ܤι˶ʽαǤǤƤ롥̼ҤȻǼҤΤΤäƤ뤬ȤƤ⤪⤷ˤζܤǤ뤳ȤϤܸȤƤΤäƤΤ˱Ѹ⤫ǤʤѸ줬ꡤؤٶˤʤ롥Τߤʤ餺ïˤȤäƤ12ܤؤ٤륹ѡȤäƤ褤ʸȤƤʿפǤ롥
¼οƽˤΡرѸɤˡ١ʹ̼ҡ2017ǯˤƬ1ϡʸʸפˤĤơαѸǹˤβʬ䤹
Civilizations and Cultures
In ancient times, people of the West Asia started to live together in cities surrounded by walls with sundried bricks or stones, because of a dry climate and barren land. In the cities, people processed various natural materials and made their lives more comfortable. They also invented irrigated agriculture, metal ware and vehicles. In addition to this, philosophies and religions were created, and massive architectural buildings were constructed. Thus, the oldest civilization was established.
From the beginning, civilisations were created being independent of or in conflict with, the natural environment.
Therefore, they could spread beyond the difference of environments. On the other hand, cultures were the lifestyles made by the relations between humans and natural environments. In other words, each area has its own culture suitable for its environment. Relationships between humans and nature have made unique landscapes. It is difficult for a culture to spread beyond its own environment. Thus, the cultures were thought to be inferior to the civilizations. Since the end of the 20th century, however, the meaning of natural environments began to be reconsidered.
ʸʸˤĤƤʸؤǤ͡Ω줬ꡤ嵭1ĤθǤ뤳Ȥա㤨Сإ֥˥ɴʻŵ2015٤ˤСʸפȤϼ̤ꡥ
ʸƱѤ뤳Ȥ¿ꥫꥹοؤǤϡäˤ̤ҲפȤˤơʣʼҲʸƺŪѤƤʤȤˡΧ¸ߤʸݽѤʤɤŪȯãƤҲʸҲȤ롥ǤϡԻԲʸνͭʸδǤȤƶ̵̤ʸ (ʸ) ҲˤʸθѤؼԤ¿ΩǤʸʸΰ̳֡ǰȤ롥ޤɥ̱²ؤʸҲؤǤϡŪʤΤȼŪʤΤ̤ۤ뤿εѤˤʪŪºŪˤΤʸ켫Τβͤ¸ŪŪˤΤʸȤ뷹롥
ʸν̵ͭͭ뤤 literacy ̵ͭפװȤʤȤФơ#3118. ̵ʸҲ˽ҡ ([2017-11-09-1]) Ǥߤ뤳ȤˤդƤ
¼ οƽˡرѸɤ Japanese high school textbook of the WORLD HISTORY١̼ҡ2017ǯ
ˡ ʡʴƽˡWORLD HISTORY for High School ʸˡ١Ǽҡ2019ǯ
դäդ̤ΤǤȤԤϤäƤ롥ΤˤϽդ1ĤνפʵǽǤꡤ켫Τϴְ㤤ǤϤʤϡäդȽդϡɽ魯2ĤΩΤǧƤ롥ΤξԤδطϿ§ȤƸߤΩƤ롥ʤ봶ФäդİСդϻФȰۤʤäƤ뤷ǽˤƤⴰ˰פ뤳ȤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
äդȽդϸ§ȤƸߤΩΤǤꡤԥäȰפ뤳ȤϤʤȤȤĤġǤϱѸˤǤξԤϤɤΤ餤ΥƤΤ뤤ߴäƤΤȤȤȤܸˤǤȤΡָʸԡ˰ספǤ롥
ܸˤ٤ФȤĤΰոѸˤˤƤϡѸ줬դդ줿Ȥ줬ƱäդɤΤ餤褯ȿǤƤСŪ褯פ褦˻פ롥ܸǤδʸʸʸ´ʸʤɡäդ礭æդѤƤѸǤϤۤɤ礭ʰæϤߤʤä
ѸˤλǤСդäդ˺ǤܶᤷƤΤѸä⤷ʤȯΤޤֻ˾äȤǤ⡤դ˰ҿͿɸ줬¸ߤʤäȤǤ⡤ξΤܶᤷƤȤ
ΩĸűѸ䡤³ѸˤƤϡξΤεΥŪ礭ä褦˻פ롥űѸαʸϡָʸءפȤϤƱäդɽ路ΤȤϹͤʤˤƤϡ֥ȥɸפ⸽졤ѸǽޤǤ٤αƶϤݤäѸ줫ѸˤƤϥƥեʤɤΰҿää̤ήդǤƱäդι⤤ʤ줿Τ褦ˤĤơSchaefer (1285--86) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
