƤȤ
ɡƥꥹ줿ѸɸಽܻؤƤǽϡää16ȾϸäƤȤϤθ17ˤƤϡֻε§첽˾Ƥ褦ˤʤääȤֻϡ17--18ޤǤˤϤ褽褷Ƥꡤ1755ǯ Johnson μνǤϤᲡȤߤƤ褤ʴϢơ#1407. Ѹ3Ĥ ([2013-03-04-1])#2321. ֻɸಽδĬή ([2015-09-04-1]) ȡˡ
ɸಽϲΥåȤȤʤäΤϡʸˡǤ롥18ˤϵʸˡνǤ꼡Ǥ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) #2592. Lindley Murray, English Grammar ([2016-06-01-1]) 繥ɾ
ơ٤18Ⱦ19ˤơȯפؤΤ꤬褦ˤʤ롥Ū (orthoepy) ؤδؿϡ#571. orthoepy ([2010-11-19-1]) ǽҤ٤褦16鸫ΤŪˡȯפԤʤ٤ȤĬ͡δ֤Ǥˤ狼˹ޤäƤΤ18ȾԤʤФʤʤä礭ʹʤΤϡ#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) Ǥ롥
ȯפμĥʤ褦ˤʤäΤ18ȾȤŪ٤äȤˤĤơBaugh and Cable (306) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The first century and a half of English lexicography including Johnson's Dictionary of 1755, paid little attention to pronunciation, Johnson marking only the main stress in words. However, during the second half of the eighteenth century and throughout the nineteenth century, a tradition of pronouncing dictionaries flourished, with systems of diacritics indicating the length and quality of vowels and what were considered the proper consonants. Although the ostensible purpose of these guides was to eliminate linguistic bias by making the approved pronunciation available to all, the actual effect was the opposite: "good" and "bad" pronunciations were codified, and speakers of English who were not born into the right families or did not have access to elocutionary instruction suffered linguistic scorn all the more.
ǤϡḽѸɸಽȵϲλߤáֻޤˢʸˡȯȤǿʤǤäΤϤʤˤĤƤεǡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ε#2759. Swift ˤ륢ǥߡΩƤ̤ʤäͳ ([2016-11-15-1]) ȴϢơѸ쥢ǥߡΩƤ˥ԥ졼ͿꥢȥեȡɤŨ Johnson μβͤˤĤ
ꥹѸ쥢ǥߡΩ褦ȲΤϡǤ˥ꥢȥե˥ǥߡ㤬ä顤Ȥͳ礭衼åѽϹֹפ (cf. #2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1])) ǤꡤǥߡȤؤ̤Ƥ¸褦ȹͤƤܤĤΤϥꥢǤ롥ꥢˤ͡ʥǥߡäǤ褯ΤƤΤ1582ǯΩ줿 Accademia della Crusca Ǥ롥εؤϡ1612ǯ Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca ȤǤʪĤθŤͤơ1691ǯˤ3ʬ1729--38ǯǤǤ6ʬˤޤĹ (Baugh and Cable 257)
եǤϡ1635ǯ˿ Richelieu ʸإõͿνġʺ40̾ˤ l'Académie française ȤΤ褦ˤʤäεؤϡʸˡԽ뤳ȤŪ1ĤȤƷǤƤꡤȤ١ȤƤΤΡ1694ǯˤϼǤ˻ä (Baugh and Cable 257)
Τ褦ˡꥢեǤ17˥ǥߡϤˤӤѤ߾夲ƤƱꥹǤϥǥߡΩƤʤƤʤäΤǤ롥θ塤1712ǯ Swift ˤƤʤ줿̤Ȥή줿аޤˤĤƤϺεǽҤ٤˸1755ǯˤϡǥߡˤ餺Johnson ĿͤϤǡꥢեμɤŨѸμǤ˻äJohnson ο David Garrick ϡΥԥĤƤ (Baugh and Cable 267)
And Johnson, well arm'd like a hero of yore,
Has beat forty French, and will beat forty more.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Swift ˤ A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue (1712) ϡѸΥǥߡ (academy) Ω˸ƺǤᤤȤޤߤäǤ17ȾˤϱѸ쥢ǥߡϾ夬äƤꡤ18Ƭ Swift Ƥˤƥԡޤˤ衤θ18⥢ǥߡΩϤñˤϾǤʤäˤ֤äƤߤСSwift Ƥ̤ʤäȤˤꡤǥߡΩƤʱ٤뤳ȤˤʤäȤϸäƤ褤Ǥϡʤ Swift Ƥή줿Τ
