ܥ֥Ǥ doubt <b> sign <g> ʤɤˤȤۻ (silent_letter) ȤѸΤ褦˻ȤäƤʬ䤹ѸǤ롥ŬʤΤѸǤȤơѤʤֻԤ⤤롥
ѸΤɤ꤬ΤõäƤȻפΤޤ Carney "2.6.5 Auxiliary, inert and empty letters" ꤹƬȤϤ (40)
All letters are 'silent', but some are more silent than others
Opinions are sharply divided on whether to allow the use of 'silent letters' in a description of English orthography so as to cater for spellings such as the <b> in debt, doubt. If we are to find our way in this controversy, we clearly need to clarify our terminology. The term 'silent letters' is an extension of a metaphor commonly used in the teaching of reading, where letters are often supposed to 'speak' to the reader. When a simple vowel letter, as the <a> in latent has its long value /eɪ/, 'the vowel says its name'. A commonly-used classroom rule for reading vowel digraphs, such as <oa>, <ea>, is: 'when two vowels go walking, it's the first that does the talking' --- a comment on the greater phonetic transparency of the first element in a complex graphic unit. But, as Albrow (1972: 11) pints out, all letters are silent: 'the sounds are not written and the symbols are not sounded; the two media are presented as parallel to each other'. He suggests the term 'dummy letters' for letters with no direct phonetic counterpart but, as far as possible, tries to do without them in his analysis.
Albrow θʬϡʸȯʤ椨ˤ٤ƤʸۻפȤȤϤΥ硼Τ褦ˤʹ뤬ΡʸȯפȤǰեɽʸǤ륢ե٥åȤȤʸȤԤο˿߹ޤƤ뤳ȤƤȤϡ¤϶ˤƽפǤ롥ȤΤϡʸֻεäƤϡȯʸäդȽդ§ȤưۤʤǥǤ뤳ȤǧƤɬפ뤫ξǥϡѼԤ͡ˡǸߤϢ礪ȤƤΤϻ¤ܼŪ˰ۤʤ2ĤΥǥؤ餻褦ȤĤߤʤΤǤꡤˤޤԤ櫓ǤϤʤषбطޤԤʤΤȤΩ줫饹ȤƤߤۤͭפ⤷ʤΤ
silent letter ȤѸˤĤƤϡͤ³Ƥ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Albrow, K.H. The English Writing System: Notes toward a Description. London: Longman, 1972.
ظλŵ٤įƤȤѲ (language_change) Ȥδؿʬ˴ؤ͡ʵܤӹǤѲˤĤƤϻܥ֥¾͡˹ͤƤԤ10ͤ10̤θѲѤ롥ϡظλŵ٤ pp. 560--62 ˵ܤƤ롤ԻˤָѲװȤΥᥫ˥פꤹ1Ѥ롥
ѲװȤΥᥫ˥
ȤФϻήѲ³ΤǤꡤ˶٥ǤѲ˵ŤˤϤƤ֤ȤФפȤª졤оݤȤʤ롥Ȥʿ»ʸغʤ䡤ñʸȯΤʤɤСѲïܤˤ餫Ǥ롥äơޤȤФѲΤޤǤȤȯΩäƸ츽ݤƤȤפǤ롥Ĥƥ塼Ferdinand de Saussure, 185--1913ˤذ̸عֵ (Cours de linguistique générale)٤̻ (diachronic linguistics) ȶ (synchronic linguistics) ̡˸椹٤ǤȽҤ٤ΤϡޤǯʸˡɤŰ줷ˡ§õ˷پĤ餹ǤäȻפ뤬ɤʸǤ⤵ޤޤʥ٥ǾѲοʹʳˤΤǡŪԤʤǤ̻Ūʻ³뤳ȤڤǤ롥
ǤϤʤȤФѲΤǤŪװȤƤϻҶθ콬βҲŪѰۡŪװȤƤϸܿͤ롥Ҷͤζʤȯäʹʤû֤Τ˸ʸˡηϤ뤬ͤˤʤäƤϤۤɴñˤѲʤĤޤҶθ콬β˸ѲװǤȻפ롥ޤθ츽ݤवޤޤʼҲŪѰۤɤ줬ˤɤΤ褦ʷǺѤƤΤͽǤʤɤ⡤ȤΡ֥ɡפϡ֥ԲפȤιήؤȸָסֿ٤פʤɤΡ֤ȴաפ夷ƤΤ⤷ʤʬβˤϡָ콬פּҲءפθ̤ԲķȤ롥ܿˤѲϡŪܤ֤ʤɤȯѤ뤤¿Ѥˤ륳ɴ֤δĤˤäͶȯ롥ܺ٤ˤĤƤϸҤ롥
ƶ٥ǸѲβ˵ŤȤ⤢뤱ɤ⡤Ѳɴǯǯñ̤ǸˤꤤäϤäǧ롥λ庹ѻ뤿ˤϲʸԲķǤ롥ĤޤꤽΤ褦ʸäƽƸѲװȤΥᥫ˥βǽˤʤȤ롥λŪ椬ˤ礭ȯŸΤ⡤¾θ²ʤʸϿ¿¸ߤǤ롥ʸϲ٤ݼŪǤʤɡɬ줬ΤޤϿƤ櫓Ǥʤαդ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥
ûʸϤΤʤˡѲκǤפǻ̩˵ͤޤƤ롥ǽפΤ٤Ƥ夷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ̩٤϶ä٤䤬ǤͤȽǤ5ȴФ
(1) ֤ȤФѲΤޤǤȤȯΩäƸ츽ݤƤȤפǤ
(2) ֶŪԤʤǤ̻Ūʻ³뤳ȤڤǤ
(3) ֤ʤȤФѲΤǤŪװȤƤϻҶθ콬βҲŪѰۡŪװȤƤϸܿͤ
(4) ֤ʬβˤϡָ콬פּҲءפθ̤ԲķȤ
(5) ʸϲ٤ݼŪǤʤɡɬ줬ΤޤϿƤ櫓Ǥʤαդ뤳ȤɬפǤ
ԡָѲסظλŵ١ ʿԡˡīҽŹ2005ǯ560--82ǡ
ʸ䤽νդηϤϡ켫ΤθäդоݤȤؤ1ĤηǤ롥ռŪʬϤ뤳ȤʤˡͤʸɽηϤͰƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤơɤ߽ǽϤ夫ȤˤĤͤޤŪ˹ͰƼԤθʬϤθ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫
Daniels (54) ϡָػˤȤƤνդˡפΤʤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Ordinarily, speakers have no insight into the nature of their language or what they are doing when they are speaking. But when a language is written, it is consciously written, and every writing system embodies an analysis of its languages. And that analysis is known not only to the deviser of the writing system (however great an accomplishment the act of devising a writing system may be), but also---consciously---to everyone who learns to write, and even read, that writing system. Ergo, every writing system informs us of 'native speaker analysis' of every written language, and such analyses have touched on virtually every level of analysis known to modern linguistics.
