Esperanto ɽ (artificial_language) ήɤθؤˤƿ˵뤳ȤϤۤȤɤʤ⤽ΤϤǤ롥ؤδؿϡħηϡSaussure "langue" 뤤 Chomsky "competence"ˤ餫ˤ뤳ȤˤꡤͰŪˤǤäˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤѲΩ줫⡤ϾʤȤ¤Ф줿ˤüԤ⤤ʤ̾ߤϤθѲˤ˳뤿ᡤޤȤ˰٤ͳʤȰ콳롥
˼ҲŪʴѲ Johns and Singh ϡ1Ϥ䤤 Language invention ˴ؤͤƤ롥ͳ˼褦
We have . . . included select discussion of such [invented] systems here primarily because invention constitutes part of the natural and normal spectrum of human linguistic ability and behaviour and, as such, merits acknowledgement in our general discussion of language use and language change. At the most obvious level, linguistic inventions are, despite their tag of artificiality, ultimately products of the human linguistic competence and, indeed, creativity, that produces their natural counterparts. In many cases, they are also often born of the arguably human impulse to influence and change linguistic behaviour, an impulse which . . . fundamentally underlies strategies of natural language planning. Thus . . . languages may be invented to reflect particular world views, promote and foster solidarity among certain groups or even potentially for the purpose of preserving natural linguistic obsolescence as a result of the domination of one particular language. It is in such real-life purposes that our interest in linguistic invention lies . . . .
ˤϸǽϤؤθڤ⤢뤬ȤƼҲŪʴؿˤռȤäƤ褤ȯѡηϤѻưŤͻ뤳Ȥǡ͡ȤΤ˲ƤΤΤɤʬƤΤʤʹưˤѤ褦ȤΤʤΤȤŪʸФҥȤ뤫⤷ʤȤ櫓ѲȤδϢǤϡʤײȤäͰŪʸѲߤƤΤȤˤĤʤ롥ĤޤȤϡεǽȤϲʤ͡ϸѲѰۤΤȤˤˤĤƹͻݤˡ1ĤκǤȤȤѲˤȤ
Jones and Singh (182) ϡξ "as a linguistic exercise, the processes of invention, as well as its concomitant problems and issues, have the potential to complement our general understanding of how human language functions as successfully as it does" ȸڤƤ롥츫Τ褦˻פʤºݤ˱꤫⤷ʤˤŪ꤫ϤŪʵäƤ椯礬⤷Ϣơ#963. Ѹˤȿ ([2011-12-16-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ۤˡȤƤϡ#958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи ([2011-12-11-1])#959. Ūʹݿ줬٤ ([2011-12-12-1])#961. ([2011-12-14-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jones, Mari C. and Ishtla Singh. Exploring Language Change. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005.
#2547. 奤ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1])#2649. 奤ꥹäǤΰ ([2016-07-28-1]) ˰³ΤΰȤ櫓ǽΤϡΩμͤˤФи줿褦ˡAmerican English British English ȤΩ䡤Ϣפ˴ؿƤäơѸˤˤƤˤΤܤ̾Ĥ롥
奢ꥫΤˤĤơܤ TheUSAonline.com --- All Presidents of the United States, whitehouse.gov --- The Presidents Presidents of the United States (POTUS) ȡ
| ̾ǯ--ǯ | пȽ | °̾ | Ǥ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | George Washington (1732--99) | Virginia | Federalist | 1789--97 |
| 2 | John Adams (1735--1826) | Massachusetts | Federalist | 1797--1801 |
| 3 | Thomas Jefferson (1743--1826) | Virginia | Republican | 1801--09 |
| 4 | James Madison (1751--1836) | Virginia | Republican | 1809--17 |
| 5 | James Monroe (1758--1831) | Virginia | Republican | 1817--25 |
| 6 | John Quincy Adams (1767--1848) | Massachusetts | Republican | 1825--29 |
| 7 | Andrew Jackson (1767--1845) | South Carolina | Democrat | 1829--37 |
| 8 | Martin Van Buren (1782--1862) | New York | Democrat | 1837--41 |
| 9 | William Henry Harrison (1773--1841) ʺǤ˻˴ | Virginia | Whig | 1841 |
| 10 | John Tyler (1790--1862) Τ龺ʡ | Virginia | Whig | 1841--45 |
| 11 | James Knox Polk (1795--1849) | North Carolina | Democrat | 1845--49 |
| 12 | Zachary Taylor (1784--1850) ʺǤ˻˴ | Virginia | Whig | 1849--50 |
| 13 | Millard Fillmore (1800--74) Τ龺ʡ | New York | Whig | 1850--53 |
| 14 | Franklin Pierce (1804--69) | New Hampshire | Democrat | 1853--57 |
| 15 | James Buchanan (1791--1868) | Pennsylvania | Democrat | 1857--61 |
| 16 | Abraham Lincoln (1809--65) ʺǤ˻˴ | Kentucky | Republican | 1861--65 |
| 17 | Andrew Johnson (1808--75) Τ龺ʡ Democrat Ǥä Republican ̾ Lincoln θȤʤä | North Carolina | Republican | 1865--69 |
| 18 | Ulysses Simpson Grant (1822--85) | Ohio | Republican | 1869--77 |
| 19 | Rutherford Birchard Hayes (1822--93) | Ohio | Republican | 1877--81 |
| 20 | James Abram Garfield (1831--81) ʺǤ˰Ż | Ohio | Republican | 1881 |
| 21 | Chester Alan Arthur (1830--86) Τ龺ʡ | Vermont | Republican | 1881--85 |
| 22 | Grover Cleveland (1837--1908) | New Jersey | Democrat | 1885--89 |
| 23 | Benjamin Harrison (1833--1901) | Ohio | Republican | 1889--93 |
| 24 | Grover Cleveland (1837--1908) | New Jersey | Democrat | 1893--97 |
| 25 | William McKinley (1843--1901) ʺǤ˰Ż | Ohio | Republican | 1897--1901 |
| 26 | Theodore Roosevelt (1858--1919) Τ龺ʡ | New York | Republican | 1901--09 |
| 27 | William Howard Taft (18S7-1930) | Ohio | Republican | 1909--13 |
| 28 | (Thomas) Woodrow Wilson (1856--1924) ʺǤ˻˴ | Virginia | Democrat | 1913--21 |
| 29 | Warren Gamaliel Harding (1865--1923) Τ龺ʡ | Ohio | Republican | 1921--23 |
| 30 | Calvin Coolidge (1872--1933) | Vermont | Republican | 1923--29 |
| 31 | Herbert Clark Hoover (1874--1964) | Iowa | Republican | 1929--33 |
| 32 | Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882--1945) 1940ǯ1151944ǯ117˺Ǥ˻˴ | New York | Democrat | 1933--45 |
| 33 | Harry S. Truman (1884--1972) Τ龺ʡ | Missouri | Democrat | 1945--53 |
| 34 | Dwight David Eisenhower (1890--1969) | Texas | Republican | 1953--61 |
| 35 | John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917--63) ʺǤ˰Ż | Massachusetts | Democrat | 1961--63 |