ˤϡĿŪŪ Anne λȤ𤬤äBaugh and Cable (262) ˼Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Apparently the only dissenting voice was that of John Oldmixon, who, in the same year that Swift's Proposal appeared, published Reflections on Dr. Swift's Letter to the Earl of Oxford, about the English Tongue. It was a violent Whig attack inspired by purely political motives. He says, "I do here in the Name of all the Whigs, protest against all and everything done or to be done in it, by him or in his Name." Much in the thirty-five pages is a personal attack on Swift, in which he quotes passages from the Tale of a Tub as examples of vulgar English, to show that Swift was no fit person to suggest standards for the language. And he ridicules the idea that anything can be done to prevent languages from changing. "I should rejoice with him, if a way could be found out to fix our Language for ever, that like the Spanish cloak, it might always be in Fashion." But such a thing is impossible.
Oldmixon's attack was not directed against the idea of an academy. He approves of the design, "which must be own'd to be very good in itself." Yet nothing came of Swift's Proposal. The explanation of its failure in the Dublin edition is probably correct; at least it represented contemporary opinion. "It is well known," it says, "that if the Queen had lived a year or two longer, this proposal would, in all probability, have taken effect. For the Lord Treasurer had already nominated several persons without distinction of quality or party, who were to compose a society for the purposes mentioned by the author; and resolved to use his credit with her majesty, that a fund should be applied to support the expense of a large room, where the society should meet, and for other incidents. But this scheme fell to the ground, partly by the dissensions among the great men at court; but chiefly by the lamented death of that glorious princess."
ĤޤꡤSwift ƤƤ켫ΤäȤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ롥ǥߡΩ¿ο͡δꤤǤ⤢ä塹ȿʤǤŪˤ Swift ȿФʪ˶ӡոפޤ줿ȤȡƲ⡤ǥߡΩ˸ưФƤ Anne 1714ǯ˴ʤäȤSwift αοԤä
־夫פαѸ쥢ǥߡĤ˺ʤäȤˤꡤ18ϡֲפθ쵬Ϥκ꤬ʤǤȤˤʤ (see #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]), #1421. Johnson θѡ ([2013-03-18-1]), #141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1])) ꥹϡǥߡջ֤ʤä櫓ǤϤʤȾˤζǺ˻ʤäɾΤŬڤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