դȯϡ켫ȤäդθŪʬϤξڵȤߤʤȤǤ롥äơػ˽κǽ֤٤Ǥ롥ʤۤɡ̤ꡥ
Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.
2髙ԡˡνʪˤؤ٤ȿǤƤޤΤˤܤˤ¿μ̿䥨ԥɤȤȤ˥ѥȤˤޤȤƤޤʸƤꡤΰ˿ʤΤͭѤǤ

ܤˤˤϿޤܡʤܤvolumeˤ (codex) ؤܤη֤եȤˤĤơֺܤоפꤹϤǾҲ𤵤Ƥޤ
ܤϺܤ٤ƸˤäȤȤФиޤեȤطʤˤϤΤ褦ʼŪװ⤢äȤϳΤȻפޤꥹȶڤȴطҲŪװ⤢äȹͤƤޤ
髙 (pp. 45--45) Ǥϡ1--5˺줿¸륮ꥷŵʤܤˤĤơܤȺܤΨ٤ĴҲ𤵤Ƥޤˤȡ1ˤϺܤϤۤȤɤʤäΤΡ2ˤ2%3ˤ17%4ˤ70%5Ƭˤ90%Ȳ®ŪƤޤꥹȶϢܤˤĤĴȡäᤤʳܤϰϤǺѤƤꡤ2ޤǤ100%ãƤޤĤޤꡤꥹȶϢܤȺܤŪ̩ܤʴطˤäȤȤǤ
ˤĤ髙 (pp. 46--48) ϼΤ褦Ƥޤ
ƤܤȯƤΤϥץȤǤ롥ͤƤꡤܤȤ֤νиȥꥹȶŤ¹ԤƵäƤ뤳ȤϻŦƤܤϻá˻ŪȤʤꡤƱͤ˥ꥹȶ⻰˵®ڤ컰ǯǧƤ
ܤܤؤηŪžϡ줬ѤȤäŪкŪȽǤ鵯äΤǤϤʤҼܤϡܤѤƤ䶵դ¸ߤƤ۶Фơϥꥹȶ䶵ʬɤΩȤħŪʷ֤ȤơФ줿ΤǤ롥ꥹȶζ⤭ڤη֤Ȥơꥹȶμ̻۶̤ν̤뤿ˡܤϺѤ줿ΤǤä䶵ŵߤǤʤ洬ܤη֤ǺƤܤСޤʤꥹȶطԤˡӤδϢμܤܤη֤ž٤ϤפʿʪǤȤ⤫Ӿ夬롥
ܤη֤ͿƤȤϡޤ˶äǤ
髙 ԡνʪˤؤ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2023ǯ
24λпʹīˡϢܡ֥ƥΥȿκǿȤʤ뵭ʸȯפǺܤޤпʹβʳԽѰεԡĹβ𤵤ˤʸˤˤĤƼޤơ줬Ȥʤޤ¾Ȥˤषǡʸ⤭ĦˤƤޤ֤ǤϸȤȤǤĤƤɤߤФȡ *

θ漼Ǽޤ2ֶڤäޤϢܡ֥ƥΥȿפ20ˤ錄³ƤԤơ֤Ϥʸκȯפȸ碌ȤϸӤǤ⤽ͤƤޤΤ (^^;;ǤϤؤäˤʤޤ
#5022. hellog ʸˤ˴ؤ뵭 ([2023-01-26-1]) ꤷƥޤμȤδϢǤޤȤΤǤƻпʹΡʸȯȤȤˡ⤴Ф¸ޤ
ֻ21⡤ʸϴְ㤤ʤκǶġǤ³ޤ
ܥ֥ǤϹʸ (grammatology) ˴ؤ¿夲Ƥɸ˷ǤƤ륿ʤɤéäƤ¿ε˥Ǥ뤬Ǥ¿ӤˤȻפΤǡ˵פȤˤᵭƤʸפ˴ؿΤˤȤäơͤˤʤȻפޤ
ΡäդȽաʸ
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])
#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1])
#849. äդȽ (2) ([2011-08-24-1])
#1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])
#1664. CMC (computer-mediated communication) ([2013-11-16-1])
#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])
#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])
#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])
#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1])
#2701. ŹȤƤʸ ([2016-09-18-1])
#3274. äդȽ (5) ([2018-04-14-1])
#3886. äȤФȽȤ (6) ([2019-12-17-1])
Ρʸμࡦˡ
#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1])
#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])
#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1])
#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])
#2390. ʸηϤεȯã (2) ([2015-11-12-1])
#2398. ʸη (3) ([2015-11-20-1])
#2399. ݷʸǯɽ ([2015-11-21-1])
#2414. ʸǯɽʥӥǡˡ ([2015-12-06-1])
#2416. ʸη (4) ([2015-12-08-1])
#3443. ɽʸɽʸ ([2018-09-30-1])
Ρե٥åȤˡħ
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#490. ե٥åȤε North Semitic ̤롩 ([2010-08-30-1])
#1861. Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤñ㤵 ([2014-06-01-1])
#2105. Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤ ([2015-01-31-1])
#2888. ʸˤˤե˥ʸν ([2017-03-24-1])
ΡʸŤʸ
#1838. ʸ ([2014-05-09-1])
#2429. ե٥åȤȤ ([2015-12-21-1])
#850. դȯŪͤδط ([2011-08-25-1])
#2577. ʸηϤ˴ؤҲŪװ ([2016-05-17-1])
#3486. ͭʸȯʤäȤƤġġ ([2018-11-12-1])
#3700. ֥ե٥åȤŴˤʸ罰 ([2019-06-14-1])
#3768. ִ¿ͤʲߤʤ롤٤μʡס ([2019-08-21-1])
#3837. ơˡʸȿˡ --- 5ĤʸȯŸˡ ([2019-10-29-1])
Ρʸȶˡ
#808. smileys or emoticons ([2011-07-14-1])