[M]ost of what has come down to us in writing should be considered as influenced by the very medium that allows us to look into these historical linguistic data. However, if we compare the poetic evidence from the early 8th century to the prose evidence from the 12th, it is probably the latter that brings us closest to what may be considered to mirror the spoken language of the respective period. Albeit that the former must have been heavily informed by the pre-Christian oral culture, its form most certainly does not reflect conceptually 'spoken' language. Moreover, English was only firmly reestablished in writing in the 14th and 15th centuries. In that period English in writing obviously profited very much from the literate languages Latin and French . . . . The influence of Latin continued well into the Modern period and hence made the disparity between prose writing in the then establishing standard and the actual spoken language even wider.
ѸˤǤϡषˤäդȽդεΥޤäƤƤȤͤ롥饸ƥӡͥåȤʤɤεѤ˻٤ơΤˤ륳ߥ˥Ūξδ֤ζܤ⽾ۤΤǤϤʤʤäƤƤ뤳ȤطƤ
ƱռεȤơ#3210. 夬ˤĤ졤դεϿŪäդФȤʤ뤫ݤ ([2018-02-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Schaefer, Ursula. "Interdisciplinarity and Historiography: Spoken and Written English --- Orality and Literacy." Chapter 81 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1274--88.
̡ȡشڥǥɴʡ٤ڥڥäƤȤ̿Τȯã˴ؤ뵭ܤˤȤޤä (1772--73) #2931. ϸŤӽΤǤϤʤ䤹 ([2017-05-06-1]) Ǽ夲Ȥ櫓̿ΤפǤܼŪʤȤХäͤƤƴ쥳ߥ˥ΤȯŸǡƶǤ롥ʲĹ٤ưѤ롥
̿ȯãޥߤ
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̿ˤΤȤΰջãȤСȯãϡ礿Τˤäơޤ˸Ƭɮŵ̿ߺŪ̿λʬव롥ʸʤˤ̿μʤϡƬˤ뤫СİФ̤Ƥο桦ޡʤΤݤʤɡˤˤ뤷ʤʸĤ褦ˤʤȻȯȤȤ˼ɮ̿ΤμפʼʤȤʤä
Ѥȯޤǡפʽʪϥȥåƻν̼ǽ̤ƤʿŪʸĿͤǽʽʪοϸꤵƤꡤΨ㤫äۤμήۤȤμѤȤä
Ѥȯϡʪ̤˳衼åѤǤ1455ǯ J. ƥ٥륯 (1397--1468) ˤäƶ°ˤǰȯ줿οʵѤϽʪιϤή̣ۤ16Ⱦνױư17ꥹԥ塼̿ΥǥζɬפˤѥեåȡʹʤɤγƼʪνиߤΨϤʤ㤯ȯαƶϤ˴ʤΤǤꡤΤ褦˰ʪ罰ΤȤΤˤʤäΤϥƥ٥륯ȯ顤380ǯвᤷ1830ǯΥꥫʺǽ罰ʹϴˤˤƤǤä
1844ǯ S. F. B. ⡼ (1791--1872) ѲſϿʹμã®٤ֻΤΤȤϤᡤ̿ˤοʲſ֤ϡ®dzμ¾˻ƤԤ侦ͤˤäơ19դޤ̥ޥޡͤĥᤰ餵졤̾
ޥߤ̿
ʹҤƤüѤȤơȯ100ĶǽȤȤȤʤä1890ǯ夫ȤΤȤ饸о줹1920ǯޤǤޥߥ˥ηǤ롥ŪˤķŪڤƥӤäꡤŵ̿ϥޥǥ̿μή롥
δ֡եࡤʤɤΤ٤λŪǥŤطʤȤơŪˤϹ̱ʸŪ硤гŪˤλʸŪήۤȤΤ˿ΤǤʤŤΤư줿λŪǥãϤ٤ơҤȤ꤫¿ؤξãդޤȤŪʰ̣⤫Ӿ夬餻롥
Ȥ뺣ˤ륽ϢϤҤȤ꤫¿ؤξΤ褦θ³Ѳż롥1980ǯܳʲ̿η֤ħϡ̿Ѥáեåѥ̿ˤߤҤȤ꤫ҤȤؤ̿ߺǤ롥Ĵ֤̿ˤƤ⡤ƥӲĤäȤꡤʸ֥ƥӡͭˤƤ¾롤¿ͥξġͤμפ˱ǡΰãǤϤʤ̿ϡĹ餯ʬǤƤʤ۶ν椹Ⱦ٤줿ȤޤͤꡦƤϤưɤƤ롥