#2743. ʾȸ ([2016-10-30-1]) ˰³"LANGUAGE IS MONEY" γǰեˤĤơʾȸζͤ뤳ȤǡȤΤɤޤǤͭǡɤ餬̵ʤΤä˸ܼȤϲʤΤˤĤƵ뤭äȤʲϡʥ롦ȥå (152--67) βʾˤΥʥäʬʤɤȤĤġʾȸεǽ˴ؤбˤĤơʬʤ˥֥쥹Ȥ̤Ǥ롥
| ʾ | |
|---|---|
| ʾϼҲή̤ | ϼҲή̤ |
| ʪήγȯ˹ | ʼȤƽդˤ˾γȯ˹ |
| ʾcf. ܻˤǤϲȹ650ǯˡִפʤɡ | ɸಽcf. ѸˤǤϽդɸಽ400?500ǯˡ |
| ʼβʾɼΤΤ | ɸಽˤऱƤ "selection" (cf. #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1])) |
| ʾβ | "refinement" (cf. #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1])) |
| ʾƥϥǤϤʤʻѼԴ֤ο¤ǽ | 쥷ƥϥǤϤʤʻѼԴ֤δط¤ǽ |
| ʾϤɤΤ褦߹٤ˤƤѤǤ櫓ǤϤʤ | ϤɤΤ褦߹٤ˤƤѤǤ櫓ǤϤʤ |
| ¨¸ݤꡤդǤλʧcf. Ģ | դˤǽȤʤƱߥ˥ |
| ʾϲͤ¢Ǥʡ | ϲͤ¢Ǥʡᵭˡ |
| ߡߡߡʾΤδ | Ѽ˴֤ǽ |
| ¤¤ΰˡ | Ϥ鳰줿ˡФȽ |
| ʾμʼ̣Υ쥯ʾDzʾ㤦 | äμʥŪʴؿǸ |
| ʾϽκ | դϽκ |
| ʾʧcf. Ųߤ˵줿դ䳨 | |
| ʲͤΥܥΤʤΥܥ | ǰͤΥܥΤʤΥܥ롩 (cf. semantic primitive) |
Ѹ˾ͭ̾ Swift ˤ A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue (1712) Ǥϡ̾3Ĥΰۤʤư correct, improve, ascertain ѤƤ롥ѸפֲפֳꤹפȤäΤǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥ֱѸθոäפȤǤ϶̤Ƥ뤬ưδ֤ˤϤɤΤ褦ʴްդκΤcorrect ˤϡָŦΤľפȤްդꡤimprove ˤϡ֤ɤס ascertain ˤϸŤȤơֳꤵפۤɤΰ̣롥
3ĤưȤԤäŤʤ櫓ǤϤʤSwift ϼλˡֱѸθոäפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ褯Ѥ줿⤦1·3ư줬롥ascertain, refine, fix 3ĤBaugh and Cable (251) ˤС줾ϼΤ褦ʰ̣Ѥ롥
ascertain: "to reduce the language to rule and set up a standard of correct usage"
refine: "to refine it--- that is, to remove supposed defects and introduce certain improvements"
fix: "to fix it permanently in the desired form"
ֱѸθոäǶ̤Ƥ褦˸뤬ܤƤ¦̤ϰۤʤ롥ascertain ϤŪɸκäΤǡJohnson ascertainment "a settled rule; an established standard" ŤƤ롥ŪˤСǤȤʤ뼭ʸˡǤ뤳Ȥؤ
ˡrefine ϤФոܻؤΤǤ롥μͤδ֤ˤ Chaucer λ䥨ꥶ٥īαѸ줳ͥǸҤѸǤȤΥ른åʱѸѤꡤαѸϿʬƤޤäȤФäΤǤ롥ˤϡ#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ([2014-08-26-1]) #1948. Addison clipping Ƚ ([2014-08-27-1]) ޤޤ
Ǹˡfix ϰٳꤷոʱ뤷褦ȤΡȤȤ館ƤФ褤Swift ϤȤ18ȾνꤿϡνʸϤʱ뤵뤳ȤܵǴäƤΤǤ롥ͤСޤạ̈ΤʤꤤǤϤ (cf. #1421. Johnson θѡ ([2013-03-18-1]))
18εϼԤδ֤ˤϡɤ¦̤֤ƻŸƤΤˤĤư㤤ΤǡưȤΰ̣϶̤Ƥɬפ롥
Ƕܸפ˶ФƤ뤬ܸˤĤ ascertain, refine, fix Τ¦̤бΤʤΤ뤤ϡ3ĤΤǤʤ¾¦̤ʤΤ褯ʬʤȤǤϤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ꥫѸüԤϥꥹѸüԤŪʸˡˡŻ뤹뷹Ȥ롥ꥫѸ̢䤹뵬ϼŪʤϡ#897. Web3 νǤ50ǯ ([2011-10-11-1]) #1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡȤΤǤ롥ˤ͡ŪͳȻפ뤬ŵŪѸ˽ Algeo and Pyles (209--10) Ƥ椷ʤҲؤʲͤκ߽Ȥ1ĤθƤ롥
Perhaps because pronunciation is less important in America than it is in Britain as a mark of social status, American attitudes toward language put somewhat greater stress on grammatical "correctness," based on such matters as the supposed "proper" position of only and other shibboleths.