#2244. ԥȥβǽ ([2015-06-19-1])
#2400. ԥȥβǽ (2) ([2015-11-22-1])
#574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1])
#575. Ū punctuation ˤ500ǯۤɡ ([2010-11-23-1])
#3045. punctuation εǽ¿ ([2017-08-28-1])
ѸΥƥȤˤ¿¿ͤʥڥߤƤ롥ޤѰۤλѸäդѰۤĴХեޥȤ˿ҤͤʤɼҲؾμˡѤ뤳ȤǤ뤬꤬ѸνդǤСʤ٤ȤѤäƤ롥եޥȤĤޤʤФ꤫ȯˤɤ夯ȤΤǡѸΥڥѰۤˤĤĴ٤褦ȻפСȼˡȯ¸ʤФʤʤ뤲ΤA Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English (= LALME) Ի Angus McIntosh Michael L. Samuels Ǥ
McIntosh and Samuels ˤ LALME General Introduction (3.1.2) ˤȡѸΥڥѰ߽ۤФ줿طʤȤơ5ब̤Ȥ
(i) Normal dialect variation, e.g. as in border areas . . . .
(ii) Variation of textual or codicological origin, e.g. layers of variants resulting from successive copyings.
(iii) Sociolinguistic variation, especially in writers affected by the spread of Standard English.
(iv) The combination of two separate dialects in a writer of mixed upbringing.
(v) Especially in the fifteenth century, an unusually wide range or eclectic combination of spellings in a single writer.
Ѱ (variation) ȤϲȤʱѡ˸äդȤǤϤʤѸνդȤįʤǡƱ꤬ɤ˭ӤӤ뤳Ȥ(i), (iii), (iv) äդˤΤ뤬(ii), (v) ˤĤƤϽդͭλͳ褹Ѱۤȹͤ롥
ؤˤƤϽդФäդͥȤΤQŪȯۤǤ롥ʸؤ칶ƤΤ褦ʼԤˤȤäƤϡξQŪȤɤդμΩȤΤƤ뤫Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϲεǤ͡˵Ƥ㤨аʲεɤ
#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])
#2339. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (1) ([2015-09-22-1])
#2340. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (2) ([2015-09-23-1])
#2431. դμΩ˴ؤ Bolinger ε ([2015-12-23-1])
#2508. դμΩ˴ؤ Samuels ε ([2016-03-09-1])
#2819. ä濴æĤĤء ([2017-01-14-1])
#3886. äȤФȽȤ (6) ([2019-12-17-1])
McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.
Mair (116) ˤȡѸ (world_englishes) θԤ褽դƤ礿ȥɤ3ĤȤ
1. Accent divides, whereas grammar unites (with the lexicon being somewhere in between)
2. There is divergence in speech, but convergence in writing.
3. Variation is suppressed in public and formal discourse, but pervasive in informal settings.
Τ褦˸ȡľŪˤ⤽̤ʤΤȻפ졤äϤʤǻŦƤѸηϡѸ쥳ѥʤɤˤҴŪǼ¾ŪʸˤäƤ褽դȤפǤ롥绨ĤˤСäդŵŪʥեޥʱѸѤˤƤϡѼ֤礭ʰ㤤ߤ뤬դŵŪʥեޥʱѸѤǤϡɸؤλظߤȤȤ
3ϡ츫褽褦ʤȤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˤפ뤫⤷ʤΤ˸ߤ˽ŤʤʬΤ¤Ǥ롥ơϸ§Ȥưۤʤ뼴ΩäλŦȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥդ1ܤϡȯʸˡʸäˤȤ˴ؤѥ˴ŤƤ롥2ܤäդդȤΤ˴ط롥3ܤϡҲŪʥåƥüŪˤХեޥ뤫եޥ뤫ȤѤطʤܤƤ롥
äդȤСƤեޥǤꡤʤȯκۤ˴ؿեޥäդλѤϳؽѹֱʤɤ̤˴ѻ뤷Ǥȯ٤ŪΩʤʤʸˡäͿƤΤǤ롥ޤդȤХեޥȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿åȤäΥץȤΤ褦ɬ⤽ǤϤʤդλѤϤǤ⤢뤷ȯѰۤȿǤɸŪʥڥѤߤ롥
3ĤΥѥϡߤ˽Ťʤ뤬ŪˤΩΤȤƤΤŬڤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])#839. register ([2011-08-14-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
Mair, Christian. "World Englishes and Corpora." Chapter 6 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 103--22.
