hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     1 2 3 ڡ / page 1 (3)

language_planning - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2025-11-08 Sat

#6039. New Zealand English ˤޥѸȯᤰҲ [sociolinguistics][new_zealand_english][maori][borrowing][loan_word][pronunciation][orthography][language_planning][writing][standardisation]

NZE ˤϡޥ줫μѸ줬¿äƤ롥̾̾ʤɤθͭ̾Ϥ󡤰̸¿ήƤ롥Ѹʸ̮ǥޥѸɤΤ褦ȯ뤫ȤˤĤơBauer (398--99) ̣򼨤Ƥ롥

The proper pronunciation of Maori is currently a controversial issue in New Zealand, and it is a subject on which feelings run high. The issue is at heart a political rather than a linguistic one, since it is clear linguistically that there is no good reason to expect native-like Maori pronunciation in words which are being used in English. None the less, it has the linguistic consequence that there is a good deal of variation in the way in which Maori loanwords are pronounced in English, with variants close to native Maori norms at the formal end of the spectrum, and much more Anglicised versions --- sometimes irregularly Anglicised versions --- at the other. To give some idea of the variation this can lead to, I present below a few place-names with a Maori pronunciation and one extreme English pronunciation. Variants are heard anywhere on the continuum between these two extremes.


ʸϤθ˶㤬Ĥ󤲤Ƥ뤬ȤХޥǥ˥塼ɤɽ魯 Aotearoa Ĺ򤤱ϡˤϡޥȯǤ /aːɔtɛːaɾɔa/ ȤʤꡤȯѸüԤ⤤С鴰˱Ѹ첽 /eɪətiəˈɹəʊə/ ȤȯԤ⤤롥ޤ2ĤξˤȤơŪȯ¿ȤΤ顤ɤη㤷롥
ɤطʤˤϡѸȥޥβηϤκۡޥΥƥ饷ǥ󥹤ؤθޥؤΩ֤פ졤ײ衦Ωʤɡ͡ʸŪƤʤ󤺤ҲŪװѤƤΤȯ1ĤȤäƤ⡤üԤ٤Ω줬ǻȿǤƤǽȤȤ
ʤޥ޻ɽݤֻϡ1830ǯȾ1840ǯޤǤˤɸಽƤȤ (Bauer 398) ճᤫäΤʡȤݤ

Bauer L. "English in New Zealand." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5. Ed. Burchfield R. Cambridge: CUP, 1994. 382--429.

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2025-06-27 Fri

#5905. ޻ɽإܥ󼰤ܤ --- 70ǯ֤ž [japanese][romaji][spelling][language_planning][writing][standardisation][through][link]

1620俷ʹīˤơ֥޻ϥإܥ󼨡礦ʸģ֤ǤספȤǺܤƤˤȡʸģϡܸΥ޻ɽˤĤƽΡַἰפѸȯ˶ᤤ֥إܥ󼰡פܤȤˤžǰƤޤȤ᤿1954ǯչ𼨰衤70ǯ֤礭ʸθľȤʤ롥
žطʤˤϡҲˤإܥ󼰤ιϤʿƩȤ֤롥ѥݡȤ̾ƻϩɸʤɡŪʾ̤ˤƥإܥ󼰤ѤƤǡعǤչ𼨤˴Ťἰ˻ƳƤꡤΡ֤ͤפĹǯβȤʤäƤ
ξԤμʰ㤤ϡἰ֤פ si֤פ ti֤ġפ tu֤աפ hu ɽΤФإܥ󼰤ǤϤ줾 shi, chi, tsu, fu ȡܸüԤǤϤʤѸ¾ΡüԤˤȤäȯ䤹ֻѤƤˤ롥ǰƤϡμҲŪ֤ǧɽ뤳ȤŪȤƤȤ
Ĺ餯ξʻ¸ƤȤˤĤƲƻפᤰ餻ƤΤ褤ȤΤϡDZѸˤˤֻɸಽ (standardisation) ĹפФ뤫Ѹˤϡ¿񵭤δΰ㤤顤1Ĥñ¿ֻthrough 516̤ΰֻäȤϡܥ֥Ǥ⤷Фм夲Ƥ̤Ǥcf. through) θ塤Ѥڤ伭ʸˡԻФơֻ경ɸಽƤäβǤϡ츻Ż뤹ΩȯŻ뤹Ωδ֤ǶĥطäΥ޻ɽθľ⡤ܸβηϤ¤ʷἰȡŪŻ뤹إܥ󼰤Ȥδ֤ΡĹǯˤ錄ĥط1Ĥεȸ뤳ȤǤ
ʤǰƤǤϡĿͤΤĹǯѤƤɽºŤ졤ľѹΤǤϤʤȤƤ롥Ū˿ʤƤˤܤ
hellog ǤϡޤǤ޻ɽᤰϷ֤夲Ƥcf. romaji)) ʸģž򤹤ǡʲβ⻲ͤˤ줿

#1612. ƻϩɸ޻Ѹɽء ([2013-09-25-1])
#1879. ܸˤ޻ˡ ([2014-06-19-1])
#1892. ֥޻ΤĤŤס ([2014-07-02-1])
#1893. إܥ󼰥޻ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ϤɤΤ餤Ѹ ([2014-07-03-1])
#3427. ἰܼإܥ󼰤Υ޻ĤŤоɽ ([2018-09-14-1])
#4905. ְΡפ Aichi Aiti ([2022-10-01-1])
#4925. ޻ɽɤȱѸ쥹ڥ󥰴 ([2022-10-21-1])
#5034. إܥ󼰥޻ɽ˱ѸǤƤ롩 ([2023-02-07-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2026-01-01-1]

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2025-03-28 Fri

#5814. ܼȤȤƤӾҲļ̦رѸȤ򡡥ɤκ١ʴȽŹ2016ǯ [irish][irish_english][ireland][language_shift][contact][review][invisible_hand][toc][language_planning]


 ̦رѸȤ򡡥ɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ



ļ̦ءˤˤ롤ɤθ˴ؤҡرѸȤ򡡥ɤκ١ʴȽŹ2016ǯˤˤĤơ#2798. ̦رѸȤ򡡥ɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ ([2016-12-24-1])#2803. ɸüԿ͸Ȼϰ ([2016-12-29-1])#2804. ɤˤߤΤͤ츽ݡ ([2016-12-30-1]) ǻȤƤ
ϡƱγפĤिܼ󤲤Ƥ



ϡɤȤե
I
̱²ΤȤФѸ˼äؤ
ɤϱ󤯤ƶᤤ
ФΥ
ۤΤΡ񡤰
ѥ֤Ǽ򷹤
ϤǴʸ
II ʬΤȤ
ɤĤθ
ɸäޤ
ˤʤʤʤ뤳Ȥ --- ǽϤȵΤͤ
ɸǤĤʤ
Ѹ줿Թ
ʬΤȤФϥɸ
Ūʤ꤫Τ褦ʤ
Ūᰥ
III ǽ
Ȥ˳륢
եɤĤȤ
ܽΤƻ塤褳

ϡȤФѤʤȤ
I ȤФؤȤ
ɸΤƤƱѸΤ
Ŀ͡ߥ˥ƥ٥Ǥθ
̤Ť
II 鸽
ɤ˵ä
ؤװ
ΰؤ
ؤܤȸؤμҲ
III ߤ̤
ɸȤ --- 夫
޵äƤ
ƤΤΤȤϰ㤦ȤƤΥɸ
ɸ⤵ޤޤ
Ƥ륢ɸβ
ɻϰ¸