Algeo and Pyles ϲʤθҤ٤Τ⤷ʤȯظˤϡ֤ζƱΤˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪʶ̤ϤΤפȤ褦˻פ롥ꥹˤϼȤƳɸΤȤƤȯκۤꡤꥫˤϼȤƶܤƻ̵ͭɸΤȤƤʸˡκۤΤȡҲŪʶ̤μȼʤξΤǰۤʤ뤬ˤ¸ߤϤ롤Ȥĥ
ΤˤθȤƤ⡤ʤμʤꥹǤȯǤꡤꥫǤʸˡǤΤȤϻĤ롥ϱѸ˼Ҳؤζ̣ȥԥåˤʤꤽǤˤΥ̸Ūʴ鼨٤ห1Ƥߤ褦ϡ#1503. 졤áȯμҲŪ ([2013-06-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Hudson αʲ˴ط롥
Hudson (45) ϡʸˡáȯŵŪʼҲŪˡ줾ķɽ魯סɽ魯ס֥ǥƥƥɽ魯ǽΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥⤷βʤСȯκۤפʼҲỤ̄ĥꥹǤϡüԤ°볬ɸ뤳ȤŻ뤹뷹ȤȤ졤ʸˡκ̣ۤĥꥫǤϡüԤҲŪ«ɸŻ뤹뷹ȤȤ롥ñ㲽Ʋ᤹СꥹǤϽ°볬ؤε°ռŻ뤵졤ꥫǤϹȤؤε礬Ż뤵롤ȤȤˤʤ
Hudson βϽ벾ǤꡤΤ褦˵ʤ뤳ȤûŪspeculation ȤƤϼ¤ˤ⤷
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Ū˸ʸ ("politically correct" language reform) ϡ1970ǯʹߡѸ͡ʵƤӡºݤ˿͡θոѤƤβ "political_correctness" Ȥɽ˼깤ĤƤơ21äƤϡ̤Ĥɽ蘆ʤȸۤɤޤǤˤʤäƤƤ롥"PC" ȤѸϰ̣ΰ (semantic pejoration) ФȤȤǤꡤθפؤϤؼΤȤƤǤϤʤޤ˿м̵ѤʸոؤΤȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤäƤޤäѸȤƤϡ˴ؤ¤ꡤ"nonsexist language reform" ȤɽѤƤΤ⤷ʤ
"PC" ޤоݤˤޤ侮줿Τϡ¿ο͡βפΡָפ˸ջǤꡤθܴ٤˼ͳCurzan (114) ϡPCפ㤯ɾƤ뤳Ȥ˴ؤơطʤΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
Politically correct language and the efforts to promote it are regularly ridiculed in the public arena. Fabricated language reforms such as personhole cover for manhole cover and vertically challenged for short are held up as symptomatic of the movement's excesses. I call these fabricated because I have never actually heard any advocate of nonsexist language reform seriously propose personhole cover or anyone proposing any kind of language reform make a serious case for vertically challenged. Yet they can show up side by side with more common, even at this point mainstream reforms such as Native American for Indian, African American for Black. If Urban Dictionary provides a snapshot of attitudes about the term political correctness, the term's negative connotations have gone beyond silly and unnecessary and now include manipulative, harmful, and silencing. The first definition in Urban Dictionary in Fall 2012 (which means it had the best ratio of thumbs up to thumbs down) read: "Organized Orwellian intolerance and stupidity, disguised as compassionate liberalism." It goes on to note: "Political correctness is most well known as an institutional excuse for the harassment and exclusion of people with differing political views." Subsequent definitions link politically correct language to censorship and "the death of comedy."