| 36 | Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908--73) Τ龺ʡ | Texas | Democrat | 1963--69 |
| 37 | Richard Milhous Nixon (1913--94) ʺǤ˼Ǥ | California | Republican | 1969--74 |
| 38 | Gerald Rudolph Ford (1913--2006) ʷˡ25ˤΤ龺ʡ | Nebraska | Republican | 1974--77 |
| 39 | James Earl Carter ("Jimmy") (1924--) | Georgia | Democrat | 1977--81 |
| 40 | Ronald Wilson Reagan (1911--2004) | Illinois | Republican | 1981--89 |
| 41 | George Herbert Walker Bush (1924--) | Massachusetts | Republican | 1989--93 |
| 42 | William Jefferson Clinton (1946--) | Arkansas | Democrat | 1993--2001 |
| 43 | George Walker Bush (1946--) | Connecticut | Republican | 2001--09 |
| 44 | Barack Hussein Obama (1961--) | Hawaii | Democrat | 2009--16 |
| 45 | Donald John Trump (1946--) | New York | Republican | 2016-- |
Ū˸ʸ ("politically correct" language reform) ϡ1970ǯʹߡѸ͡ʵƤӡºݤ˿͡θոѤƤβ "political_correctness" Ȥɽ˼깤ĤƤơ21äƤϡ̤Ĥɽ蘆ʤȸۤɤޤǤˤʤäƤƤ롥"PC" ȤѸϰ̣ΰ (semantic pejoration) ФȤȤǤꡤθפؤϤؼΤȤƤǤϤʤޤ˿м̵ѤʸոؤΤȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤäƤޤäѸȤƤϡ˴ؤ¤ꡤ"nonsexist language reform" ȤɽѤƤΤ⤷ʤ
"PC" ޤоݤˤޤ侮줿Τϡ¿ο͡βפΡָפ˸ջǤꡤθܴ٤˼ͳCurzan (114) ϡPCפ㤯ɾƤ뤳Ȥ˴ؤơطʤΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
Politically correct language and the efforts to promote it are regularly ridiculed in the public arena. Fabricated language reforms such as personhole cover for manhole cover and vertically challenged for short are held up as symptomatic of the movement's excesses. I call these fabricated because I have never actually heard any advocate of nonsexist language reform seriously propose personhole cover or anyone proposing any kind of language reform make a serious case for vertically challenged. Yet they can show up side by side with more common, even at this point mainstream reforms such as Native American for Indian, African American for Black. If Urban Dictionary provides a snapshot of attitudes about the term political correctness, the term's negative connotations have gone beyond silly and unnecessary and now include manipulative, harmful, and silencing. The first definition in Urban Dictionary in Fall 2012 (which means it had the best ratio of thumbs up to thumbs down) read: "Organized Orwellian intolerance and stupidity, disguised as compassionate liberalism." It goes on to note: "Political correctness is most well known as an institutional excuse for the harassment and exclusion of people with differing political views." Subsequent definitions link politically correct language to censorship and "the death of comedy."
PCפιޤˤäƸո˴ؤƲѤäȤСʸ礬ޤ줿ȤȰʾˡĿͤΤ褦ʸո֤Ȥ٤ΤΤṲ̄ˤޤʤʤäȤȤ롥졹θѤˤơPC term non-PC term ΤѤ뤫ȤϤʤˤʤäƤޤäĿͤΩˡäƤޤäȤäƤ褤Curzan (115) ۩"Politically correct language efforts force speakers to confront the fact that words are not neutral conveyors of intended meaning; words in and of themselves carry information about speaker attitudes and much more. Politically correct language asks speakers to use care in avoiding bias in their language choices and to respect the preferences of underrepresented groups in terms of the language used to refer to them."
ʾηаޤPCפμҲŪɾäƤΤϻ¤Ѳ뤤ϸѤѲȤ餤СƿͰŪѲˤ⤫餺οǯΤƤʻȤ롥̤ˡˡβפäβפʤɸ˴ؤտŪʲϡƵǤ롥ʤǤϡ褽͡δ֤˲פٻʷϵƤ롥¦餫ηǥХååפɿ魯뤳ȤǡפʤǤΤǤ롥ŪפϡʤȤŪʽդȤ쥸ˤʬŪǤϤȤոû֤ǿ͡θոѤƤΤȼΤϡܤĥ̤ɾƤ褤Τ⤷ʤCurzan (116) ⤳®٤ˤĤơ"The speed with which some politically responsive language efforts have changed Modern English usage is remarkable." ɾƤ롥
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1]) ǡμפ뤳Ȥ˿줿ϡ̱²ɴʻŵ٤ˡ̵ʸפȤĤΤǡƤ
̵ʸ (unwritten language) Ȥϡ֤ʸ˽뤳ȤʤȤȤǤϤʤԤʤɤˤäƽ뤳ȤȤƤҲ夷Ƥ餺줬̿䵭ϿΤȤƵǽƤʤפǤ롥̵ʸοˤĤƤϡܹƤ (186) ΤʤȤϸʤ褦ǡEthnologue ˤθοפȤʤ顤ȡʸ줿ϡˤ餯%ʤΤǤϤʤºŪΤۤȤɤʸ̵ʸʤΤǤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
εǤ줿̵ʸüԤʸΤʤȤɬ⤤ʤȤդǶʸƤǽϤ뤫ºݤˡ¿ο͡Τ褦ʾˤƤ롥դ˸Сǡʤ뤤ǡ˶ȤΤϡʤΤǤ롥
ȥꥢ̵ʸä̱²ʸ̵ʸȤݸ褦Ȥ뱿ưʤɡΤĤϰǾݻλߤʤƤϤ롥Τ褦ʸ (language_planning) ϤޤŪȤϤ¿θ줬ϰζʸ줫ΰϤ亹̤ˤ餵ƤΤ֤
(187) ϡ̵ʸ˴ؤο (language_myth) ˸ڤĤġ̵ʸҲˤߤƬ礭ŦƤ롥
ʸʤɽ̡ˤʤΤǤϤʤȹͤ⤢뤬ϤषդǤ뤳Ȥ¿ʸʤ餳ɽ˰ηͿߥ˥ΤʤΤˤ褦ȤռƯʤ䥢եꥫθ̱äȤꡤޤ2,0003,000⤢ΤͤƤߤ褦㤨иȤΤϡҲαΤѥȤɽΤǤ뤬ˤϱƧжѤȤޤޤʷƳƤ롥
άʸϡޤޤʤΤʸѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨С̾̾ϽεϿΤȤƵǽ뤳Ȥ¿ϰǤߤ롥㤨СեꥫʤɤǤϡפȤ̾ϡ²ӤƤȤޤ줿Ҷפ襤äȤλҶƻפƤʤ˵ޤΤ֤˹鷺ƻǻҶȤäǤ롥̾ϸĿͤ¾θĿͤȶ̤ǤʤƱ̿̾ԡʤϼȤƻҶοơˤˤȤäƽפʽҶ̾˵ϿƤΤǤ롥ޤٿͤФơ褦˥åҶ̾Τ¿
Τ褦ˡ̵ʸ줽̵ʸҲˤƤϡʸʤ餳˭ʸʸݤȯãƤΤǤ롥ʸ䤬礭ʤФʤۤɡʸݤषƤȤϺ桹ܤˤƤȤǤ롥
Ϣơ#1685. ƬΤĵϤȰҿ ([2013-12-07-1]) ȡ
м̵ʸס̱²ɴʻŵ١Ω̱²ʪۡԡˡǡ2014ǯ186--87ǡ
#1381. "interventionist" sociolinguistics ([2013-02-06-1])#1518. ([2013-06-23-1])#2039. դ˴ؤ¯⡦äȸŪ ([2014-11-26-1]) εǸ褦ˡ (language_planning) ϤȤŪᤰäƤϡҲؼԤδ֤ˤ礭ʰոγ֤꤬롥ȤƤαѸʤ褦ʲȼƤ椯νȤ̿ݸ褦Ȥɸꤷ褦ȤѤ夹Ҳؼ Wardhaugh ϡȸؼԤβˤĤϤκǸˡΤ褦ʿŤΩɽƤ롥
There is a paradox here: linguists are sometimes told that they save languages best by not acting at all; certainly they should do nothing to promote English in the world, or to standardize a language, or possibly to help in any kind of language planning anywhere. Yet, there is no assurance that they will save a single language by not acting. An alternative possibility is that intervention actually slows down decline and loss. However, there is really no hard evidence for either position. Each is essentially ideologically driven: if you believe this you do one thing and if you believe that you do another. We do well to remember that because we are involved in socio-linguistic matters, ideology is likely to be at least as potent a factor as scientific findings in determining any approach we may adopt. We will also have to confront issues of identity and power. We might be well advised to tread cautiously.