軰ϡɸؤλפѸؤλפ
ʤޤ򤭤
ؤؤλפ
ɸɤƤΤ
ѸɤƤΤ
ֱѸפȤ֥ɱѸס
ѸɤƤΤ
;ϡüԤθռˤޤ
ϤƤθĴ
ߥ˥ƥ
եɤǵŤ
ѤظˤüԤΰռ
do be θ쳰̣
ؤΰռ
ɤ餷ؤΰռ
ʸˡäФռ

޾ϡȤФΤʤΥɤ餷
I ɱѸΤ
ͭθ
ϤαѸϤॢɸ줫μѸ
ɱѸͭɽ

ʸˡΤߤˡָפߤ
αѸ
II ɽ
ְäѸ졩
ȼη
How long are you here? ΰ̣
ȼη
äΰ̣ be after λ
be after λ have λλȤʬ
II ¤ɽ
Ĵʸ꤬
'tis ʸʬʸ
ȤФƯƤ뤷
ɸߤй
ܤȤ
ϻϡȤФѤ뤳ȡؤ뤳
I ܿ
ܿؤˤȤäƤΥɱѸ̥
ѲɤΤ褦ˤߤ뤫
ʸˡΥΥ١
II ȤФѲȿ͡ε
ѸȼʬΤȤФȤδ֤Ǥ륢ǥƥƥ
ˤߤΤ
ɬ --- δȱѸ¿Ȥ줾

????????????
ʸ




(language_shift) ܿ (contact) (language_planning) ʤɡҲؤ¿θʤɡʱѡˡʸˤˡܤ

̦رѸȤ򡡥ɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ

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2023-04-06 Thu

#5092. ɸؤȱѸˡ˸ؤ [trademark][goshosan][youtube][voicy][heldio][link][semantics][semantic_change][metaphor][metonymy][synecdoche][rhetoric][onomastics][personal_name][toponymy][eponym][sound_symbolism][phonaesthesia][capitalisation][linguistic_right][language_planning][semiotics][punctuation]

ޤǤˡVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) YouTube ְʼδѸظإ̤ͥơʣˤ錄޽ءˤɸ (trademark linguistics) ˤĤ̤Ƥޤ

ΡVoicy

#667. ޽¤Ȥ --- ɸؤȤϲ329
#671. ޽¤Ȥ --- ɸεŪͻ42
#674. ޽¤Ȥ --- ɸŪˡ45

ΡYouTube

#112. ɸθ --- ޽¤о322
#114. ޥƤ뤳ȡƤʤȡƤȤϲ̣뤫 --- ޥμҲỤ̄ --- ޽¤μȡ329
#116. ǤϤʤɸ޽¤󤬸ؤڤǥץ45
#118 412ͽˤ³ʸ嵭2023/04/12(Wed)#118. ޽¤󤬿ꤹˡءɸ --- ѥˡؤء

ɸθؤȤΤϻˤȤäƤߤäΤǤ¤Ū򰷤äƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤϢʬ¿ΰ褬ȤȤ褯ʬޤ伫ȤδؿϱѸˡ˸ؤǤδͤƤ¿ޤפĤΤվ񤭤ǵ󤲤Ƥߤޤ

ΰ̣ѲȤΥᥫ˥ࡥä , metonymy, synecdoche ʤɡ rhetoric Ȥɤ
ͭ̾ (onomastics) ̡̾ (personal_nameeponym ʤɡ餬ˤư̾βΤȤꡥ
ΰ̣ѡʲ˴ؤ벾ȤƤ "Onymic Reference Default Principle" (ORDP) ˤĤƤϡ#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1]) 򻲾ȡ
(semiotics) ̤νꡥ
ħ (sound_symbolism) Ȳ (phonaesthesia)
񤭸դˤʸʸޥΡåΤ (cf. capitalisation)
ïȥ뤹ΤȤȻۤȸμҲŪꡥ츢 (linguistic_right) ײ (language_planning) Υơޡ

٤󤲤Ƥȥ꤬ʤǤ򵡤˾ɸθؤ¸ߤǰƬ֤ƤȻפޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-09-1]

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2022-06-18 Sat

#4800. Lingua Franca Core ؤȽ [world_englishes][lingua_franca][elf][lfc][elt][standardisation][language_planning]

ε#4799. Jenkins ˤ "The Lingua Franca Core" ([2022-06-17-1]) Lingua Franca Core (LFC) ƳLFC 󼨤줿طʤˤϡѸ (world_englishes) λˤäơαѸؽԡȤ櫓 EFL γؽԤϡŪʱɸѼ䤽¾ϤɸŪȤߤʤƤѼΤǤϤʤELF (= English as a Lingua Franca) EIL (= English as an International Language) ȾΤѼؽΥåȤȤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤȤѸ춵Ѥ줹롥αѸüԿ͸Τ餯Ⱦʬʾ EFL üԤǤꡤǤ LFC ºŤ EFL ؽԤˤȤäơ̱Ūפ˸뤫⤷ʤ
LFC ФȽŪʰո⤢롥LFC ⡤ŪʱɸѼƱͤˡñʤɸǤˤȤɤޤ餺ϤȤʤäƤϤʤȡϤμŤΤ鿷ΤؤȤؤȤȤˤʤʤ̱ŪǤȤʤС⤽ؼԤ䶵ԤͰŪˡ֥פȤ󼨤ȤȤ̷ϤĤߤǤϤʤ
Tomlinson (146) ϡLFC Τ褦ʤΤꤷɸѸפŤԤʤȤ԰٤ "arrogant" ǤȷپĤ餷Ƥ롥

But, are we not being rather arrogant in assuming that it is we as applied linguists, language planners, curriculum designers, teachers and materials developers who will determine the characteristics of a World Standard English? Is it not the users of English as a global language who will determine these characteristics as a result of negotiating interaction with each other? We can facilitate the process by making sure that our curricula, our methodology and our examinations do not impose unnecessary and unrealistic standards of correctness on our international learners, and by providing input and guiding output relevant to their needs and wants. But ultimately it is they and not us who will decide. To think otherwise is to be guilty of neo-colonist conceit and to ignore all that we know about how languages develop over time.


ɸफϤ䤳Ǥ롥Ϣơ#1246. Ѹɸಽȵϼδط ([2012-09-24-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Tomlinson, Brian. "A Multi-dimensional Approach to Teaching English for the World" English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles. Ed. Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni. London: Continuum, 2006. 130--50.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-01-1]

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2021-02-01 Mon

#4298. 衼åѤͭϤʶ̸Ȥʤʤäڥ [spanish][lingua_franca][history][hispanification][prestige][language_planning][sociolinguistics]

ˤơڥüԿ͸äƤ롥üԿǤС10ǯۤɤδ֤˱Ѹɤȴ˷Ѥ2̤ϰ̤ؤ˻äĶǤcf. #3009. üԿˤȥå252017ǯǡˡ ([2017-07-23-1])ˡڥΤϡڥܹȤƽ礭¸Ƥ롥ޤꥫ罰ǤοĥȤܤͤcf. #256. ƹ Hispanification ([2010-01-08-1]
ˤ륹ڥοĥϤΤ褦餫ɨΥ衼åѤˤƤϤɤڥϥ衼åѤǤ1ĤȤϸ뤬ζˤΤʤǥ󥬡ե󥫤ȤƱƶϤ򼨤ȤϤʤäʤȤѸ졤ե󥹸졤ɥĸ٤СαƶϤϾ˾Τäߤ⤽Ǥ롥ʤڥϥ衼åѤͭϤʶ̸ȤʤʤäΤ
䤤˴ؤơ˵Ҥ롥ƥ줫ƥȤƹȸϰ̤˽Φؤĥڥˤ򿶤֤äǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (27--28)