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̿ˤϡƬɮŵ̿ߺŪ̿λ˰ʬव뤬ƬˤãϡʸȰѤȯθ⡤ߤȤƻѤ줿ɤŪŪʷưˤФȤƽפ餸饸ƥӤоȤ̤ựäƤʤʸλˤʤäƤह뤳Ȥʤʻ¸μʸβɤϺ˲Ȥºɤ뤿νפʻŻǤ롥ץʸμήȤʤäƤɮμ椬äºŤ뤳ȤФ𤵤褦ˡƬ饳ԥ塼ޤǤˤϿä˿ʤ褦ˤߤƤºݤϿϾǤ뤳ȤϤʤ
̿ΤŪΤνиϤ١ԤΤεǽѤ뤬ΤδʪȤϤʤ餺ɮŵ̿Ȥ⤤⸽ޤ³ԤƤ롥ϡ̿ˤΤѲȤȤˡ̤¿ɵᤷƤˤǤ뤳Ȥ
ϡ쥳ߥ˥ˤƾ̤ɵᤷ³βǼΤȯƤȤȤˤʤ롥μˤĤƤϤɤʤΤȹͤǤޤäϡΤȾа¸뤬ȾΩΤǤ⤢
ȴϢƽ̺ˤĤơ#2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ ([2016-01-26-1])#2456. ̺Ƚƻ (1) ([2016-01-17-1])#2457. ̺Ƚƻ (2) ([2016-01-18-1])#2933. ǯɽ ([2017-05-08-1])#3116. ʪҤءѥԥ륹ء ([2017-11-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
شڥǥɴʡ١1995ǯ
ε ([2020-01-29-1]) ˰³ʤꥷȥޤ泤̤˹ԤʤƤʬ (distinctiones) Τơ³ (scriptura continua) ѤȤˤĤơ
Saenger ˤСˤϡɤȤ٤Ф븽ŪȯۤƤ֤ɽȤμҲŪʸ̮ɬפȤüŪˤСͤϤߤɤ®ɤ˴Ƥꡤɤߤ䤹פŻ뤹뤬奮ꥷޤθ¤줿ɤˤȤäơɤ٤ȤϸƬβɤΤȤǤꡤŪʡɤߤ䤹פɵ᤹ϤʤäΤȤʲSaenger βʹƤߤ褦 (11--12)
. . . the ancient world did not possess the desire, characteristic of the modern age, to make reading easier and swifter because the advantages that modern readers perceive as accruing from ease of reading were seldom viewed as advantages by the ancients. These include the effective retrieval of information in reference consultation, the ability to read with minimum difficulty a great many technical logical, and scientific texts, and the greater diffusion of literacy throughout all social strata of the population. We know that the reading habits of the ancient world, which were profoundly oral and rhetorical by physiological necessity as well as by taste, were focused on a limited and intensely scrutinized canon of literature. Because those who read relished the mellifluous metrical and accentual patterns of pronounced text and were not interested in the swift intrusive consultation of books, the absence of interword space in Greek and Latin was not perceived to be an impediment to effective reading, as it would be to the modern reader, who strives to read swiftly. Moreover, oralization, which the ancients savored aesthetically, provided mnemonic compensation (through enhanced short-term aural recall) for the difficulty in gaining access to the meaning of unseparated text. Long-term memory of texts frequently read aloud also compensated for the inherent graphic and grammatical ambiguities of the languages of late antiquity.