դäդ̤ΤǤȤԤϤäƤ롥ΤˤϽդ1ĤνפʵǽǤꡤ켫Τϴְ㤤ǤϤʤϡäդȽդϡɽ魯2ĤΩΤǧƤ롥ΤξԤδطϿ§ȤƸߤΩƤ롥ʤ봶ФäդİСդϻФȰۤʤäƤ뤷ǽˤƤⴰ˰פ뤳ȤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
äդȽդϸ§ȤƸߤΩΤǤꡤԥäȰפ뤳ȤϤʤȤȤĤġǤϱѸˤǤξԤϤɤΤ餤ΥƤΤ뤤ߴäƤΤȤȤȤܸˤǤȤΡָʸԡ˰ספǤ롥
ܸˤ٤ФȤĤΰոѸˤˤƤϡѸ줬դդ줿Ȥ줬ƱäդɤΤ餤褯ȿǤƤСŪ褯פ褦˻פ롥ܸǤδʸʸʸ´ʸʤɡäդ礭æդѤƤѸǤϤۤɤ礭ʰæϤߤʤä
ѸˤλǤСդäդ˺ǤܶᤷƤΤѸä⤷ʤȯΤޤֻ˾äȤǤ⡤դ˰ҿͿɸ줬¸ߤʤäȤǤ⡤ξΤܶᤷƤȤ
ΩĸűѸ䡤³ѸˤƤϡξΤεΥŪ礭ä褦˻פ롥űѸαʸϡָʸءפȤϤƱäդɽ路ΤȤϹͤʤˤƤϡ֥ȥɸפ⸽졤ѸǽޤǤ٤αƶϤݤäѸ줫ѸˤƤϥƥեʤɤΰҿää̤ήդǤƱäդι⤤ʤ줿Τ褦ˤĤơSchaefer (1285--86) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
[M]ost of what has come down to us in writing should be considered as influenced by the very medium that allows us to look into these historical linguistic data. However, if we compare the poetic evidence from the early 8th century to the prose evidence from the 12th, it is probably the latter that brings us closest to what may be considered to mirror the spoken language of the respective period. Albeit that the former must have been heavily informed by the pre-Christian oral culture, its form most certainly does not reflect conceptually 'spoken' language. Moreover, English was only firmly reestablished in writing in the 14th and 15th centuries. In that period English in writing obviously profited very much from the literate languages Latin and French . . . . The influence of Latin continued well into the Modern period and hence made the disparity between prose writing in the then establishing standard and the actual spoken language even wider.
ѸˤǤϡषˤäդȽդεΥޤäƤƤȤͤ롥饸ƥӡͥåȤʤɤεѤ˻٤ơΤˤ륳ߥ˥Ūξδ֤ζܤ⽾ۤΤǤϤʤʤäƤƤ뤳ȤطƤ
ƱռεȤơ#3210. 夬ˤĤ졤դεϿŪäդФȤʤ뤫ݤ ([2018-02-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Schaefer, Ursula. "Interdisciplinarity and Historiography: Spoken and Written English --- Orality and Literacy." Chapter 81 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1274--88.
̡ȡشڥǥɴʡ٤ڥڥäƤȤ̿Τȯã˴ؤ뵭ܤˤȤޤä (1772--73) #2931. ϸŤӽΤǤϤʤ䤹 ([2017-05-06-1]) Ǽ夲Ȥ櫓̿ΤפǤܼŪʤȤХäͤƤƴ쥳ߥ˥ΤȯŸǡƶǤ롥ʲĹ٤ưѤ롥
̿ȯãޥߤ
̿ȯã
̿ˤΤȤΰջãȤСȯãϡ礿Τˤäơޤ˸Ƭɮŵ̿ߺŪ̿λʬव롥ʸʤˤ̿μʤϡƬˤ뤫СİФ̤Ƥο桦ޡʤΤݤʤɡˤˤ뤷ʤʸĤ褦ˤʤȻȯȤȤ˼ɮ̿ΤμפʼʤȤʤä
Ѥȯޤǡפʽʪϥȥåƻν̼ǽ̤ƤʿŪʸĿͤǽʽʪοϸꤵƤꡤΨ㤫äۤμήۤȤμѤȤä
Ѥȯϡʪ̤˳衼åѤǤ1455ǯ J. ƥ٥륯 (1397--1468) ˤäƶ°ˤǰȯ줿οʵѤϽʪιϤή̣ۤ16Ⱦνױư17ꥹԥ塼̿ΥǥζɬפˤѥեåȡʹʤɤγƼʪνиߤΨϤʤ㤯ȯαƶϤ˴ʤΤǤꡤΤ褦˰ʪ罰ΤȤΤˤʤäΤϥƥ٥륯ȯ顤380ǯвᤷ1830ǯΥꥫʺǽ罰ʹϴˤˤƤǤä
1844ǯ S. F. B. ⡼ (1791--1872) ѲſϿʹμã®٤ֻΤΤȤϤᡤ̿ˤοʲſ֤ϡ®dzμ¾˻ƤԤ侦ͤˤäơ19դޤ̥ޥޡͤĥᤰ餵졤̾
ޥߤ̿
ʹҤƤüѤȤơȯ100ĶǽȤȤȤʤä1890ǯ夫ȤΤȤ饸о줹1920ǯޤǤޥߥ˥ηǤ롥ŪˤķŪڤƥӤäꡤŵ̿ϥޥǥ̿μή롥
δ֡եࡤʤɤΤ٤λŪǥŤطʤȤơŪˤϹ̱ʸŪ硤гŪˤλʸŪήۤȤΤ˿ΤǤʤŤΤư줿λŪǥãϤ٤ơҤȤ꤫¿ؤξãդޤȤŪʰ̣⤫Ӿ夬餻롥
Ȥ뺣ˤ륽ϢϤҤȤ꤫¿ؤξΤ褦θ³Ѳż롥1980ǯܳʲ̿η֤ħϡ̿Ѥáեåѥ̿ˤߤҤȤ꤫ҤȤؤ̿ߺǤ롥Ĵ֤̿ˤƤ⡤ƥӲĤäȤꡤʸ֥ƥӡͭˤƤ¾롤¿ͥξġͤμפ˱ǡΰãǤϤʤ̿ϡĹ餯ʬǤƤʤ۶ν椹Ⱦ٤줿ȤޤͤꡦƤϤưɤƤ롥
̿Τ