ͰŪʸŪ䡤˴ؤɽϡ켫ΤҲؤΥŪǤꡤоݤȤʤΤǤ롥ҲؼԤϡ˼ʾʻԤʤʤФʤʤΩˤȤȤˤʤ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ǶΡ#2562. Mugglestone ԡˤαѸǯɽ ([2016-05-02-1]) ˰³ѸǯɽMomma and Matto αѸ˥ѥ˥ pp. xxix--xxxiii ˷ǤƤǯɽƸ롥ѸˤĤơ춵顤츢 (linguistic_right)ײ (linguistic_planning) ʤɤαѼҲŪʹܤ¿ΩƤƤˡǯɽħ롥
1000 BCE Indo-European languages spread throughout Europe and southern Asia, some already attested in writing for hundreds of years. ca. 1000--1 BCE Gradual sound shifts (Grimm's Law) take place in Germanic languages. 55--54 BCE Julius Caesar invades Britain. 43 CE Romans under Claudius conquer Britain; the "Roman Britain" period begins. ca. 50--100 Scandinavian Runic inscriptions are produced, which remain the oldest attestations of a Germanic language. ca. 98 Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus writes ''Germania''. ca. 350 Bishop Wulfila translates the Bible into Gothic, an East Germanic language. 410 roman troops withdraw from Britain as Visigoths sack Rome; the "Roman Britain" period ends. 449 According to tradition,Anglo-Saxons (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) begin invasion and settlement of Britain, bringing their West Germanic dialects to the islands. 597 Pope Gregory sends Augustine to Kent where he converts King Æthelberht and 10,000 other Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. 793--ca. 900 Vikings (Danes, Norwegians, Swedes) raid England periodically and establish settlements. 878 King Alfred's victory over Guthrum's Danish army at Edington paves the way for the creation of the Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons. 886 King Alfred and Guthrum sign a treaty establishing the "Dane law" north and east of London, heavily settled by the Norse-speaking vikings. 890s King Alfred translates Pope Gregory's ''Regula pastoralis'' into English. ca. 900 Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'' is translated from Latin into Old English. ca. 975--1025 The four great manuscripts containing Old English poetry (Exeter Book, Junius Manuscript, Vercelli Book, and ''Beowulf'' Manuscript) are compiled, though many of the texts they contain were likely composed over the previous 300 years. 993--5 Aelfric composes his Latin-Old English ''Glossary''. 1066 William the Conqueror leads the Norman conquest of England, solidifying French as the language of the nobility. 1171 Henry II leads the Cambro-Norman invasion of Ireland, bringing French and English speakers to the island. 1204 King John of England loses Normandy to France. ca. 1245 Walter of Bibbesworth compiles his ''Tretiz de Langage'' to improve the French of English-speaking Landowners. 1282 Wales is conquered by King Edward I of England. 1348--50 The Black Plague kills about one-third of the English population. 1362 Statute of Pleading requires English be spoken in law courts. 1366 Statutes of Kilkenny outlaw (among other Irish customs) speaking Irish by Englishmen in Ireland. 1370--1400 Chaucer writes his major works. 1380s John Wycliffe and his followers illegally translate the Latin Vulgate Bible into English. 1380--1450 Chancery standard written English is developed. ca. 1450 Johannes Gutenberg establishes the printing press in Germany. 1476 William Caxton sets up the first printing press in England. 1492 Christopher Columbus explores the Caribbean and Central America. 1497 Italian navigator John Cabot explores Newfoundland. 1500--1650 Great Vowel Shift takes place. 1525 William Tyndale prints an English translation of the New Testament. 1534 The first complete English translation of the Bible from the original Greek and Hebrew is produced. 1536 and 1543 Acts of Union (Laws in Wales Acts) annex Wales to England. 1542 Crown of Ireland Act makes the English king also the Irish king. 1558--1603 Queen Elizabeth I reigns. ca. 1575--1600 English becomes an important trade language in West Africa. 1580s--1612 Shakespeare composes his plays. 1583--1607 British attempt unsuccessfully to establish colonies in America. 1588 The Bible is translated into Welsh. 1589 George Puttenham publishes his ''Art of English Poesy''. 1600 British East India Company receives its charter, facilitating economic expansion into India. 1600s Atlantic slave trade begins, bringing Africans to America. 1603 Union of the Crowns: James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England and Scotland, accelerating the Anglicization of Scots-English. 