Finally, the notion that the greater portion of the population should be autonomous and self-motivated readers was entirely foreign to the elitist literate mentality of the ancient world. For the literate, the reaction to the difficulties of lexical access arising from scriptura continua did not spark the desire to make script easier to decipher, but resulted instead in the delegation of much of the labor of reading and writing to skilled slaves, who acted as professional readers and scribes. It is in the context of a society with an abundant supply of cheap, intellectually skilled labor that ancient attitudes toward reading must be comprehended and the ready and pervasive acceptance of the suppression of word separation throughout the Roman Empire understood.
ѤκǸ˼Ƥ褦ˡͤ³˥եȤ뤳Ȥǡɤߤˤƹ褦ȤȤǤΤ⤷ʤδϡ˺ƤʬؤȲƤǤ⼨ŪǤ롥Ϣơ#1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1]) ⻲ȡ
Saenger, P. Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1997.
ε ([2019-02-02-1]) ˰³literacy ϿˤȤäƳŪʡεѡ (= [the] technology of the intellect) ǤΤݤȤͤ褦
Foley (433) ϡliteracy ϡεѡפǤˤƤ⡤괧դ褦ͣФΤΤǤϤʤˤˤäƷҲŪʸŪʹʪ1ĤȤƤεѤˤʤȹͤƤ롥ȤȡŵꥷŪʡεѡפϡɬŪʽǤϤʤޤǸ奮ꥷŪݤ줿1ĤüʵѤȤߤ٤ȤȤˤʤ롥
Literacy is not a straightforward "technology of the intellect"; technologies, like intellects . . ., are social and cultural constructions, arrived at by particular histories of engaging with the world and each other through various institutions and events. There are as many literacies as there are ways of engaging the world and ourselves through the written word. Those whose lives are deeply embedded in and lived through the written word could expect some cognitive effects as a result of this, but that is simply the result of their particular lived histories, their trajectories of structural coupling and nothing more. And, of course, what those effects might be will be local, specific to the local literacy practices that they have engaged in and whose understanding they embody. There are no certain or universal effects.
βսϡ¤ɤ߱ΤɾǤ롥³ Foley (434) ηǤ⡤ƱݤǼΤ褦ˤ롥
Cultural practices and beliefs about literacy are highly variable, demonstrating the impossibility of any simple oral/literate divide or monolithic literate technology. Rather, literate practices of each culture reflect the way they engage with the world through the written word, their lived history of structural coupling via a script technology.
literacy ȤȡޤĿͤǧΤؽȤ¦̤ͤƱ餤ġμҲʸͭŪʪȤˤդʧäƤ
Foley, William A. Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997.