̿ˤϡƬɮŵ̿ߺŪ̿λ˰ʬव뤬ƬˤãϡʸȰѤȯθ⡤ߤȤƻѤ줿ɤŪŪʷưˤФȤƽפ餸饸ƥӤоȤ̤ựäƤʤʸλˤʤäƤह뤳Ȥʤʻ¸μʸβɤϺ˲Ȥºɤ뤿νפʻŻǤ롥ץʸμήȤʤäƤɮμ椬äºŤ뤳ȤФ𤵤褦ˡƬ饳ԥ塼ޤǤˤϿä˿ʤ褦ˤߤƤºݤϿϾǤ뤳ȤϤʤ
̿ΤŪΤνиϤ١ԤΤεǽѤ뤬ΤδʪȤϤʤ餺ɮŵ̿Ȥ⤤⸽ޤ³ԤƤ롥ϡ̿ˤΤѲȤȤˡ̤¿ɵᤷƤˤǤ뤳Ȥ
ϡ쥳ߥ˥ˤƾ̤ɵᤷ³βǼΤȯƤȤȤˤʤ롥μˤĤƤϤɤʤΤȹͤǤޤäϡΤȾа¸뤬ȾΩΤǤ⤢
ȴϢƽ̺ˤĤơ#2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ ([2016-01-26-1])#2456. ̺Ƚƻ (1) ([2016-01-17-1])#2457. ̺Ƚƻ (2) ([2016-01-18-1])#2933. ǯɽ ([2017-05-08-1])#3116. ʪҤءѥԥ륹ء ([2017-11-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
شڥǥɴʡ١1995ǯ
äȤФȽȤФӡоȤˤĤơʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])
#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1])
#849. äդȽ (2) ([2011-08-24-1])
#1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])
#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])
#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])
#3274. äդȽ (5) ([2018-04-14-1])
#3411. äաաΡˡʸΡˡ ([2018-08-29-1])
#3799. äաաΡˡʸΡ (2) ([2019-09-21-1])
#2535. (sign) μ --- ʤˤʬ ([2016-04-05-1])
ݤ˽פʤΤϡξԤ (medium) ȤơʪŪˡװۤʤΤǤȤŪǧǤ롥äȤФİФʤ벻ѤȤФϻФʤ뵭Ѥ롥δŪʰ㤤顤ۤܤ٤Ƥνפʰ㤤߽ФȤȤĤޤꡤ츫Ūˤߤ뤬¤ΤȤʪؤؤ˵夹Ȥ (cf. #1063. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (1) ([2012-03-25-1])#1064. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (2) ([2012-03-26-1])#1065. 軰ŪʵΤȤƤβħ ([2012-03-27-1])ˡ
Cook (38) ξΤħΤ褦˴ʷˤޤȤƤ롥
| Speech is spoken sounds | Writing is written symbols |
|---|---|
| Speech is fleeting | Writing is permanent |
| Speech is linear in time | Writing can be consulted, regardless of time |
| Speech is processed 'on-line' | Writing is stored 'off-line' |
| Speech can be produced and comprehended at around 150 words per minute | Writing can be read at up to 350 words per minutes |
| Speech is spontaneous first-draft | Writing is carefully worked, final-draft |
| Speech is linked to a definite shared context | Writing has an indefinite non-shared context |
| Speech attributes definite roles to the listener | Writing attributes indefinite roles to the reader |
| Speech can use sound features such as intonation | Wiring can use written features such as punctuation |
Ҳ𤷤ơˡʸȿˡ٤ꡤɸˤĤơ̾ʸʸȤڤäƤڤʤطˤǧƤꡤͭʸҲϤʤʸҲפȤƤ褦˻פ롥֤ȤƤΡ̵ʸҲϤʤʸҲפȤϾΩĤΤ
(27) ϡ̵ʸҲФͭʸҲ̤ͥϵʤȤĤĤ⡤̵ʸҲʸŪʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤĥƤ롥
ȯŸϡĻŪ夹ΤȤƤʸäȤޤäۤʤʳ뤳ȤȤʤ롥
ʸͭȤ⡤ʤ٤ʸʸĤ夲뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥γʹʰϡֿפΥǤ롥
ڥ롼濴˥꤫饨ɥˤޤdzȤߤʥޥԥΤ褦ԻԤ¤Ĥο͡ϡɽ魯סʤַʸפͭƤĻŪ夹ΤȤƤηŪʸĤȤϤĤˤʤä褦Ǥ롥
ֵפǸȤС桼饷dzФߤͷ̱Ǥ롥ʸļդνʸĹ餯ͷ̱⡤ȥ륳ϤȬʸͰƤޤǡʸ⤿ʤä
ޤʥۤͤ⡤ˤʸ⤿컰ȾäƤ褦䤯٥åʸ١Ȥѥʸȡʸ١ȤȤʸĤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥Ȥ⤹ʸ⤿Ȥ⡤ҳƥΤ褦ʡΤݻ뤳ȤǤΤϳΤǤ롥
ά