1604 Robert Cawdrey compiles ''A Table Alphabeticall'', the first monolingual English dictionary. 1607 The Virginia Company of London successfully establishes a colony in America at Jamestown, Virginia. 1610 British establish fishing outposts in Newfoundland. 1611 The King James Bible is published. 1620 Pilgrims establish a colony at Plymouth Rock. 1623--ca. 1660 British establish colonies throughout Caribbean. 1642--51 English Civil Wars are ongoing. 1660 The Restoration: Charles II returns to the throne. 1663 The Royal Society is founded. 1689 British establish the three administrative districts of Bengal, Bombay (now Mumbai), Madras (now Chennai) on the Indian subcontinent. 1694 French publish a national dictionary. 1695 The Licensing Act expires, giving anyone the freedom to publish without government permission. 1707 Acts of Union unite governments of England and Scotland, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. 1712 Jonathan Swift writes his "Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue.". 1755 Samuel Johnson's ''Dictionary of the English Language'' is published. French-speaking Acadians are expelled from Canada by British, settle in Louisiana and are called Cajuns. 1773 British establish a Governor Generalship in India. 1776 Thomas Jefferson drafts American Declaration of Independence. 1780s British begin to settle in Australia. 1783 Treaty of Paris recognizes an independent United States of America; Noah Webster's "blue-back" spelling book is published. 1786 William Jones suggests a common root for Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, promoting comparative linguistics and Indo-European studies. 1787 English speakers of African origin are repatriated to Africa in Freetown, Sierra Leone. 1789--99 The French Revolution takes place. 1795 Lindley Murray's ''English Grammar'' is published. 1800 Act of Union unites governments of Ireland and Great Britain, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and requiring that Irish politicians speak English in British government. 1803 The Louisiana Purchase allows US to expand westward. 1811--18 Jane Austen's novels and published. 1819 The British government passes the Six Acts, aimed to suppress the publication of radical newspapers. 1820 Freed English-speaking slaves repatriated from America to the newly created West African nation of Liberia. 1828 Noah Webster's ''Dictionary of American English'' is published. 1831 A system of Primary School Education is introduced in Ireland, with English as the medium of instruction. 1835 Lord Macaulay's Minute initiates the introduction of English language education into South Asia. 1836 The phrase "standard English" first appears in a philological sketch on the history of the language in the ''Quarterly Review''. 1837--1901 Queen Victoria reigns. 1840s British begin to settle in New Zealand. 1845--9 Many monoglot Irish speakers die as a result of the Great Famine in Ireland. 1852 ''Roget's Thesaurus'' is first published. 1858 Act for the Better Government of India results in the British governing India directly. 1859 ''Proposal for the Publication of a New English Dictionary'' initiates work on what will be the ''Oxford English Dictionary''. 1873 Harvard University introduces the first American college program in English composition for native speakers. 1898 Americans take over control of the Philippines from Spain, beginning America's colonial period. 1914--39 James Joyce's major works are published. 1922 Ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty recognizes an independent Irish Free State, which will become the Republic of Ireland. 1925 The Phelps-Stokes Commission recommends teaching both English and native languages in Africa. 1926--62 William Faulkner's major works are published. 1928 ''Oxford English Dictionary'' is completed. 1946 The Philippines achieve independence from the United States. 1947 India achieves independence from Britain; Pakistan splits from India. 1953 English made a compulsory subject in national examinations in elementary schools throughout Anglophone Africa. 1957--68 Most of Britain's African colonies achieve independence. 1967 The Official languages Act makes English and Hindi India's two official languages. Tanzania launches a "Swahilization" program. 