ڥϤۤˤФƤΤ顤Ȥˤơ衼åѤζ̸Ȥ̾򤢤Ƥ褵ʤΤǤϤʤȤºݤˤϤޤϤʤäȤΤ⡤ڥϡˤ̤ơ衼åѤĶ̱Ūʥߥ˥ȤƻȤ줿ȤޤäʤǤ롥ȤСڥƱ餤üԿĸ˥ݡɸ䥦饤ʸ줬ꡤ󻰡黰ޡΤҤȤӤȤäƤ뤬ڥϤθ٤ƤϰŪʤҤäƤʤڥ󲦹񤬤ĤĤȹ񳰤βʻ礷ǡڥȤ뷯礿ڥ⹭ڤۤ뤳ȤȤʤäȤϤǤ롥ɤ⡤ɤϤǤ⥹ڥͥۤϰ̤ʤäݥȥǤ⡤٥ꥢȾγǤ⤽ǤäȤСȬΥڥΥ͡ǥȡ˥ߥΤʥݥ꤬Ǥä⤷ˤνڥΤΤϤ뤫ʤΦ˸碌뤳ȤʤäʤСƽȾФޤǤˡڥäкѡҲ񡤽Τ¾˸ΤȤϰۼʸ򥹥ڥ˺ꤢƤʤäʤСڥϥ衼åѤζ̸ΤҤȤĤˤʤäƤʤ餪ϤʤäϤȤϤޤ䥢ꥫ罰ǤϡϥץȥꥳϤϥᥭϤˤޤǡƥΤޤޤʥꥫŪѼϰ̤ޤޤ礷Ƥ򸫤ȡڥ̤«Ƥ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤư礹ҤȤΤʤˤϡڥ줬ꥫΦˤޤꤵˤҤڤˡȤƥ衼åѤˤɤäƤΤԤˤƤҤȤˤ衤ޤΤȤڥϡ衼åΦӤĤΥǥȤƤ­Ǥ롥


εҤϡΡ֤ʤפ䤤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤˤνפ礤ˤƤˤʤϡȤ櫓Ѹե󥹸ˤӤƤв褹ˤʤӤӤҿ (prestige) ײ (language_planning) ȤӤ⤪⤷

ɡˡë 𡦺 ľҡˡض̸ --- 衼åѽᤰء١ҡ2018ǯ

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2019-11-13 Wed

#3852. ʤֿסʤФˤΥ޻ɽ Shimbashi ˤ n ǤϤʤ m ѤΤǤ (1) [sobokunagimon][nasal][consonant][japanese][romaji][phonetics][phonology][phoneme][allophone][assimilation][language_planning][spelling][orthography]

ʸ嵭2021/04/29(Thu)ܵϡѤʵפ򰷤äΤʤǤȤ櫓¿ȤƤ褦Ǥ켫ΤϤȤƤ򤷤ȤǤܵϡֶʽŪʲפǤϤΤΡɮԤȤƤԽʬʲˤȤɤޤȹͤƤޤषβŦ³ԤܳŪ˵Ƥ椯Ĥܵ񤤤ȤаޤޤǤΤǡ³Ԥ3碌ɤǤФȻפޤ򶲤줺˸СܵΡֶʽŪʲפǤԽʬǤ

夲㤬ֿפɤ̤ˤƤ⡤֤פ޻ m ֤Ϥ褯ˤΤܤޤ
JRοؤα̾ɽϳΤ Shimbashi ȤʤäƤޤܸɽȤƤϡ֤ФפΤ褦ˡ֤פǤäƤ⡤ѸɽΤˤСJRѤƤȤܤإܥ󼰥޻ɽ˶ᤤɽˤˤƤ n ǤϤʤ m ȤʤޤϤäʤǤ礦ϡ¤ϱѸˤδ뤳ȤΤǤ˥ǥפʤΤǤ϶ʽŪʲܤƤޤ礦
ޤŪǤإܥ󼰥޻ɽǤϡ֤פȯȸƤФ벻ˤϡb, m, p ֤ˤƤ n ǤϤʤ m ɽ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäơȡסʤʤСˤ Nambaܴ֡סʤۤޡˤ Hommaֻӡסʤڤˤ Sampei ȤʤꡤƱͤ˿ʤФˤ Shimbashi Ȥʤ櫓ǤϤʤʤΤȤȤǤ
b, m, p ֤ˤ m ɽͳ򤹤뤿ˤϡؤμɬפǤܸ֤פü첻ǤȸƤФ졤ܸ첻Ǥ /ɴ/ ɽޤ1ĤβǤꡤܸüԤˤȤäʶʤ1ĤβȤǧƤޤºݾϿΰۤʤȯǼ¸ޤ֤פϤɤΤ褦ʲĶ˸뤫ˤäơۤʤȯȤƼ¸ΤǤ
ȡסܴ֡סֻӡפ3ñȯƤߤȡ֤פʬϤξĤȯȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥʬ뤫Ȼפޤϥ޹ԻҲ m θˤۤʤޤܸüԤˤȤäƤϡ֤פȤ n ȯƤĤǤ⡤ξˤϼ¤ m ȯƤΤǤϸ³ m, b, p ƱξǤ뤿ˡľ֤פԲ n ǤϤʤξ m ˶ŤƤۤΤȤƥࡼȯǤ뤫Ǥȯ䤹褦äƸ̡ǥեȤ n 顤ȯꥹࡼ m ؤĴƤȤ櫓Ǥ
̯ѲȤгΤˤǤΤǡܸɽǤϡäȯĴϢưˡ֤פɽΤޤޤǤꤹƤޤϢưʤСȤƤϡ֤դɽȤʤǤ礦ˡΤ褦ȯΰ㤤̵ǤϤʤѸɽʤӡ˶ᤤإܥ󼰥޻ɽˤˤäƤϡ嵭βĶˤƤϡn 夨ơ긷̩ʲɽǤ m Ѥ櫓Ǥ
ܸüԤˤȤäƤϡֿɡסʤ󤸤夯ˤֿסʤФˤƱ֤ײޤΤ顤Ʊ֤ = n ɽѤФ褤ǤϤʤȤǤѸʤإܥ󼰥޻ˤǤ2ĤΡ֤פ¤ƱȯǤʤȤ¤Ż뤷ơԤˤ n ʸ򡤸Ԥˤ m ʸơ̤ɽʤ路ȤȤǤ
޻ǽ񤯤ȤϤɼԤȤܸüԤǰƬˤΤǤ n ɽۤʬ䤹ΤϤޤǤ⤢ޤ󡥤¸ƤΤἰ޻Ǥˤȡֿפ Sinbasi Ȥʤޤ餯JRʤޤŴƻƼҡˤϡɼԤȤüԡʤ餯ѸɽǤǤȻפ¿γ͡ˤꤷἰǤϤʤإܥ󼰡ʤ˥޻ɽѤƤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤShimbashi ϡܸȱѸˤޤĤ벻ءֻˤȤɤޤ餺ݲ줿ܤθȤؤΤʤΤǤ

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2019-04-30 Tue

#3655. Ȥͣι׵᤹ͳ [sociolinguistics][standardisation][language_planning]