ʸΤȤʾ̤Ѥ褦ˤʤäҲʸνʬˤơ̡ͥפ褦ˤʤäƤäȤ⵿ʤǤ桼饷ˤ꽻Ū̱ȰưŪͷ̱ϴطǽŪˤԤ̤ͥ˵뤷ޤˤäȤߤƤ褤Ǥ
ʸϤͭʸҲʸŪͥμĥˤ뤬Ϥष̵ʸҲɬʸŪǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤμĥΤۤ˴ؿä̵ʸҲȰǤäƤ⡤¤ϤʥꤽǤ롥˴ؤƤϡʲεǤƤΤǤȤ
#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1])
#2618. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ (2) ([2016-06-27-1])
#2447. οʸηϤο ([2016-01-08-1])
#3118. ̵ʸҲ˽ҡ ([2017-11-09-1])
#3486. ͭʸȯʤäȤƤġġ ([2018-11-12-1])
ơʸȿˡʸˡפΥå١Ǽҡ2018ǯ
ɸθ䤹Ѹ췲ˤĤơ[2018-08-29-1]ε˰³մ֤
εǤ⻲Ȥ¼ܸɸפˡ٤DzǫѸβͿƤ (14--15) פʬѤ褦
ĤθǤäƤ⡤դäդȤϰäȤ뤫顤ƹˤϤդɬפǤ롥Ǥפϡդˤϸʸʸʸ뤳ȤǤ롥䤳ȤäդΤȤǤ롥ʸȤʸΤνդΤȤǤ롥դˤϸƬ˶ᤤΤνդ⤢롥ʸȸäƤ롥ʬहȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
äաʸ Ρʸʸ ա ʸΡʸʸ
θؽˤϡפʤȤǡָ졤ʸפȤդڤΩƻѤƤΤ뤬Τ褦ѸϸɬοʬȤꡤָפȡʸפȤľܤˤΩʤޤָʸפȤߤ褤ξָפΡäաפؤƤ褦¾Ρʸפ̤ؤƤΤʸʸΡˤؤƤΤʬʤʤ롥ָʸספȤ䤹ѸȤȤϡʾ夫ȻפäȤָʸספϼºݤˤϡֽոΡפ̵ȤǡָΡפϽФ뤳ȤȲᤵ뤫顤ΰ̣ѸȤäƤʤ̵
ޤʬ褦ˡäդ1˿Ԥ뤬դˤ2ब̤ȤȤΤΤ䤳ä뤿ΥĥܤǤ롥ϡդäդ˽° (medium) Ǥ뤳ȤǡפʥĥܤȤ褦
¼ ˡܸɸפˡ١̼ҡ2019ǯ
ε#3444. ѸˤϡѸλ̵餷ǤȤ١ ([2018-10-01-1]) ƤϡΤޤܸˤˤƤϤޤ뤷ˤ¾¿θ̸ˤˤƤϤޤܸˤˤĤơ (4) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ʸˤߤܸ줬ɤΤ褦ܸȿǤƤΤΤȤܸˤͤݤ˺ǤפʤȤǤ롥ʸϹ˸夫鸽ޤǻĤäƤΤΡˤϤ줾λʸȿǤƤդŪȤθդôȤĤǤ뤳ȤαդʤФʤʤ
ŪȤΤϡɻˤäƤθաʿ»ʹǯϵθաͻȾʹߤˤäƤϹ͡θդȤ褦ˡʸ濴Ϥ¨ưưƤ뤳ȤǤ롥äơˤȤʤСήϰϢ³礯ˡϢʤȤȤήˤΤϤʤʤǤ롥
դô˴ؤƤ?ʿ»ˤϵ²ηθաһˤΤθաĮˤϾĮͤθաͻˤϲĮͤθդä뤳ȤȤʤꡤҤȸȤäƤ⤽¤ŪʤΤǤϤʤΤǤ롥
λФĹݤ줿ԤԸդϡϤθդˤä礭ѹ뤳ȤϤʤäΤ¤Ǥ롥ȤϤλܸˤҤ˽פǤ롥
ѸˤǤǯǤ The Stories of English Alternative Histories of English ʤɤνѼˤҤ褦ˤʤäƤŪ˱ѸˤȤСפ˵ҤԤȤ礭ѤäƤʤѸˤˤƤפ϶ŪˤŪˤϢ³礤ƤȤȤϸ¤ǤꡤõƤɬפ
ơ̸ˤϻ̵餷ǤȤ٤ʤΤǤ롥
ˡ1ϡܸ˳ѡ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ1--21ǡ
Ѹ˸ˤơФиᤴ뤬ƴŪʻ¤Ȥơ¸ʸΥ꤬롥ˤäʸ̤礭ʺȤ¤
κȤäƤ⡤켫Τˤ͡ʥפ롥ˤäơʸƤۤʤ⤢СΩäꤿγʤɡҲŪ°ۤʤ⤢롥ˤäơΤȯŸƤʸϤΥäƤɽμˤ⡤ˤäư㤤ߤ롥
¸ʸθ줬ˤä¿¿ͤǤȤȤϡθˤ̤ƤΡ¬פȤȤǤ롥ϰ˸ꤷƹͤƤ⡤礿ʤפϡűѸǤϥȥǤꡤѸǤ¸ߤѸʹߤϥɥǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ1ĤΩӤưӤѸˤȤϤǤʤ
头Ȥ˽դôѤäƤǤϤΤΤϡۤԤ䲦²˸¤Ƥϡ깭¯ο͡ˤΤˬ褦ˤʤꡤḽˤƤ϶ȯŸȤȤ˽դϽ̱˳ƤäդôȤ¦̤ˤƤ⡤¬αѸˤȤ
ǤϡΤ褦˻ȤֱѸˡפȤϲؤΤֱѸפΤΤƱ褦ˡֱѸˡפ⡤ʤ١եʤΤȻפѸˤϡñʤѸȤ˴ؤ¤λŪʵҤǤϤʤϸߤ˷ӤĤˤ̵Τ̵٤θɤΤؤȲȤӤĤİ٤ʤΤǤϤʤݥȤϤ˷֤櫓ǤϤʤȤȤˤϡ˸뤿ιפۤ˸ȤȤϡ餯¤β˿ȿǤƤϤȤ˾ʤ顥
ɸϡճȺ䤹Ѹ췲Ǥ롥Ǥˡ¼˴Ťơ#3314. Ѹˤˤָʸױưס ([2018-05-24-1]) Ǥ夲Ƥ
ޤäաפȡֽաפΩˤĤơˤĤƤ¿פʤȤФɽ魯ʡʤ (medium) ΰ㤤ܤƤѸǤꡤѤƸƬǤʤΤäաפǤꡤʸѤƽǤʤΤֽաפǤ롥줾Τͭλ𤬤ꡤˤĤƤϡʲγƵǰäƤ
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])
#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1])
#849. äդȽ (2) ([2011-08-24-1])
#1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])
#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])
#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])
#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])
#3274. äդȽ (5) ([2018-04-14-1])
䤹ΤϡָΡפȡʸΡפΩǤ롥줾Ρפάơָסʸפȸ뤳Ȥ¿ޤμȤʤꤦ롥ָסäաפȤˡʤǤϤʤŪˤϡָΡˡפʸΡˡפդ°복ǰǤ롥դˤƺѤ2ĤΰۤʤʸΤΤ褤ָΡˡפϡָŪʸΤνաסʸΡˡפϡʸŪʸΤνաפȤȤǤ롥
ǤϡָŪʸΤνաסʸŪʸΤνաפȤϲԤϡʸˡøäʤδؤˤĤơŪäդѤƤΤ˴Ťƽ줿դǤʴؤˤĤƤϡ#3312. ˤؤɽء ([2018-05-22-1]) ȡˡ䤿ϸߡŪ˸ܸʸˡøä˴ŤäƤ롥Ʊʸˡøä˴ŤܸɽСϡָŪʸΤνաפȤʤ롥ΤȤʤäաפȤʤ˶ᤤΤˤϤʤ뤬ƱΤǤϤʤäաפȡֽաפϺŪۤʤΤǤꡤƱؤ˾äƤȤϤƱνϤȤϤʤʤä褦˽פֽ褦äפʤɤȤϤޤŪʸǤꡤξԤδ֤ˤϤʤΥåפΤǤ롥