1970- Toni Morrison's major works are published. 1875-- Salman Rushdie's major works are published. 1979 Lawsuit (''Martin Luther King Jr Elementary School Children vs. Ann Arbor School District Board'') sets precedent for requiring teachers to study AAVE. Urdu replaces English as the language of instruction in schools in Pakistan. 1991 Helsinki corpus of English words from the Old English period through 1720 is completed. 1993 Welsh Language Act makes Welsh an official language in Wales alongside English. 1996--7 The "Ebonics" debates begin in Oakland, California. 1998 The Good Friday Agreement grants "parity of esteem" to the Irish language and to Ulster Scots (Ullans) in Northern Ireland.
Momma, Haruko and Michael Matto, eds. A Companion to the History of the English Language. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
#2459. ͭȥۥåȥˡ ([2016-01-20-1])#2460. William Dwight Whitney ([2016-01-21-1]) ǡͭˤܤαѸ첽ˤĤƤε夲οͭεŪʱѸ첽˴йͤμͤϾä (1850--88) Ǥ롥
ϾϡͻΤλҤȤޤ졥ʡ͡ȤΤȷıΤ˳ؤӡ˥ꥹαؤˡؤδǽʱѸϤȤܤŪǧΤ뤳ȤܻؤȤȤˡܤˤα˳ؤۤƳ褦ȿϤ˥ꥫϤꡤեǥե٤¤ǵһह롥
Ͼϡ̤ˤϤۤΤƤʤȤܸʸˡˤˤܤ٤ An Elementary Grammar of the Japanese Language ̾Ρܸʸŵ١ˤ1873ǯ路Ƥ롥ͭ餬ܤαѸ첽λꥫȯɽΤФϾϤɥǴԤ뤳ȤˤäƤȿΤ˻Ĺͺơֹʸ粸͡פȸ碌
Ͼ (212--23) ϡνˤơͭξܤαѸ첽ϡ(1) ̵̤ʻ֤䤹Ȥˤʤ롤(2) ֳʺ̱ΰ롤2ˤƿ꤬ꡤΤ櫓ˤϤʤ⤹롥ȤȤϱѸǽ줿ΤˤѤ褦
ѸϸΤʤǤäȤऺΤҤȤĤǤꡤ郎θդȤϤޤäۼΤΤǤ顤̱¿ʬΤΤȤˤϤؤĹ֤פ¿εŤʻ̵֤̤䤵Ǥˤ椤Ƥߤޤȡ¾ιΤ줿㤬¿ĤΤϻ¤ǤƤξϡ줿̡ݱʤˤΤǤäơΤˤǺΤ줿ΤǤϤޤǤ顤䤽¾ν̱ܤǹԤƤΤȤϡ𤬤ޤäۤʤޤȤԤΰϤ˶ƸκѤ;ʤǤ⡤ιɴǯΤȤ졤椨äȤǤѴ뤳ȤϤʤäΤǤΤȤϡ륺ɡåȥɤι̱˸ޤιǤϡߡؤǤꡤŤʻ̵֤̤ˤƤޤǡƤιִμ»ܤϤؤǤ뤳Ȥ狼ˤʤǤ礦
ΤȤǤ͵ι̱ϡϤ̱ؤ«ƤλŻƤޤ顤η̡ԤϸԤ¿λ֤γؽˤƤ뤳ȤǤޤ⤷˼Ҹ٤ƤѸǹԤ뤳ȤˤʤСسϹΤˤ꤫ĤФǤ礦ϡޤε² jus sacrum ʿˡˡComitia ̱ʿ̱ͤΤƱȤʤΤǤη̡سȲسϴʬΥξΤˤ϶̤봶𤬤ʤʤäƤޤޤơ̱ϰΤȤƹư뤳Ȥ˸졤ΤȤϤޤäƤޤǤ礦
νηӤȤơϾ (214) ϼΤ褦Ǹ롥
Ǥˤξˤꡤ椨줹٤ƤΤäƤΤ˭ǴʤΤˤ٤ؤۤΤƤ礭ʴƤޤäۼθΤ̤ΤѤ˾ޤȤͤΤǤޤ
ϾϡʾʤʤΤǤ롥#2458. ܸˡرѸ첽϶̱٤첽Τ ([2016-01-19-1]) Ǽ夲ܤ⡤Ͼθָܤ鸫ƤϤΤΡ (p. 78) ǤꡤָαѸ첽ɤؤȿȤƤ⽽ʬѤܼŪʻŦǤ (p. 79) ȤƤ롥
Ͼ ä Ĺˡܸ֡ʸŵٽʸסϾä1١ȽŹ1987ǯ209--14ǡ
رѸ첽϶̱ܤιϤϤ١ѼҡҽѼҿӡ2015ǯ
αѸѸ첽ε˯ȤСʸä̳ͭ (1847--89) ̾夬롥1870ǯ塤ܤΤ褦˶岽뤿ˤϱѸǹŤꤷʤФʤʤȿƤפжüʻۤ˻פ뤬ܸ˲ƤŪʳǰɽ魯ä礱ƤȤͫƤΤǤ롥
ϡܤαѸѸ첽Τθ褦ȡƤμͤ˼ꡤѸδʰײȤȤ˻⤤ƲäȲμͤΰͤˡΥꥫزνäǥؤζǤ William Dwight Whitney (1827--94) Ȥ⤷ȤˡWhitney Ͽͦݤ褦ʲ֤Ƥ롥 (71--72) ꡤݤѤ롥
ۥåȥˡϡ褽Τ褦ʤΤä
ơˤ岽ޤäΤʤɡۤȤɤʤ⡤ʰײ줿ѸѤȤΤǤϡѸҲ뤤ʸؤʤɤʸ̤ʤȤƳ«ʤ⤽⡤ѸܤΡֹפȤƺѤСޤդФ줫뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤ֤;͵Τʤ¿ο͡¼Ū˳뤳ȤʤäƤޤη̡Ѹ˳䤯֤Τդˤ뾯ø٤Ƥʸꤹ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ罰Ȥδ֤礭ʳʺ䤬Ƥޤ
ޤˡۥåȥˡǰΤϡϤǸƥ줫פؤμΡפϤ̤ƥ衼åѤν̱ŪʿؤƻܿͤĤƤޤΤǤϤʤȤȤäΤ
ˡۥåȥˡϼΤ褦˽Ҥ١ܸͭˤ岽Ƥ롥
֤Ȥä̱ηϤäƤƤ⡤¿ι̱˿ʸ⤤Ū٥ˤޤǰ夲ˤĹ֤פǤ礦⤷罰ؤ褦ȤΤǤСȤ̤ƹԤʤФʤޤ
ƥۥåȥˡϡʸΡֿפΤʤˤϡ˭ˤפȤޤޤʤФʤʤ⤤˭ˤʤäֹפܤʸʤʤǤꡤ줬罰ʸŪ˹뤳ȤˤĤʤȤΤǤ롥
ػ˾ϰ̤ Whitney Τ褦ʷܤαѸѸ첽˴ؤäƤȤΤʤä
ʤ϶üʲԤȤߤʤ졤˹ԤˤŻƤޤä
رѸ첽϶̱ܤιϤϤ١ѼҡҽѼҿӡ2015ǯ
#2306. ʰ鹧ˡرѸγǡ٤ȱѸȽ ([2015-08-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ҤνǤȤ褽ƱˡܸˡرѸ첽϶̱ܤιϤϤ٤Ȥ⤦1ĤαѸȽνƤϡѸȽΤΤȤܤαѸ첽ؤηپ֤Ƥ롥ʬνҤϳ줺ĩȯŪʥȥԤؤ䶵ؤȪǤϤʤؼԤǤȤǡˤȤäơ줿θƶ¿ä
ܤΥХ벽ȱѸ첽λϡˤɤäƤή˵չԤƤꡤषȤԤϼĥ롥ζϡޤǰǤäƥ줬ͭƤŪŪøͤѸ졤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ե졤ɥĸʤϰ̤뤳Ȥˤäơ͡δ֤ʬ֤ƤʤμԤϤ餻뤳Ȥǽˤ̤͡˭ʾܤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤꡤ̤ȤƳ֤γʺʤä줬岽θưϤȤŪˤϡγؤθ̤礭ä
⤷ǿʹԤƤѸ첽䤬ƴλĤƤΥƥΤ褦ø褦ˤʤСѸʤѸüԤϾؤΥεå졤ҲΤ¦̤פĤޤꡤ¿ο͡β̱Τ褦ϰ̡Ĥޤֶ̱פϰ̤ؤƤȤΤˡܿͤˤȤäơܸȤ졦̤ƾ˥ΤʪۼΤˤϺǤΨ褤ϤǤꡤΤѸ˼äƤޤСǽΨϳʤϤ
Ԥϡܻؤ٤ϱѸ첽ǤϤʤष첽ǤȤžȯۤФƤ롥ǤϡDZѸ䤽¾θˤȯͤϡɤΤ褦˾ò뤳ȤǤκɤˡϡؤǤȤܤμͤä٤ϤȤơ¿βͤθäܸ˿Ʃ뤳Ȥ褦ˡܿͤ⡤䤨֤ʤϤˤäơѸϤȤ볰줿ܸȤΤꤢ碌忴٤Ǥ롤 (see #1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]))
Ѹ줬̵ΤǤȤäѸ첽Ȥο̢䤷Ƥ롥ŪǰŪʱѸѤˤϡѸˤؤ֤ΤᤤȹͤƤ롥 (215) μμĥⷹİͤ롥
ѸδΰϡΤܤСꥹƥꥫο̱ϻۤˤˤ롥ޤ塤ꥹ䥢ꥫ̱Ϥݡ쿢̱Ϥˤ¼ŪϤӥͥͭĤᡤάΰüȤƱѸƸŪϰ̤ݤʤ褦ؤƤ̡פǤ⤢롥
رѸ첽϶̱٤ꥭɤäΤǡ˼ƤѸ춵סѸѸ첽롦å塤Х벽˴ѡؼͳʳкѡ¡ܡˡTPPܡ쥹٥롦ʥʥꥺࡤˡ§
رѸ첽϶̱ܤιϤϤ١ѼҡҽѼҿӡ2015ǯ
ε#2242. ʥѸβŪħ ([2015-06-17-1]) ǥʥѸħΰü˿줿ʥѸȤϲȤϡѼ (variety) ܼŪޤǤ (cf. #415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1])#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1])#2241. Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles ([2015-06-16-1])) Brinton and Fee (439) ϡʥѸγܤϤκǸǡʥѸȤϲȤ䤤ˤĤơΤ褦ʲͿƤ롥
Canadian English is the outcome of a number of factors. Canadian English was initially determined in large part by Canada's settlement by immigrants from the northern United States. Because of the geographical proximity of the two countries and the intertwining of their histories, economic systems, international policies, and print and especially television media, Canadian English continues to be shaped by American English. However, because of the colonial and postcolonial history of the British Empire, Canadian English is also strongly marked by British English. The presence of a long-standing and large French-speaking minority has also had an effect on Canadian English. Finally, social conditions, such as governmental policies of bilingualism, immigration, and multiculturalism and the politics of Quebec nationalism, have also played an important part in shaping this national variety of English.