PCפιޤˤäƸո˴ؤƲѤäȤСʸ礬ޤ줿ȤȰʾˡĿͤΤ褦ʸո֤Ȥ٤ΤΤṲ̄ˤޤʤʤäȤȤ롥졹θѤˤơPC term non-PC term ΤѤ뤫ȤϤʤˤʤäƤޤäĿͤΩˡäƤޤäȤäƤ褤Curzan (115) ۩"Politically correct language efforts force speakers to confront the fact that words are not neutral conveyors of intended meaning; words in and of themselves carry information about speaker attitudes and much more. Politically correct language asks speakers to use care in avoiding bias in their language choices and to respect the preferences of underrepresented groups in terms of the language used to refer to them."
ʾηаޤPCפμҲŪɾäƤΤϻ¤Ѳ뤤ϸѤѲȤ餤СƿͰŪѲˤ⤫餺οǯΤƤʻȤ롥̤ˡˡβפäβפʤɸ˴ؤտŪʲϡƵǤ롥ʤǤϡ褽͡δ֤˲פٻʷϵƤ롥¦餫ηǥХååפɿ魯뤳ȤǡפʤǤΤǤ롥ŪפϡʤȤŪʽդȤ쥸ˤʬŪǤϤȤոû֤ǿ͡θոѤƤΤȼΤϡܤĥ̤ɾƤ褤Τ⤷ʤCurzan (116) ⤳®٤ˤĤơ"The speed with which some politically responsive language efforts have changed Modern English usage is remarkable." ɾƤ롥
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
ε#2630. ϼѸˡʵҡˤ礹뤳ȤˤĤơ ([2016-07-09-1]) ǡCurzan ˤ뿷Ѹ˴ѤҲ𤷤ϼѸ˵Ҥη礯٤餶ǤȤƤȤ館ϡäȶĴƤ褤 Curzan "the power of prescriptivism, regardless of its specific aims and desired outcomes, to shape the English language and the sociolinguistic contexts in which the English language is written and spoken" (3--4) Ŧǡˡϼɤˤʤ館뽨ȤƤ롥ŤȤ⤤¸ߤƤꡤ#449. Vendryes ۩ָǤס ([2010-07-20-1])#1722. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1])#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤Curzan ȤϽΤΤȤϻۤʤäƤ롥
An analogy may be useful here. If we imagine a living language as a river, constantly in motion, prescriptivism is often framed as the attempt to construct a dam that will stop the river in its tracks. But, linguists point out, the river is too wide and strong, too creative and ever changing, and it runs over any such dam. However, if we imagine prescriptivism as building not just dams but also embankments or levees along the sides of the river to control water levels and breakwaters that attempt to redirect the flow of the river, it becomes easier to see how prescriptivism may be able to affect how the language changes. The river may flood the embankment or spill over the breakwater, but that motion will be different due to the sheer presence of the barriers. And even if prescriptivism is seen as only the dam, which is then overwhelmed by the power of the river, the sheer presence of the dam affects the flow of the river. In this way, the consciously created structures around or in the river, like prescriptive language efforts, constitute one of many factors that must be accounted for to understand the patterns of the river's movement --- or of a language's development over time. (Curzan 4)
ȤǤ뤫顤ɤޤǤѤΤǤϤʤ㤨СȤƤޤȡˤüԤ¸ߤ䤬ʤʤäƤޤˤüԤϡǤвΤޤѸȤ1ĤǤϤʤȤդɬפǤ롥Ǥϡ¿λήƱήƤʣŪϤۤʡ#1722. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ɤबήˤɤٱƶͿΤϡλˤäưۤʤɤबޤäʤ٤Сθ̤˾ΤǤ졤ʤˤήϰۤʤϤεŤοΤ褦˻פ롥
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
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