ʸŪʸΤνաפȤϡʸˡøäʤɤδؤȤơ߾ѤƤΤǤϤʤĤƾѤƤǤȤҿΤ¾ǤȤΤѤƽ줿ΤǤ롥ܸνϡʹߡ˻ޤǡʿ»ܸδؤ˴ŤʸϤƤ줬ʸŪʸΤνաפǤ롥νǤϡ¿ϡҿ롤ǤƥʸϤ줬ǤȤΡʸŪʸΤνաפǤ롥
ʾޤȤмΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) ä ա (3) Ρ (2) ա (4) ʸΡ
դϡΤδ礭äաפȡֽաפʬ롥դϤˡեޥƥδָΡפȡʸΡפʬ롥¼ (5) Ȥƿȼ̤ꡥ
ä
ա
ա
ʸ
#2869. ťΥɸ줫μѤϸűѸǤäƤ⡤ʸڤѸ ([2017-03-05-1]) Ǥ夲ƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ѸθäˤϸťΥɸ줫μѸ줬¿ޤޤƤ롥ŪطʤȤƤϡ9Ⱦʹߤ˸ťΥɸȤ꽻DZѸüԤȺäȤаޤ롥ǼѤ줿Ϥ¿θťΥɸ줫ñ줬ʸ˽ƸΤϡ꽻ʤűѸˤƤǤϤʤʤ̻֤ѸʹߡȤ櫓13ʹߤΤȤʤΤǤ롥ŪͽۤǯȼºݤʸڤǯȤδ֤˥åפȤϡѸˤǤ⤷Фм夲뤬ͳϰŪ˼Τ褦˹ͤƤBlake, p. 92 ˡ
It is a feature of the history of the English language that there are a considerable number of Old Norse loans in the language, but the appearance of these loans in writing occurs mainly from the thirteenth century onwards and not from the pre-Conquest period which is when the Viking invasions and settlements occurred. The usual explanation for this is as follows. Most Old English literature which has survived is written in the West Saxon dialect, and the dialect represents those areas of England which were least affected by the Scandinavian invasions and settlements. Hence Scandinavian influence in these areas cannot have been very significant. Even in those areas where the Danes had settled, they continued to live in their own communities and would only gradually have become absorbed among the Anglo-Saxon population. This implies that the new settlers were for a long time regarded as foreigners and no attempt was made to assimilate them. Consequently the introduction of Old Norse words into English was delayed in the Anglian dialects, and their southward drift would be even later than that. It is hardly surprising in this view that words of Scandinavian origin are not found in English in any numbers until the thirteenth century.
ĤޤꡤϳΤ˥ˤɬ⤹ˤ轻ΥͤȺä櫓ǤϤʤüѤޤŪͻϰƳ٤äȤ櫓ޤűѸʸȤƻĤäƤΤ¿ϥ West Saxon ǽƤ뤿ᡤθŪƶϸűѸˤʸڤˤΤȤ
Blake (93--94) ϤΰŪʸɤ˲ȤߤƤ롥
The continuity of West Saxon as Standard Old English would have discouraged the adoption of new words from other varieties and even from other languages. The tenth-century reforms were a continuation of the policies introduced by Alfred, and it is not surprising that the attitude towards standardisation and conservatism should have become more rigid as the standard grew in importance.
Blake ιͤϤäդΥ٥ǤϡŪаޤ鼫ͽۤȤꡤťΥɸ줫μѸ¿Ǥ˸űѸäƤɸŪݼŪ West Saxon νդˤƤϡŪάŪʶοȤ⤤٤ťΥɸѸѤ뤳ȤϤդ路ʤȹͤ졤ӽ줿ΤǤϤʤĤޤꡤ͡θȯƤʸϤˤȿǤʤäȤȤǤϤʤ
դݼϤ褯Τ줿¤ɸŪʽդȤʤФޤޤݼŪˤʤȤȤϡΤ˹ͤ롥
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.