ǤΥʥѸϡŪħ˴ŤΤǤϤʤʥ֤ƤҲŪĶŪаޤƧޤΤǤ롥ʥѸ̤ꤦΤǤСꥫѸαƶϤϳμ¤ǡҲŪ¿ѤȤƤʸȤΰռοƩˤꡤʥѸ¾μפʱѸѼ٤ƽѲƤ椯ǽ⤤
ޤǤ˥ߤǻƳƤ´ʸߤƤ⡤ܿͱѸؽԤΤʤˤϡʥѸʤơȥꥢѸ졤˥塼ɱѸˤ˴ؿļԤʤʤƤ2Ѽ˰ʤȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤܿͤϤιŪ˹ʤΤȻפΤˤϡǤϤαѸѼθ椬ʤCanadian English ϡҲŪˤäȤäܤƤ褤ѸѼǤ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Margery Fee. "Canadian English." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 422--40 .
ޥ륿¹ (Republic of Malta) ϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ衼åǤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ιǤ롥Ʊ衼åѤǤϢˮ˽°ƤǤ⤢ (cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡ˥衼åѤͣȤäƤ褤ѼαѸ줬äƤǤ⤢롥ޥ륿ȱѸȤζ̩ʴؤˤϡ1814ǯʻ礵줿ȤŪطʤ (cf. #777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1])ˡŪˤŪˤ⡤¾ ESL ϰȤϰۤʤäƤȤܤͤ뤬ޥ륿αѸˤĤƤξܤϤޤ긫ʤϢʸ1ɤൡäΤǡ˴Ťƥޥ륿αѸάҤ
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[S]ince the year 1950, the most important steps in language policy have been in the direction of the promotion of Maltese and of the extension of its use to a number of domains, while English has been more and more widely learnt and used for its importance and prestige as an international language, but also as a "fashionable, chic" language used in social gatherings and as a status symbol . . . .
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
ε#2194. ե쵬ϼѸŨ롤̱Ūե ([2015-04-30-1]) ǡե1994ǯꤵ줿 Toubon ˡ (Loi Toubon) ˿줿Toubon ˡȤ¯Τϡʸեեˡ (Le ministre de la culture et de la francophonie) Jacques Toubon ˡƳȤˤʤࡥŪʾǤΥեλѤˡʤȤ櫓Ѹռơ˳λѤ¤ˡȤäƤ褤եθڤӸؤλθˡȸ뤳ȤǤ롥
Toubon ˡϡŪϼʤɤμҲŪʴΤ˶̣ǤϤ뤬ŪʴȤ뤳ȤϾʤʸΤʤ˸Ū˹θ٤1Ĥ롥Article 5 ˼Τ褦ˤ롥
Quels qu'en soient l'objet et les formes, les contrats auxquels une personne morale de droit public ou une personne privée exécutant une mission de service public sont parties sont rédigés en langue française. Ils ne peuvent contenir ni expression ni terme étrangers lorsqu'il existe une expression ou un terme français de même sens approuvés dans les conditions prévues par les dispositions réglementaires relatives à l'enrichissement de la langue française.
ŪʷǤϡƱ̣ ("même sens") Υեɽ礬ˡб볰ѤƤϤʤȤʸǤ롥ǤƱ̣פȤɽϡ̣ŪޤǤ롥#1498. taboo ŪȤʤͳ (3) ([2013-06-03-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ褯ΤƤȤꡤ˸̩ʰ̣ǤƱ¸ߤˤθȰ츫ƱȤܤ¾θ礬Ѥ¸ȤƤ⡤ξԤ̯˵ǽ㤨Τ̤Ǥ롥ǡֵǽפȸƤΤϡdenotation connotation ޤƤΡְ̣פƱΤǤ롥ʸ "sens" denotation ΤߤؤƤ褦 "sens" ζλüԤȤѸȤˤϡdenotation Τߤʤ餺 connotation θƤΤǤꡤξԤϸߤ˴ƱǤϤʤ
1Ĥ signifié б signifiant 2ĤꡤʸϤǤդ˸ؤȤΤϡΤˤ˸ǽǡŪʸˤդ路ʤ1Ĥ signifié б signifiant 2ĤפȤϡҤΤ褦˵Ǥ롥ǤϤ뤬ˤϤȤΤȤǤηǰƤΤǤС֤˸ȤΤʤ褦ˡפʤɤȤʸʸ˴ޤФ褤ΤˡƺԤδؿϡľܤΤ褦ʴˤȤϡ¤ "l'enrichissement de la langue française" ˤ褦Ǥ롥
ξʸϡ"même sens" ȤѸѤƼݤ褦ȤƤ뤬ǸˤϸŪȤϸŪȤ٤ "l'enrichissement de la langue française" ǽƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥դˤ롥
ե˵ŪʸǤȤ롥ϼϱѸˤ⤢뤬եˤϱѸ붯Ϥ롥⤷쵬ϼŪʸȤ뤫⤷ʤΥեεϼγΩȡȼο (language_myth) ˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤ
#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤá ([2011-01-13-1])
#1077. Rivarol Υեͥº (1) ([2012-04-08-1])
#1078. Rivarol Υեͥº (2) ([2012-04-09-1])
#1079. Rivarol Υեͥº (3) ([2012-04-10-1])
Perret (70--71) ˽äƥե쵬ϼȯŸˤ⤹ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥15--16եϥƥäƥեθȤƽѤϥեɸಽή¥ʤ17ˤ Academie française Ω1635ǯ˵ڤӵŪʸˡ伭νǤ꼡18ΥեݲνפФȤʤä18γ̿ˤեϿȤΥܥ˻Ωƾ夲졤եʳθɸŪʥեѼˡŪӽ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤɸեм20ޤ³20ʹߤϡѸŨĬήǻ1994ǯ Toubon ˡǤϡѸɽθŪʻѤ¤褦Ȥаޤ롥ˤ La Francophonie ([2015-04-28-1], [2015-04-29-1]) 20ȾˤȯŸϡΤ褦ʱѸŨδ֤Ť뤳ȤǤեŪȻȼɸŪŪʥե줬θҤɬݻǤʤʤäƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ϰ褴Ȥι̱ŪեѼ (français nationaux) ¸ߴƤƤ롥 (World) Englishes (world_englishes) ΥեǤȤ
եεϼβȥե̿δطˤĤƤϡ4ϡ֥ե̿ȸפɤߤ䤹٤ࡥ
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