ŵŪʶȤϡǸŪѤͣΡֹפ׵᤹롥ʣθѸǤ륹٥륮ʥʤɤιȤϾʤ餺¸ߤ뤬ʹߤˤ򿶤֤СȤۤȤܻؤ餫ˡ1ȡ1פäȤϡ§Ȥ1ĤθѼֹפȤƤޤĤꤢʤͭƤΤǤ롥Τ褦ʶḽιȤ˽°Ƥ䤿ΤۤȤɤϡΤȤΤȤȤ򤷤ƤꡤƼ䤹뤳Ȥ򤷤ʤƤʤȤͣι׵᤹ΤʤΤ
ǶᡤѸɸಽˤˤĤƺƹͤ뵡񤬤ꡤHaugen θŵŪʸɤľƤߤˡȤܻؤȤϡ"internal cohesion" "external distinction" ǤȤŴͤɤʸߤĤʸ̮⥫СĤġѤ褦

   The definition of a nation is a problem for historians and other social scientists; we may accept the idea that it is the effective unit of international political action, as reflected in the organization of the United Nations General Assembly. As a political unit it will presumably be more effective if it is also a social unit, it minimizes internal differences and maximizes external ones. On the individual's personal and local identity it superimposes a national one by identifying his ego with that of all others within the nation and separating it from that of all others outside the nation. In a society that is essentially familial or tribal or regional it stimulates a loyalty beyond the primary groups, but discourages any conflicting loyalty to other nations. The ideal is: internal cohesion--external distinction.
   Since the encouragement of such loyalty requires free and rather intense communication within the nation, the national ideal demands that there be a single linguistic code by means of which this communication can take place. . . . On the other hand, a nation feels handicapped if it is required to make use of more than one language for official purposes, as is the case in Switzerland, Belgium, Yugoslavia, Canada, and many other countries. (Haugen 927--28)


ȤŪˤ "internal cohesion" ܻؤгŪˤ "external distinction" 롥ɸ첽ȤδľСȤϡƱ Haugen Τ褦˸Ф "minimum variation in form" "maximum variation in function" ׵᤹ΤȤȤˤʤ̱ΤŪݤˤϡǻ̩ʥߥ˥ɬפǤꡤäͣζ̸줬ȤΤĤʤ⡤ˤ狼䤹
Ϣơ#2742. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ ([2016-10-29-1]) ȡ#2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.

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2018-10-09 Tue

#3452. ˾塤ܸϱѸռŪʽ񤭸դβפä [japanese][writing][spelling_reform][style][language_planning][genbunicchi]

ѸŪӤȤ񤭸դ˴ؤξϰճ礭ۤʤ롥ܸΤۤͰŪʴͿäȤħ롥ֽ񤭸աפǤ뤫顤Ūˤäơäաפ٤аռŪǤꡤäƿͰŪʴͿߤΤʤΤθƤܸˤΤۤѸˤͿٹ礤Ȥ櫓ʹߡĤޤḽˤηǡ¤Ǥ롥ϡܸ˳ѡפǡ2˿Ƥ롥

θȾˤϡޤɮ٤롥¤ڤˤäʸȤȤ뤵줿ȤǤ롥θռˤ֤ȤФʸפȤ⤤٤θʸפδϡάܸˤˤƺǤͥ줿פȤ褦ˤäƿʸɽ뤳ȤȤʤä(14)


2ʹߡܤ礭ƤŪװˤäƼҲŪѳפԤǤ롥ˤäܸ礭ѲޤǹԤƤŪ̾岾̾ؤѹ줿ΤǤ롥ϤιǤ롥ܸ˾塤ϤιŪװˤäƤʤ줿ȤΰյϤ礭Ȥ虜򤨤ʤפȤ礭ϤäʤСϼưʤΤǤ롥Ūʶ˴Ťꤵ줿δθ岾̾λܹԤϡܸ˾夭礭ʽȤܤ (14--15)


ѸˤˤơΤ褦ʸΤ䥹ڥ󥰤ιû֤ȤϡΥޥˤ뵬Ū񤭸դδȤŪʷСۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤񤭸դˤơּΤѲפȤΤϸ̩ˤ̷⤷ǤϤ뤬ܸˤ٤бѸˤǤѲϡּΡפäȤϤײȤǰѸϡƱѸˤܸˤΤۤˤդ路

ˡ1ϡܸ˳ѡ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ1--21ǡ

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2018-09-14 Fri

#3427. ἰܼإܥ󼰤Υ޻ĤŤоɽ [japanese][writing][orthography][romaji][language_planning]

#1879. ܸˤ޻ˡ ([2014-06-19-1])#1892. ֥޻ΤĤŤס ([2014-07-02-1]) ǸȤꡤܸΥ޻ɽϡָԤס֥إܥ󼰡סɸ༰סܼסַἰפʤɤΤĤΤĤŤδ֤ɤƤ롥
ָԤפϡ1954ǯʾ29ǯ129ܤ֥޻ΤĤŤפȤƹ𼨤1ɽפȡ2ɽפΩƤǤ롥1ɽȤϼ˼ַἰפƱǤꡤ2ɽȤϸ˽Ҥ٤ɸ༰פȡἰϳ줿ʬܼפäΤȤäƤ롥
֥إܥ󼰡פϡ1885ǯ18ǯˤˡХ󡤳ʤɤˤäȿ줿ϻ٤ȯɽǡҲѸˡ첻򥤥ꥢ˽ɽˡǤ롥إܥΡ±Ѹӽ3ǡ1886ǯˤ˺Ѥ줿ᡤ̾Ĥ
ɸ༰פϡֲ̾إܥ󼰡פȤƤФ褦ˡ1908ǯ41ǯˤˡإܥ󼰤 kwa, gwa, ye, wo ΤǤ롥Ŵ̾̾ʤɤ˹ѤƤ롥2ɽ˼ޤƤ롥
ܼפϡ1886ǯ19ǯˤ۰̤餬ϻйȯɽǡܸθ޽ޤ˴ŤƤ롥2ɽ˼ޤƤ롥
ַἰפϡ1937ǯʾ12ǯ921ˡֹ޻֥˴إפηǼ줿ܼѼǤꡤΤޤ1ɽȤʤäƤ롥
ʲˡἰȤἰܼإܥ󼰤оɽ򼨤ܼĻ [ ] θѤΤˤ * դˡإܥ󼰤ֻåΤǼ

 aiueo    
 kakikukeko kyakyukyo
  [kwa]*        
 sasisuseso syasyusyo
   shi    shashusho
 tatituteto tyatyutyo
   chitsu   chachucho
ʹ naninuneno nyanyunyo
Ϲ hahihuheho hyahyuhyo
    fu      
޹ mamimumemo myamyumyo
 ya yu yo    
 rarirurero ryaryuryo
 wa   [wo]*    
           
 gagigugego gyagyugyo
  [gwa]*        
 zazizuzezo zyazyuzyo
   ji    jajujo
 dazizudedo zyazyuzyo
   [di][du]   [dya][dyu][dyo]
   ji    jajujo
й babibubebo byabyubyo
ѹ papipupepo pyapyupyo


ʾ塤ܸɴŵ (pp. 348--51) ˰͵򤷤

ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ

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2018-05-01 Tue

#3291. 11θѸեꥫ¹ [south_africa][official_language][afrikaans][language_planning][linguistic_right]