literacy ΤĿͤȤʤĿ͡literacy Τ붦ƱΤȤʤƱΤȤǤϡŪ˰ۤʤäƤˤʤȻפΤϼǤ롥Ǥϡɤ߽Ǥ롤ǤʤȤκۤĶơɤۤʤΤFoley (417) ϡʬʬŪʸ路ؼ Goody Ҳ𤷤Ĥġ˿Ƥ롥
In a seminal study, Goody . . . building on earlier work . . . proposed that literacy is a major force for social and cultural change. He proposed to replace earlier contrasts in anthropological writings between prelogical versus logical mentalities or "primitive" versus civilized minds . . ., or the Neolithic "science of the concrete" versus our modern "science of the abstract" . . . with a contrast between oral versus literate cultures. In other words the invention of writing, roughly around five thousand years ago, was a watershed event in human history, so that societies possessing this "technology of the intellect" . . . are fundamentally different as a result of this invention. Goodly followed this work up with subsequent publications . . ., and this hypothesis has independently been proposed or enthusiastically taken up by a number of other researchers. . . . On the face of it, this suggestion might seem relatively uncontroversial. The members of a literate society are clearly different from those of an oral one --- they can read and write. But Goody and his fellow researchers mean much more than this; it is their contention that the possession of this skill, this "technology of the intellect," leads to major cognitive changes in the way literates think about themselves and their world. Literacy brings about a major cognitive revolution, a revolution best exemplified, in Goody's view, in the flowering of critical and speculative thought in classical Greece, but a potential outcome wherever literacy takes hold.
Goody ˤȡliteracy ϡǧξ̿פ⤿餷ŵŪ˸ŵꥷȷӤĤɾŪŪȯ¥ΤȤGoody literacy ΤϤϤ餯ŪɬŪȹͤƤ뤬Τ褦ñ˵뤳ȤϤǤΤǤɤ߽Ǥ䤿ˤȤäơliteracy = "[the] technology of the intellect" Ȥªϡ̣˼ʤΤΰոˤȿФƤ롥εˤĤƤεǡ
ϢȤơ#850. դȯŪͤδط ([2011-08-25-1])#1014. ʸȯãȽ°ʸȯã ([2012-02-05-1])#3118. ̵ʸҲ˽ҡ ([2017-11-09-1]) ȡ
Foley, William A. Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997.
ΥɤˤơɤळȤŤ뽡 (reformation) θ岡ˤꡤΨޤäȤˤĤơ#3066. פȼΨ ([2017-09-18-1]) ǾҲ𤷤פΨװȤʤä櫓ǤϤʤͻӤǿʤ (printing) ڤ礭װäʡ#2927. סѡѸϰ̤θ ([2017-05-02-1])#2937. סѡѸϰ̤θ (2) ([2017-05-12-1]) ȡˡ
Фнפι뤬ݡϸۤ礭װǤϤʤäȤФƤƤ롥षװ餢äؤμפμΨ夲ΤȤľȤľʸ¾ʸΰѤ̤ƤSchaefer (1284) Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
. . . counter to what may be expected from the new Christian denomination with its sola scriptura doctrine, the "Reformation, which laid so much emphasis upon the written word, did not provide for everyone to read it" (Orme 2006: 335). And in that respect there is yet another perception which has been recently corrected, namely that, in contrast to previous views, it was much less Protestantism that fostered literacy in England and elsewhere in (Northern) Europe. As Charlton and Spufford (2004: 19) state, "commercial needs for education overrode all others, both before and after the Protestant Reformation", an observation which also accounts for the yet increasing literacy in the following centuries.
ʤСΨθθưϤϡŪŪʾǮȤ⾦ŪŪʼפäȤȤˤʤ嵭ΰѸνƤ
Charlton, Kenneth and Margaret Spufford. "Literacy, Society and Education." The Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature. Ed. David Lowenstein and Janel Mueller. Cambridge: CUP, 2004.
Orme, Nicholas. Medieval Schools: From Roman Britain to Renaissance England. New Haven, CN: Yale UP, 2006.
Schaefer, Ursula. "Interdisciplinarity and Historiography: Spoken and Written English --- Orality and Literacy." Chapter 81 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1274--88.