ѸˤǤϡȤ櫓Ѹ¿ֻפȤƤ16Ⱦ˸¤äƤ⡤#1939. 16ˡᤰ ([2014-08-18-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦͡ʸɽ뤤̾ΤȤˡ (orthography) ˡ (orthoepy) ֻװƤǤ Hart Bullokar ʤɤεɤϺǽŪˤ졤ۤɤǤ˱ƶäɾ줦Τ Mulcaster ʤɤβɤäƱͤˡѸǤ#602. 19ʹߤαѸֻפ ([2010-12-20-1])#634. ǯֻ (1) ([2011-01-21-1])#635. ǯֻ (2) ([2011-01-22-1])#468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1]) Ǥߤ褦˿βפΩ夬äʤǡʬŪȤΤϲʲפǤ롥
ֻ̤פˤͳϡ#606. ѸֻפԤͳ ([2010-12-24-1]) ǹͻ̤Ȥ櫓ŪʲפۤȤɤĤ⼺Ԥ˽ͳƹͤƤߤȡǤŪֻηϤˡȤˤĤƤԤˤȤäơɽŪˤޤ˰ۤʤֻϡŪ˼줬ΤǤϤʤκݡֻפˤʤȤϡɤۤʤäƤ뤳ȤФ뤢ǽŪȤʤΤǤϤʤ㤨С <the> <dhe> ֤ʤפˤäƤϡ̤θɤ礭Ѥ롥줷ޤʤȤΤϳΤˤֻפˤȤäƤǤפϡƤޤޤǤλ֡ĤޤڤβˤΤǤ롥
֥륷⡤ֻפˤȤäƺξɤȤʤΤϡԤˡ˴줿͡Ūֿ͡ۼʤΤˤܼŪȿ (213)Ǥȼ롥ǤϡǽŪȤ⤤ϤɤΤ֥륷 (203--04) ۩
ʤĤˡϰĤδ̣Ƥ롥ǤϤʤˡϲˤϤäƽ˷Ƥ¿νˡѤΤǤꡤĤθ춦ƱΤ˸ͭΤΤǤ롥ˡüԤˤȤäʸΤΤǤ롥̤ͤǡֵ§ѸפǥͤιͰƤΤǤ뤳ȤפФƤ餤ϺݸȤߤʤƤѸΤˡʬηϤ;ȤʤФθȿλαѸοʹ֤ΤΤȤϰۤʤäƤΤΤᡤײ˴ؤʤɼŪפȤäơüԤλƱμ¤̤ͤ櫓ǤϤʤäϸ¤¨ǿŤˤؤ餺Ȥʤ⤷ϤۤȤˤǰŪˡ« (contrat) ϤäƤ褦ʰݤ¿ʤȤ⤢Ƥ롥ɴͤοʹ֤α̿ˤƤˡαƶ礭ϡʬβפ̤͡͡˼뤫ɤä¬ȤϤʤä
ʸβԤ¿⤳ξɤ礭˵ŤƤʤ櫓ǤϤʤäϤ٤Ǥäơο䤷ʤֻפϤФɽ츻ȸƤФΤ椷Ƥξɤν㤯ѤäƤˤϰ㤤ʤֻפŬѤڤʤˤʤɬĤƲ͡οŪɤΤȤԤ¿ϸӤäƤȤȤˤ̤ˤ⡤ֻפˤϡ̤Ƥʤ郎ݤƤ롥
⤦1ᡤ֥륷 (183) Ѥƽ褦
äơͻ̤ΤʤѴĤޤϴά뵭ѴŸ˾ꤷʤȤפǤ롥줬ʬŪ¦̡ˤDZƶϤä͡Ʊդ褦ϤƻǤꡤŤ˹ǤޤηϤ줵뤳Ȥ˹ǤƻǤ롥νǤݻ٤Ǥꡤ罰ä˶Ԥε»ͤꤹΤǤäƤϤʤʤˡνϸ̤礭ʤƤϤʤʤȤΤ⡤⤷줬ŪʲǻŪʸ§ΤˤʤСԤϤΤȡ̿ͤˤ䤵ƤޤǤ顥
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
#1879. ܸˤˡ ([2014-06-19-1]) εǿ줿褦ˡܸˤѤδѤϡ 1954ǯܤȤƹ֥ΤĤŤ˵äƤ롥͡ʵ˾29ǯ12˹줿ΤǤꡤޤǤδѤƤơɽʡᷱἰˤɽʡإܥɽˤ줿ܼˤޤŪƤä֤ޤפˤСɽȤʤ⡤Ūط䴷ˤäƲˤɽˤäƤ褤ȤƤ롥ʲˡ2ĤɽǤ褦
| 1ɽ | ʷἰ | a | i | u | e | o | |||
| ka | ki | ku | ke | ko | kya | kyu | kyo | ||
| sa | si | su | se | so | sya | syu | syo | ||
| ta | ti | tu | te | to | tya | tyu | tyo | ||
| na | ni | nu | ne | no | nya | nyu | nyo | ||
| ˥ | ˥ | ˥ | |||||||
| ha | hi | hu | he | ho | hya | hyu | hyo | ||
| ҥ | ҥ | ҥ | |||||||
| ma | mi | mu | me | mo | mya | myu | myo | ||
| ߥ | ߥ | ߥ | |||||||
| ya | (i) | yu | (e) | yo | |||||
| ra | ri | ru | re | ro | rya | ryu | ryo | ||
| wa | (i) | (u) | (e) | (o) | |||||
| ga | gi | gu | ge | go | gya | gyu | gyo | ||
| za | zi | zu | ze | zo | zya | zyu | zyo | ||
| da | (zi) | (zu) | de | do | (zya) | (zyu) | (zyo) | ||
| ba | bi | bu | be | bo | bya | byu | byo | ||
| ӥ | ӥ | ӥ | |||||||
| pa | pi | pu | pe | po | pya | pyu | pyo | ||
| ԥ | ԥ | ԥ |
| 2ɽ | ɸ༰ˡҥإܥ | sha | shi | shu | sho | |
| tsu | ||||||
| cha | chi | chu | cho | |||
| fu | ||||||
| ja | ji | ju | jo | |||
| ܼ | di | du | dya | dyu | dyo | |
| ¥ | ¥ | ¥ | ||||
| kwa | ||||||
| gwa | ||||||
| wo | ||||||
(gender) ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ gender gender_difference εǹͻƤΤʤˤϡʸˡ (grammatical gender) Ȥ (category) ΰ (agreement) ;̾ (personal_pronoun) λؼоݤʤɡŪŪ⤢С˴ؤ political_correctnessMiss/Mrs./Ms. ʤɤξι (title) ä˽θѲؤδͿʤɡʸŪҲŪ⤢롥ˤϤΤ褦˹ΰʤäƤ롥
Τ褦˹Ƹ̤ʤʬȤݤäƤΤHellinger and Bussmann Gender across Languages νϤɤǡƬꥢˤʤäΩ (1) įǤ⡤ΰʤϰϤ褽Ǥ褦ʡ줿ȤʤäƤ롥
1. Aims and scope of "Gender across languages"
2. Gender classes as a special case of noun classes
2.1 Classifier languages
2.2 Noun class languages
3. Categories of gender
3.1 Grammatical gender
3.2 Lexical gender
3.3 Referential gender
3.4 "False generics": Generic masculines and male generics
3.5 Social gender
4. Gender-related structures
4.1 Word-formation
4.2 Agreement
4.3 Pronominalization
4.4 Coordination
5. Gender-related messages
5.1 Address terms
5.2 Idiomatic expressions and proverbs
5.3 Female and male discourse
6. Language change and language reform
7. Conclusion
"Gender across languages" ꤹ븦ץȤΰĤȤƽǤ줿ΤΥץȤμ礿ؿ5ˤޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Hellinger and Bussmann 2)
(1) ܤʸˡäƤ뤫äƤʤСס̡̾첽ʤɤˤηŪħϲ
(2) ʸˡʤʤСꡤꡤ뤤οʪؼΤˤɤΤ褦ˡ뤫
(3) ΩŪʸ̮ǿͤؤȤǥեȤǤ褦ɽѤʤɤо뤫
(4) ˴ؤҲʸŪʳؤ䥹ƥ쥪פɽ魯Ѷ硤ȡȤ虜ʤɤ뤫
(5) ȸѰۡѲϤɤΤ褦˴ؤäƤ뤫פˤĤƤϤɤ
ԼԤϡˤϡؾˤȤɤޤ餺ҲŪʴްդΤǤ뤳ȤĥƤ롥礭ʻͿƤɽɤ
Hellinger, Marlis and Hadumod Bussmann, eds. Gender across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001.