#407. եꥫ¹ Afrikaans ([2010-06-08-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡˤ11θѸ줬¸ߤ롥衼åѿͿ̱Ԥ English, Afrikaans Τۤ Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu ȤäեꥫϽ줬ޤޤ롥1994ǯ˥ޥǥˤꤵ줿ˡ6ǵꤵƤ롥̾ˡǸѸˤϡ1Ĥ2Ĥ˸¤뤳Ȥ¿11θ̾󤵤ȤΤϿҾǤϤʤ졤̱²ºŤȤȤ򤹤뤳ȤǤ뤬ºݤˤϤ줫ʤҲθ¤ȿǤ줷ȤȤ館٤
Ҳθ¤طʤˤϡ2ĤǤ롥1ĤϡŪ˱ƶϤݤäƤݼŪϤȤƤ Afrikaans ϰ̤̱²ζϤȤƤαѸ˲졤ɤۤƤȤϿޤѲǤ롥ˡǤϱѸ Afrikaans ʿѸ§Ƥ줬űѤ줿Ȥˤꡤ2֤Ǥμͳ褬ޤ졤̤ȤƱѸ줬ȴǤƤĤޤꡤθȤŪͥä Afrikaans ֻݾ򼺤äסʻܡp. 233ˤȤˤ롤ҲŪκεǤ롥̤Ȥҥ륭ϡѸ줬ȥåפΩβ Afrikaans ³β¾9줬Ω¤֤ȤޤǤ롥ˡˤѸǤ11줬եåȤ󤵤Ƥꡤҥ륭ʤդˤСޤˤθᤰǺ롥
⤦1ĤǤϡˡ11եåȤ¤٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ⼨̤ꡤŪʸ줿ȤǤ롥̡̱ͰͤμŪʸºŤ褦ˤʤäƤ (235) ۩

ܤˤζʤʤäˡܤϴˤ򼨤ǡϰع˶˴ؤȽǤͤƤ롥ΤᡤDz (home language) Ѥ뤫ɤȤʤ鲿ǯֻѤ뤫줫Ѹʤ⤷ϥեꥫ󥹸ˤؤڤؤϲǯܤˤ뤫ʤɤˤĤơü˸СعˤۤʤäƤꡤγع?פȤդˤҤȤ뤳ȤǤʤޤŪեꥫ󥹸Ϥγعˤͤؤ褦ˤʤꡤѸˤ붵ơʸŪˤ륢եꥫʡȥȥ֥ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥¿졦¿ʸҲΰĤλѤǤ롥


11θѸפϹ̱θ츢ΤǤ⤢뤬ҲʣħΤǤ⤢롥뤿ˤϡŪطʤޤơ褯򤷤Ƥɬפ롥
եꥫ¹αѸˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1]) ȡ#1703. եꥫο̱ˤȹ ([2013-12-25-1]) ⻲ȡ

ԡ10ϡեꥫ󥹸ȱѸΤ᤮礤סϸӾˡθ¿Ҳܡ١ǡ2002ǯ225--45ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-05-13-1] [2021-11-29-1]

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2018-04-30 Mon

#3290. եꥫθѸ [africa][official_language][language_planning][map]

ε#3289. Swaziland eSwatini ˹̾ѹ ([2018-04-29-1]) ǡܿͤˤȤäߤȻפ륢եꥫ1夲򥢥եꥫΤ˹ƤߤƤ⡤ϤߤȤȤǤϤʤܥ֥Ǥ⡤#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1]) ʤɤ񤤤ƤեꥫΰŪ˼夫äȻפϥեꥫθѸˤĤƾҲ𤹤뤳Ȥˤ
Ethnologue ˤ2000ǯǤĴˤСեꥫˤ2058줬ѤƤȤϡθ6,80930%Ǥʤʤߤ˥32%1̤Ǥꡤ3̰ʲʿϰ19%̥ꥫ15%衼åѤ3%³ˡեꥫϥ衼åѤο̱ϻۤäƤˤη̤ȤƤȤ櫓ե󥹸Ѹ줬̤ȤݤäƸ뤬θѸʣǤ롥Ѹ줬ñ줬ʣʣξ硤θϤʤΩˤ뤫¤ˤä͡Ǥ롥⤽ѸˤäɤƤ⤢롥ʲϡ1998ǯΥǡ˴Ť2002ǯλ (218--19) ˤƹϰθѸΰǤ롥󤬸Ťǽ⤢Τǡ㤨2011ǯΩäƤʤʤɡˡ̤ϳάȤ򤵤줿  *  *

[ӥѸϰ衡]

른ꥢ (Algeria)
ץ (Egypt)
ӥ (Libya)
⡼꥿˥ (Mauritania)
å (Morocco)
(Sudan)
˥ (Tunisia)

[ݥȥѸϰ衡]

󥴥 (Angola)
ܥ٥ (Capo Verde)
˥ӥ (Guinea-Bissau)
⥶ӡ (Mozambique)
ȡᡦץ󥷥 (São Tom Príncipe)

[ڥѸϰ衡]

ʥ (Canary Islands)
ƻ˥ (Equatorial Guinea)

[ե󥹸Ѹϰ衡]

٥˥ (Benin)
֥륭ʥե (Burkina Faso)
󥴶¹ (Republic of Congo)
ܥ (Gabon)
˥ (Guinea)
ȥܥ (Côte d'Ivoire)
ޥ (Mali)
ޥå (Mayotte)
˥ (Niger)
˥ (Reunion)
ȡ (Togo)
̱綦¹ (Democratic Republic of Congo)
ͥ (Senegal)

[ѸѸϰ衡]

ӥ (Gambia)
(Ghana)
٥ꥢ (Liberia)
⡼ꥷ㥹 (Mauritius)
ʥߥӥ (Namibia)
ʥꥢ (Nigeria)
쥪 (Sierra Leone)
(Uganda)
ӥ (Zambia)
Х֥ (Zimbabwe)

[եꥫѸϰ衡]

(Seychelles)롦쥪롦ե (Seychelles Creole French)

[ʣѸѸϰʥӥˡ]

ޥꥢ (Somalia)ӥܥޥ (Somali)
ȥꥢ (Eritrea)ӥܱѸܥƥ˥ (Tigrinya)

[ʣѸϰʥե󥹸ˡ]

֥ (Burundi)ե󥹸ܥ󥸸 (Rundi)
եꥫ (Central African Republic)ե󥹸ܥ󥴸 (Sango)
ޥ (Madagascar)ե󥹸ܥޥ饬 (Malagasy)
(Rwanda)ե󥹸ܱѸܥ (Rwanda)

[ʣѸϰʱѸˡ]

ܥĥ (Botswana)Ѹܥĥʸ (Tswana)
ԥ (Ethiopia)Ѹܥϥ (Amharic)14
˥ (Kenya)Ѹܥҥ (Swahili)
쥽 (Lesotho)Ѹܥ쥽ȸ (Sotho)
ޥ饦 (Malawi)Ѹܥ (Chewa)
եꥫ¹ (South Africa)Ѹܥեꥫ󥹸 (Afrikaans)9Ĥ
兩 (Swaziland)Ѹܥƥ (Swati)
󥶥˥ (Tanzania)Ѹܥҥ

[ѸȤޤޤʤʣѸϰ衡]

롼 (Cameroon)Ѹܥե󥹸
(Chad)ե󥹸ܥӥ
(Comoros)ե󥹸ܥӥ
֥ (Djibouti)ӥܥե󥹸

ſΡ9ϡ2000θ줬äΦեꥫˤѡסϸӾˡθ¾Ҳܡ١ǡ2002ǯ217--24ǡ
ԡˡؿ񥢥եꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ

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2018-03-21 Wed

#3250. ν̱²֥ΤӤ [language_planning][linguistic_right][sociolinguistics][altaic][map][russian]