3--4ˤˤƽ2Ĥλ郎äʪ (scroll) äƺ (codex) ѥԥ륹 (papyrus) ä (parchment) 줿ȤǤ롥̺ȤλȤˤƷŪѲ⤿餵줿ޤִʪҡפνˤĤơذȤ̿٤ԥڥƥ (19--20) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ʪҤؤѤäƤ椯ץʳŪʤΤäѲ⤿餷ѥȤ䡤ΰѤȯ˾Ȥ̤ۤ礭ʤΤǤäҤ͵ΤϡäǤ롥̤ˤ뤫顤ʪʤ»ˤ⤷Ĥս꤬äƤ⡤ñ˥ڡκؤǤޤ¢Ѥ߾夲뤫ê¤٤뤫ݴɤǤΤǡɤδ˸ʬĤΤ褦˺Ҿܤϡʪ٤ȡϤ뤫˿ۡʼˤǤμ¢ȴưפäΤǤ롥˺Ҥϡɮ̤ΤʬǤդˤޤޤʥƥȤߤν֤ǰˤޤȤ뤳Ȥ⡤ñˤФФˤ֤ؤ뤳ȤǤפ˽ѵ٤ǤΤǤ롥
ҤϼŪǤäФǤϤʤʪ⡤Ϥ뤫줿Ūץǽäʤˤꡤ¿ͤɤǤʪȡǽ餫ɤäɤǤ椯ۤʤҤʤѤѤȤäƽɤߤǤ롥ɼԤϥƥȤΤս꤫̤βսؤȡ˾ޤޤ˰ưƤ椱뤫顤ŸǤ롥ҤϡʪФǤʤŪʼʤΤǤ롥
³ơ֥ѥԥ륹פˤĤƤڤƤ (20--21)
ҷܤͳˤϡǤ䤹ѥԥ륹ؤơΤ뵭ϿΤѤȤ⤢äѥԥ륹ˡ椬Ѥ褦ˤʤäά
Ϥޤ٤⤯ѵˤͥƤᡤʬ̤¿ƥȤ䡤˭ܤʸϤѤ뤳ȤǤ
Τ褦ʵŪˤꡤȡɤळȤΰյѤäƤäޤʸ˸ߤޤ¸³뤳Ȥˤʤäޤˡˤǽʤ餷äȤ褦
̺ˤĤƤϡ#2456. ̺Ƚƻ (1) ([2016-01-17-1]) ȡ#2457. ̺Ƚƻ (2) ([2016-01-18-1]) #2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ ([2016-01-26-1])#2931. ϸŤӽΤǤϤʤ䤹 ([2017-05-06-1])#2933. ǯɽ ([2017-05-08-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ڥƥɥ롼ˡ ʡˡذȤ̿ͥܤ١ҡ2015ǯ
դȯʤʸȯϡ̤ܰΤΤŪʤΤεˤˤĤơNicholas et al. ʵŸƤ롥ʸΥ֥ȥ饯Ȥ褤ˤʤäƤΤǡѤ褦 (459)
A comparison of the evidence for the earliest scripts in different parts of the world suggests that an apparent preponderance of ceremonial; and symbolic usage should not be interpreted too literally. It seems to have more to do with archaeological preservation --- the better survival in archaeological contexts of the durable materials preferred as vehicles for ceremonial texts --- than with any deep-seated differences in the function of the scripts. It may well be that the earliest Chinese, Egyptian or Mesoamerican texts were largely as utilitarian in their application as those of Mesopotamia.
ʸǤϡ嵭ȴϢڤߤƤ롥
Some materials survive better than others, and for various reasons scribes chose relatively perishable substances for utilitarian texts, and more permanent vehicles for more formal ones. They were guided not only by the substance's durability, but also by its value and its convenience. Carving an inscription in stone improves its chance of survival for posterity; furthermore, the material may have been chosen for its intrinsic value (whether aimed at the inscription, or at the object, like a bowl or a statue, on which the inscription is found); and the labour of carving the text on a stone is itself an enhancement of the value of the object. As a general rule, therefore, we may expect surviving inscriptions to be those serving ceremonial purposes and found on durable materials. (472)
The main factor in deciding which script style was to be used was not purely the tools and media used for writing but also the content of the text. Likewise the amount of time devoted to a particular inscription (in turn reflecting the value attached to the text) will have had an effect on the form of the script used, with formality on ceremonial, informality on utilitarian vehicles: thus bones and tortoise-shells, though still formal, have more narrative content and generally have more cursive characters than the bronzes. (477)
The medium based for writing depended largely upon the content of the message. Because of the differential preservation of writing media, formal ceremonial texts, written on more durable substances, dominate in the archaeological record, giving a biased picture of the uses of early writing. The occasional survival of more perishable substances, together with certain other evidence, helps to correct this bias. (478--79)
ơȤ "[T]he stimulus to move from individual symbols or emblems to a coherent writing system is more likely to have come from the needs of administration than from a wish to disseminate propaganda." (479) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥դϡޤǼ̤ܰޤƤȤʷ
εϡʪؤˤĤ䤹Фμͻ벽 (taphonomy) ȯۤȹƤ롥#2865. Ĥ䤹ڵä䤹ڵؤΥҥȡ ([2017-03-01-1]) Ȥ줿ޤʸεȯãθˤäƤν̺νˤĤƤϡ#2456. ̺Ƚƻ (1) ([2016-01-17-1])#2457. ̺Ƚƻ (2) ([2016-01-18-1])#2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ ([2016-01-26-1])#2933. ǯɽ ([2017-05-08-1]) ȡ
Postgate, Nicholas, Tao Wang, and Toby Wilkinson. "The Evidence for Early Writing: Utilitarian or Ceremonial?" Antiquity 69 (1965): 458--80.
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