ޥե٥åˤˤĤƤϡե٥åȤä#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1]) εdzѤƤƥɽȯŸޥե٥åȤϡθ塤衼åѤ濴˹ꡤˤηаޤȤȤ˥衼åѳسȻ#1861. Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤñ㤵 ([2014-06-01-1]) ޤäơߤǤƤʴϢơ#1838. ʸ ([2014-05-09-1]) ͡ˡܸˤλѤϼĮ̤뤬ޥե٥åȤŪȻˤΰ쥳ޤǤ롥ʲܸˤˤƣ (118--24) ˵ä褦
ܤ˽ƥ줿Τϡ16ȾĮǤ롥ꥹȶ붵դȤȤˤ⤿餵줿1590ǯŷ18ǯˡꥢͤΥ˥㡼 (1539--1609) 縶˳⤿餷ǥˤνإȥθȤȴ (1591) Ԥ³ơĹꡤŷ𡤵Ԥʤɤǿ¿ΥΡ֥ꥷפǤ뤳Ȥˤʤäإɥʡꥷʵðˡ (1592) ʤɤǤϡݥȥȯ˴Ťܸ줬ɽƤꡤܸȯΤǵŤʻȤʤäƤ롥
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ˤʤȡˤ褦ȤưޤäѸɽ˶ᤤإܥɸ༰ˤ褷ȤܸɽòܼפѤ٤۰ (1856--1952) ˻ꡤξȶΩϤޤäΩϤθĹ³Ȥˤʤꡤˤʸʡ̳ʤʤɤإܥΦʤʤɤܼ줾ٻܤܻؤĴȿ6ǯε1937ǯܼä˥إܥ¿줿ַἰפۤ
ϼޤ餺1954ǯˡܤɽʡᷱἰˤɽʡإܥɽˤ줿ܼˤϿ֥ΤĤŤȤƹ뤳ȤˤʤäǤ˱̾ѥݡȤο̾˺ѤƤإܥˤθĤĤŪäθ塤٤ξǧȤϤߤζǤϡϾع4ǯdzؤ֤ȤˤʤäƤ롥
ĮδĤ˥դʡ#1746. ɽΥ ([2014-02-06-1])ˡԥ塼ΥѴڤܸιݲʤǤ븽ߡʴܸˤѤƤ褦˻פ롥
ƣ ͧҡܤʸΤդդ١ꥹۡ1997ǯ
24οפɥͥϡͭ¿ȤǤ⤢롥#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) ǼȤꡤǤ700Ķ줬ѤƤꡤ¿ؿ2̤0.816Ȥ⤤ͤιθѸϥޥ饤 (Malay) äˤɸಽ줿ɥͥ (Bahasa Indonesia) θƱǺǤ¿üԤʤǤϤʤ2300͡ˡüԿĸɤϼȤƥǹä른 (Javanese) ǡ8400ͤˤäѤƤ롥ޥ饤줬ɥͥˤƸѸĶ̱²ȤƵǽƤطʤˤϡʬŪˤϹˤ륤ȥʸͿƤ뤬ȤƼȯƤȤŪиפʰ֤Ƥ롥

ȤƤΥޥ饤ϡܥͥαӡޥȥߡΥ㥫륿ϰʤɤΥﳤ̤ϰäƤ롥ޤٹݡޥ졼Ǥޥ饤ͤˤäƤꡤٰӤĶ̱²ȤƵǽƤ롥ʬۤϡޥ饤줬פΤ˳ߤγƹȯãƤˤ褯ʪäƤ롥ܤʬϿޤˤĤƤϡEthnologue Indonesia ꡤMaps Ȥ줿
(86--89) ˤȡޥ饤줬ɥͥθѸȤƺѤ뤳Ȥˤʤäʥϡ̱²Ʈ1928ǯŪˤ롥Ψ륤ɥ̱ͥޤϡˤΤФΩǤФ˥ޥ饤ɽȤƺѤ뤳ȤꤷȤȤƤΩϤޤ1945ǯΤȤǤꡤ1928ǯηϡŪȤ¿ʬ˾ħŪʤӤӤäΩ塤ϩ˱äƸײ褬塹ȿʤळȤˤʤäҤȤʸؼԤ¿ϤʧäƵʸˡ伭Իɸಽ˿Ϥ̤Ȥơɥͥϡ䡤ʸءޥǥθȤѤͣθȤʤä
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ɥͥϡײȤơ¿֤ˤˤȤäƵŤʻƤ롥
륤 Ķ̱²١ҡʸ˥ӡ1996ǯ
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ܤ٤ϡ嵭װ¿#1543. ء ([2013-07-18-1]) εβ˷Ǻܤ֥ˡΰŪħפοޤȤ߹ޤƤΤǤ롥Ķ̱²ȯŸϡؤǰ٤ǤȤȤ狼
륤 Ķ̱²١ҡʸ˥ӡ1996ǯ
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ëϡ1940ǯڤμͤȯפ礭ư衤ϡֲ춵ˤηݤΤҤȤĤΥƥ˶ᤤ (30) ΤȤơ¨θ֤ȤƵǽ褦ˤʤäƤޤäȤòƤ롥ºݤˤϡڸζǮȳؽǮιޤȤȤ˲ǼȯΤˤʤˤ⤫餺ȡ
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츢ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥϡ#278. ˥塼ɤˤޥγ ([2010-01-30-1])#280. Τ˴Ϣ륵ȡ ([2010-02-01-1])#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1])#1657. ꥫαѸѸ첽ư ([2013-11-09-1]) ʤɤʬŪ˰äƤˤʤεϤܤƤߤ
ë ɧزޤ褨벭θդᤰ͡١ܡ2006ǯ
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
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