ǤϥסΤ4ܤޤꡤ³Ÿ뤳ȤޤƤ롥228俷ʹī8̤ˡ¿̱²ΤӤפȤФεǺܤƤס100ʾ̱²򱿱ĤˤֹȤΰפȡּҲķפĴƤ뤬μĥŪȿǤȤơȡ̱²ζ̤θȤƤΥʤˤǤФƤ롥΢֤ƤС̱²θڻ뤹Ǥ롥
ʹǼ夲ƤΤϡ⥹800ۤɡ뻳̮Υܥ륬ή˰֤륿륹¹ˤ륿 (TaTar, Tartar) Ǥ롥ϡ륿²륯ɤ°ǡ衤ϰ˺դƤʡ#1548. 륿² ([2013-07-23-1]) 򻲾ȡˡŪˤϡ󥴥ή७ץ㥯ϥθȤʤä󡦥ϥ15--16˱ɤԤΥˤ濴˥ʸֺ餤ͤΩ줫鸫С1237--1480ǯޤǡ֥ΤӤפΤȤDzʻۤθ1552ǯ˥뤬ƤϤȤȤˤʤ롥Ϣˤϥ뼫¹Ȥ¸ߤߤϥϢˮ°̱²¹1ĤȤ¸ߤ롥륹¹θߤο͸388ͤǡΤäͤ53%ͤ40%ʥΤȤƤ⥿ͤϥͤ˼¿̱²Ǥˡ¹Ǥϥȥ줬ѸȤʤäƤ롥

Map of Tatarstan

̳عǤϡɬܤȤƤ뤬ǯɤæɬΰϤ򤫤ƤƤȤȿȯݸԤ佻̱¿ɤΥڻϥͤºĤƤ񤷤Ƥ롥춵꤬ҲȤʤäƤǤ롥
ˤĤƤϡEthnologue Ͽ⻲ȡ

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2018-03-13 Tue

#3242. 󥫥īαѸ첽Τ⤯ߤ Chancery Standard (2) [standardisation][politics][monarch][chancery_standard][lancastrian][chaucer][lydgate][hoccleve][language_planning]

[2018-02-24-1]ε˰³Ƥꡥε#3241. 1422ǯɥ¤ȹαѸ첽 ([2018-03-12-1]) ǰѤ Fisher ϡ󥫥ī15ȤƱѸι첽 Chancery Standard γΩڤ˴ͿǽˤĤơѶŪʵŸƤ롥Τ˥󥫥īβȤڵϤʤHoccleve Lydgate ˤ⤽λݤľŪʸڤϤʤʬϤľ𶷾ڵϤ Fisher 롥ξ𶷾ڵȤϡ褽 Chancery Standard ĹƤߥ󥰤˴ؤΤǤ롥

Hoccleve, no more than Lydgate, ever articulated for the Lancastrian rulers a policy of encouraging the development of English as a national language or of citing Chaucer as the exemplar for such a policy. But we have the documentary and literary evidence of what happened. The linkage of praise for Prince Henry as a model ruler concerned about the use of English and for master Chaucer as the "firste fyndere of our faire langage"; the sudden appearance of manuscripts of The Canterbury Tales, Troylus and Criseyde, and other English writings composed earlier but never before published; the conversion to English of the Signet clerks of Henry V, the Chancery clerks, and eventually the guild clerks; and the burgeoning of composition in English and the patronage of literature in English by the Lancastrian court circle are all concurrent historical events. The only question is whether their concurrence was coincidental or deliberate. (34)


ä Chaucer νʤμܤƤΤ14ǤϤʤ15äƤȤ̣Chaucer 1400ǯפθˤ褦䤯ܤƤȤΤ϶ʤΤ뤤ϡֽƱѸǰʺʤ񤤤ȡפ夲뤳ȤˤäơгŪ˥󥰥ɤؼ褦ȤŪʤ⤯ߤη̤ȤƤνǤǤϤʤäʴϢơHoccleve ˤ Chaucer ɾ ("firste fyndere of our faire langage") ˤĤơ#298. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ (2) ([2010-02-19-1]) 򻲾ȡ
Fisher ϡΤ褦ʸϸźդƤ뤳ȤҤ٤Ĥļ䶯Ƥ롥

All linguistic changes of this sort for which we have documentation---in Norway, India, Canada, Finland, Israel, or elsewhere---have been the result of planning and official policy. There is no reason to suppose that the situation was different in England.


Fisher, John H. "A Language Policy for Lancastrian England." Chapter 2 of The Emergence of Standard English. John H. Fisher. Lexington: UP of Kentucky, 1996. 16--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-06-20-1]

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2018-02-08 Thu

#3209. ɸಽ7Ĥ¦ [standardisation][sociolinguistics][terminology][language_planning][reestablishment_of_english][spelling_reform][genbunicchi]

ɸಽͤäơ1ȤߤҲ𤷤ƤMilroy and Milroy (27) ˤȤäơstandardisation ȤϸˤǤդѰ۲ǽ뤳Ȥˤۤʤ餺βˤ7ĤʳǧȤselection, acceptance, diffusion, maintenance, elaboration of function, codification, prescription Ǥ롥ϸŵŪʡ#2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1]) ˴Ťơ̩ΤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥Haugen ϡselection, codification, elaboration, acceptance 4ʳ̤Ƥ
Milroy and Milroy 7ʳȤȤߤѤɸѸηŪʬϡ⤷ΤȤƤϡNevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade ͤͥƤ롥ǤϤäѤ鸽ɸѸȯãˤƤ뤬ƱˡDZѸˤˤ羮͡ʡɸಽפڤ뤳ȤǤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥̤ĤΡɸಽפϡ餫ΰ̣ǸĿͤ佸ĤˤͰŪǤǧαĤߤؤƤ롥Ūˤϡ10Υեå粦ˤ줿űѸθŪʺѡʥƥäơˤ䡤Chaucer ʹߤν񤭸դȤƤαѸκѡʥե󥹸ƥäơˤ䡤12 Orm ֻפ䡤19 William Barnes ˤ Dorset dialect Ѥߤ䡤ꥫΩ̿ʹߤ Noah Webster ˤ֥ꥫڤϤʤɤޤ (Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade 273) ߤ˼䵬ϤϰۤʤΤΡΤäȤײ (language_planning) Ȥ٤Τ򡤡ɸಽפλߤλȤ Milroy and Milroy ήȤߤڤäƤޤȤȯۤϡ¿Ǥ롥
ܸˤǤСɸηȤ濴ŪΤߤʤ餺̾ʸױưѴꡤ޻ʤɤ͡ʻ⡤̣ǤɸಽȤƥƥ饤ȤȤˤʤ

Milroy, Lesley and James Milroy. Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation. 2nd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 1991.
Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-03-31-1]

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2018-02-06 Tue

#3207. ɸѸȸɸಽ˴ؤ뤤ĤνѸ [terminology][sociolinguistics][standardisation][koine][dialect_levelling][language_planning][variety]

ΤȤѸɸಽ (standardisation) ˤΤߤʤ餺ɸಽˤĤưŪ˹ͤ뵡¿äƤ롥˴ϢѸȳǰ褦ȡҲؤѸ콸 (Trudgill) 򳫤Ƥߤ齸᤿ĤνѸȤ˺Τ˵Ƥ
ޤϡѸ˴ؤƤФ "Standard English" ȤѸ줫ʡ#1396. "Standard English" Ȥϲ ([2013-02-21-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1]) ⻲ȡˡ

Standard English The dialect of English which is normally used in writing, is spoken by educated native speakers, and is taught to non-native speakers studying the language. There is no single accent associated with this dialect, but the lexicon and grammar of the dialect have been subject to codification in numerous dictionaries and grammars of the English language. Standard English is a polycentric standard variety, with English, Scottish, American, Australian and other standard varieties differing somewhat from one another. All other dialects can be referred to collectively as nonstandard English.


ǻȤƤ "polycentric" ȤѸˤĤƤϡ#2384. polycentric language ([2015-11-06-1]) ȡ#2402. polycentric language (2) ([2015-11-24-1]) ⻲ȡ
ˡ"standardisation" ȤѸ줫Ť뼰ˤĤѸ򤿤ɤäƤߤ

standardisation The process by which a particular variety of a language is subject to language determination, codification and stabilisation. These processes, which lead to the development of a standard language, may be the result of deliberate language planning activities, as with the standardisation of Indonesia, or not, as with the standardisation of English.


status planning [language determination] In language planning, status planning refers to decisions which have to be taken concerning the selection of particular languages or varieties of language for particular purposes in the society or nation in question. Decisions about which language or languages are to be the national or official languages of particular nation-states are among the more important of status planning issues. Status planning is often contrasted with corpus planning or language development. In the use of most writers, status planning is not significantly different from language determination.


codification The process whereby a variety of a language, often as part of a standardisation process, acquires a publicly recognised and fixed form in which norms are laid down for 'correct' usage as far as grammar, vocabulary, spelling and perhaps pronunciation are concerned. This codification can take place over time without involvement of official bodies, as happened with Standard English, or it can take place quite rapidly, as a result of conscious decisions by governmental or other official planning agencies, as happened with Swahili in Tanzania. The results of codification are usually enshrined in dictionaries and grammar books, as well as, sometimes, in government publications.


stabilisation A process whereby a formerly diffuse language variety that has been in a state of flux undergoes focusing . . . and takes on a more fixed and stable form that is shared by all its speakers. Pidginised jargons become pidgins through the process of stabilisation. Dialect mixtures may become koinés as a result of stabilisation. Stabilisation is also a component of language standardisation.


focused According to a typology of language varieties developed by the British sociolinguist Robert B. LePage, some language communities and thus language varieties are relatively more diffuse, while others are relatively more focused. Any speech act performed by an individual constitutes an act of identity. If only a narrow range of identities is available for enactment in a speech community, that community can be regarded as focused. Focused linguistic communities tend to be those where considerable standardisation and codification have taken place, where there is a high degree of agreement about norms of usage, where speakers tend to show concern for 'purity' and marking their language variety off from other varieties, and where everyone agrees about what the language is called. European language communities tend to be heavily focused. LePage points out that notions such as admixture, code-mixing, code-switching, semilingualism and multilingualism depend on a focused-language-centred point of view of the separate status of language varieties.


diffuse According to a typology of language varieties developed by the British sociolinguist Robert B. LePage, a characteristic of certain language communities, and thus language varieties. Some communities are relatively more diffuse, while others are relatively more focused. Any speech act performed by an individual constitutes an act of identity. If a wide range of identities is available for enactment in a speech community, that community can be regarded as diffuse. Diffuse linguistic communities tend to be those where little standardisation or codification have taken place, where there is relatively little agreement about norms of usage, where speakers show little concern for marking off their language variety from other varieties, and where they may accord relatively little importance even to what their language is called.


Ǹ˵󤲤2 "focused" "diffuse" ϸ춦ƱΤѼˤĤѤеηƻǡ¤ʳǰȴȿͤȤȻȤľŪɽǡɸಽ٤ιؤƤ롥Ѹˤʸ̮ǤСѸ a diffuse variety Ǥꡤʶ˸ѸűѸ focused varieties ǤȳɽǤ롥"focused" ΤʤǤ٤ꡤ٤ι⤤Τ "fixed"㤤Τ򶹤̣Ǥ "focused" ȤʤСʶ˸ѸԡűѸϸԤɽǤfixed focused ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#929. Ѹ󥰥ɸδפȤʤäͳ ([2011-11-12-1]) ⻲ȡ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2017-12-22 Fri

#3161. 夬ȤȤΩ줬ѸȤʤ뤫 [sociolinguistics][official_language][language_planning][dialect][language_or_dialect]

̤ if ꡼ʲΡˤꡥҲؤǤ "Language is a dialect with an army and a navy." ȤƤ褦ˡζ̤ϤФХХå˹ȤĤƤ뤫ݤǷޤ뤳Ȥ¿ź1ˤʤäѼ郎ŪΩˤä1ؤȡ־ʡפȤȤäεդޤä (cf. #2006. ḽ衼åѤǼΧƤ ([2014-10-24-1])) ⤤Ĥܹ񤫤ΩȤʤ뤳ȤȤС餿줬θѸȤʤ
ΥͥϻҲؤιֵʤɤǤ褯夲ΤΩ˺ݤƺѤȸޤײ (language_planning) ˤĤơŪĤޤȤϤʤä޽ۤǥ֥饦󥰤Ƥ夬⤷ܤΩ٤ȤܤߤĤ p. 58 ˡ̱θؤɽפθѸޤΥߥ졼󤬲⤵Ƥ⤷ΤǰѤ褦

񥪥ꥸʥλܺȤơѸפȤݤȯۤޤϰˤäƤϤޤäۤʤȤʤ뤳Ȥ顤ĤƤΡ쥳ȥСפäˤɸȤʤƤޤŷȾΤ줿夫顤٤򺸱ƤȥꥢǡﮡʤΤˤ뾦Τı߳˿ʤʤ顤¡פ»ʤȤΤʤߥ˥ġȤƵǽ³Ƥ쥳ȥФħ̱ѤȤǤ
ѸˤܹɸѡΩμҲư򥹥ࡼ˷³̤ؤθդޤ󡥰ƽϸǿƤޤƤ졦Ÿ졦ʤɤϡƽ֤Υߥ˥Ǹ򾷤ͤʤǥåȤθơѸ˽ऺ밷ǧ٥ˤȤɤ뤳Ȥˤޤ


ʤߤˡס쥳ȥСסܹɸפˤդƤ롥

ܸ²Ͻܸɤΰɤ2ʬɤʬƤθԤ¿ϡܤʬۤɡܤʬۤ¸ɡ彣ʬۤɤȲΰɤ4ʬɤʬΩȤäƤ롥פ¸ɤΤʤˤ췲ΤƤ̾Ρ쥳ȥС졤ʤɤ롥 (58)

쥳ȥͻϺ桤ṾξͤޤäܺξԡDZ߳˾ԤˡǫۣʸȤȯãΤ쥳ȥСפȤƤ롥˭Ҥ̾ؤܤ٤̾ȤʤäͷӤˤĹǥ徦ͤɽ֤ܤפʤɤΤ롥(58)

ܹɸܹɸϡȺäޤ줿ϰäˤʤäƤ롥NHKˤڤ(59)


ʤ7ĤνޤȤΤϥϥȻȤȤˤʤäƤ2010ǯνǤȤݥȡˡ

Ωͤԡˡ夬⤷ܤΩ١ޥϥ2010ǯ

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2016-11-01 Tue

#2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) [standardisation][sociolinguistics][terminology][register][style][language_planning]

[2016-10-29-1]ε˰³ɸಽ (standardisation) βǧ4ʳˤĤơHaugen 򻲾Ȥ롥ɸಽϡ (1) Selection, (2) Codification, (3) Elaboration, (4) Acceptance νǿʹԤȤ뤬4ĤβȽϡҲȸ졤ӷȵǽȤ2Ĥμ뤳ȤǤ (ޤ Haugen 933 Ȥ˺ˡ

 Form Function
Society(1) Selection (4) Acceptance
  
Language(2) Codification      (3) Elaboration


ޤϡϤȤʤѼ (Selection) 뤳ȤϤޤ롥ǤϡҲŪ˰ҿͥѼ郎Ǥ¸ߤƤΤǤС򤹤뤳ȤˤʤǤʤд¸Ѽ򺮹礹ʤꡤ˺ꤹʤɤơɸѼθäǡ򤹤뤳Ȥˤʤ
2ʳʸ (Codification) ǤꡤŵŪˤϡ򤵤줿Ѽ˴ؤ뼭ʸˡԤळȤ롥ɸŪȤʤùܤʸˡܤŪᡤʸƸʳǤ롥Ǥϡ"minimum variation in form" ܻؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
3ʳ (Elaboration) ˤƤϡѼ郎Ҳ͡ʾ̡ʤѰ (register) ʸ (style) Ѥ褦֤롥Ǥϡ"maximum variation in function" ܻؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǹμ (Acceptance) ʳǤϡ줿Ѽ郎Ҳ˹졤ѼԿä롥ˤꡤɸಽλ롥
Ҳ񡦸졤ӷǽȤ2Ĥμʤޥȥåˤꡤɸಽ4ʳηϤȤƤȤƤ⤭줤ƤޤΤǤ롥θ⤢äơHaugen ϡߤ˻ޤɸಽε󶡤Ƥ롥

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.

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2016-10-29 Sat

#2742. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ [standardisation][sociolinguistics][terminology][language_or_dialect][language_planning]

ε#2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1]) ǡ17ޤǤαѸɸಽ18ˤƤαѸ쵬ϲؤ³ή򸫤
ǡɸಽ (standardisation) ȤäƤ⡤βˤϤĤζ̤ǧ롥Haugen αƶϤζʸˤСѼ郎ɸಽȤŵŪˤ4ĤʳФȤ롥Hudson (33) ˤҲؤζʽ񤫤ΰѤ̤ơ4ʳ󤷤褦

(1) Selection --- somehow or other a particular variety must have been selected as the one to be developed into a standard language. It may be an existing variety, such as the one used in an important political or commercial centre, but it could be an amalgam of various varieties. The choice is a matter of great social and political importance, as the chosen variety necessarily gains prestige and so the people who already speak it share in this prestige. However, in some cases the chosen variety has been one with no native speakers at all --- for instance, Classical Hebrew in Israel and the two modern standards for Norwegian . . . .

(2) Codification --- some agency such as an academy must have written dictionaries and grammar books to 'fix' the variety, so that everyone agrees on what is correct. Once codification has taken place, it becomes necessary for any ambitious citizen to learn the correct forms and not to use in writing any 'incorrect' forms that may exist in their native variety.

(3) Elaboration of function --- it must be possible to use the selected variety in all the functions associated with central government and with writing: for example, in parliament and law courts, in bureaucratic, educational and scientific documents of all kinds and, of course, in various forms of literature. This may require extra linguistic items to be added to the variety, especially technical words, but it is also necessary to develop new conventions for using existing forms --- how to formulate examination questions, how to write formal letters and so on.

(4) Acceptance --- the variety has to be accepted by the relevant population as the variety of the community --- usually, in fact, as the national language. Once this has happened, the standard language serves as a strong unifying force for the state, as a symbol of its independence of other states (assuming that its standard is unique and not shared with others), and as a marker of its difference from other states. It is precisely this symbolic function that makes states go to some lengths to develop one.


ʤ顤ʳˤƤ⡤¿쾯ʤ졤ҲˤտŪǰռŪʴͿޤޤ롥ɸνϤƼҲŪǤꡤ˿͹ŪŪޤȤĤƤ롥ּҲˤտŪʲפη̤ȤƤɸȤˤĤƤϡΰѤΩʬˡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (Hudson 32)

Whereas one thinks of normal language development as taking place in a rather haphazard way, largely below the threshold of consciousness of the speakers, standard languages are the result of a direct and deliberate intervention by society. This intervention, called 'standardisation', produces a standard language where before there were just 'dialects' . . . .


Ϣơ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

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2016-08-29 Mon

#2681. ͹λٻϥŪ [artificial_language][language_myth][standardisation][esperanto][language_planning]

#2675. ͹ȸѲ ([2016-08-23-1]) ǡJones and Singh μҲŪѲŪʴο͹ؤδؿˤĤƹͤEsperanto Τ褦ʿ͹ФȡʿԤ⤢СɡǾФ⤢С͸ζ̸ʤƲȤʤ⤷ȴؿ򼨤Ԥ⤢롥ˤ衤üȿ륱¿褦˻פ롥
ĿͤȤƤϡʤȤᤤ衤͡˼븽ϤʤȻפäƤ뤷δ϶ؿäƤ櫓ǤϤʤJones and Singh εɤʤǡʤʤΡ˿͡Ͽ͹򿿷Ƥ˻ΤȤ˴ؿͯƤ鸽ߤˤơϾ˿͹ФƾƴƤǤ (cf. #958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи͹ ([2011-12-11-1])) Jones and Singh (154--55) ϡEco 礤˽Фʤ顤ʤȤ衼åѤˤ뤳δؿˤĤʬϤ褦ȤƤ롥

[F]or many, deliberate creation still smacks of the quasi-academic and the 'geeky'; a fringe and fantasy-based pastime that produces 'eccentricities' such as Klingon and Esperanto. . . .
   Yet while deliberate invention has long been nothing more than a game for many, it has also been seriously considered as an ideal solution to what have been characterised by some as (linked) linguistic and social 'problems'. Eco (1995: 1) [= Eco, U. The Search for the Perfect Language. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.], for example, argues that the perception of linguistic diversity and difference has long been current in practically every culture, as has been the notion that this 'Babel' can be redeemed through 'the rediscovery or invention of a language common to all humanity'. In European thought, this has prompted various linguistic projects throughout the centuries, such as those listed in 7.2.a (adapted from Eco 1995: 2--3):

7.2.a Typology of 'language projects' in European scholarship
1. The rediscovery of languages postulated as original or as mystically perfect, such as Hebrew, Egyptian or Chinese.
2. The reconstruction of languages postulated, either fancifully or not, as original or mother tongues.
3. Languages constructed artificially for one of thee ends:
   (a) Perfection in terms of either function or structure, such as the a-priori philosophical languages of the seventeenth century, designed to express ideas perfectly.
   (b) Perfection in terms of universality, such as the a-posteriori international languages of the nineteenth century.
   (c) Perfection in terms of practicality, if only presumed, such as the so-called polygraphies.
4. Magic languages, discovered or invented, whose perfection is extolled on account of either their mystic effability or their initiatic secrecy.


Ǥϡ衼åѤǤι̣ǤΡָײ (language_planning) λƤˤʤäƤ뤬 Eco ΥꥹȤˤ⤦1IJäΤ롥ϡʹߡνʵڤܡˤǤɸŪǤ롥19ʹߤο͹ƤϤǤΡֹŪ׶̸ָΤǤΤФγƹˤɸಽȵϲϤޤǡֹŪ׶̸κܻؤƤˤʤξԤȯۤϺŪˤ礭ۤʤäƤʤνѼ¿1ĤѼ֤뤳Ȥȡν¿1Ĥθ֤뤳ȤϡϤˤʤȤ⤤뤫ΤˡԤˤϿ͹줬ؤ뤬ԤϼΤʤǤäǤȤ礭ʰ㤤롥ԤɸѼˤ⾯ʤ̿ͰäƤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥ʹߡˤɸѼɬ˺ꤷμͤȤγưϡŪ˳ɾƤȤäƤ褤ιǤǤ Esperanto Volapük 򿿷Ƥ꿮ꤹԤȤγư "geeky" ȤߤΤϡԻ׵ĤȤԻ׵ĤǤ롥͹ξȤ "geeky" ǥŪǤȤСɸˤŪ˼ꡤʤɸ餷Ƥ֤⡤ "geeky" ǥŪȤΤ⤷ʤ

Jones, Mari C. and Ishtla Singh. Exploring Language Change. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005.

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