#3101. ѸμΨ ([2017-10-23-1])#3066. פȼΨ ([2017-09-18-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ16衼åѤǤ϶٤˳Ƚ졤ʸɤ߽Ǥ͡¿ʤäƤȤϳΤΨȤƶŪʿͿ뤳ȤԻԤκ麹˽ʤɤ礭̲뤳ȤǤФǤʤ⤽¿פ並椬äΩäƤȤ𤬤롥ȤϡˡŪ˽̾ǤͤʸɤळȤǤȤΤǯǾʳؤθˤСȤɤळȤϤޤä̤ι٤ǤꡤξԤϢưΤȹͤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ǡڥƥ (317--19) ϡ͡ϰ褫μǽϤ˴ؤŪʾơΨŪ˵Ȥˡʤη̤ȤơʲθƳФƤ롥ޤԻԤμΨκۤˤĤƤϡۤ礭ʤäΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥͡ǯδ֤ˤ˰ưνޤԾǤϤɤǤʪŽФƤпȼԤǤäƤ⡤ʸƤϤ
Ψ˽ˤĤƤϡäȤǤƤ⡤줬Ū˳Τ褦ʻ˳Ϲ⤤ǽϤᤵŻˤĤȤϤʤäˡϿȤƤĤˤΤǤ롥Ǥܤɤߡڤ¿褦ǤϤ롥
褯ϿλĤäƤԻ˸ꤹС⤤ΨؤԻԤϰ¸ߤ16ΥͥĥǤ33%ۤɤä1530ǯΥ衼Ǥ20--25%ۤɤäΥ衼ΨϡƱޤǤˤ41%ˤޤķ;夬äƤ롥
16³17˥ɤμΨ˾徺Ȥϴְ㤤ʤγȽڡ¾μҲŪװξ徺˹Ƥ뤬νװϤޤѸֻɸಽˤŪ˴ͿƤΤǤ롥褤罰ܳŪʸܤϤȤˡɸŪֻ褦ˤʤäΤ
ڥƥɥ롼ˡ ʡˡذȤ̿ͥܤ١ҡ2015ǯ
إ˥åˡ (246--47) ˡ̵ʸʸʸʸפꤹ붽̣बäʸؤǤϰ̤ˡҲʸҲ̵ʸҲʬह뤳ȤԤʤƤ뤬ʬñˤΤǤϤʤȤ⤦1ĤμȤơˤɬפȤפݤ˽Ҥΰջ֤ĤݤȤѥΤǤϤʤȡʲp. 247Ĺ˰Ѥ롥
ˤȤδϢǤСʸϿ˻ȤƤƽפʤΤΤǤʸѤϰϤ餤äƤ⡤ʸϿΤäƤٹ礤餤äƤ⡤ʸϿΤߤˤäõǤˤϸ¤Ƥ롥ųؤ̱²̸ʸΥޥޡͳءʪʸ̾ϤȤƬʤɤӤ̱²ʪŪˤʤɤʸˤȤŤ椬롥ʸȯ뤤ϺΤơʸˤäƵϿ뤳ȤɬפȤ뤤Ϥΰջ֤äҲȡǤʤäҲȤϡˤˤƤɤΤ褦ʰ㤤ͤʤФʤʤ
ʸѤƵϿ٤ϡľܤηиȤФʸȤưռꤷơΤλջ֤ĤȤ̣롥ʸϿƬϤʹ֤ˤä夫ؼĤƤۤʤΤϡ߲ꤹ٤ˤƤǤȤ롥ʸΤʤǤ̤ΰ̣äƤΤϡȤƹ٤ʬᲽ줿å֤뤹פȤǤ뤫Ǥ롥
ʸˡ֤뤹ҲήΤʤѲߡѲ⤿餹ΤѤƤȤջ֤äƤΤˤŪҲĤޤ꽸ŪʻŤҲϡäΤʤߤߡѲ˾뷹ĤȤ롥Τ褦ŪҲϡܤϤᤤʸҲΤʤǤ̵ŪؤȤƤҤ¸ߤƤꡤޤ̱¯ؼԤθоݤȤʤäƤ
衤¿˳ؼԤʸϿˤȯӤ碌եꥫ˥ʤʸϿޤʤäҲˤΤʤҲȤߤʤƤΤ⡤иռоݲջ֤˰ռȯߤΤ褦ʸϡޤǤϤ뤬ޤ˰ŪǤ롥ʸϿΤʤҲǤ⡤ļҲΤ褦ˡƬݤˤ벦īˤʤɤ˸ǤҲϡʤˡˤɬפȤҲǤ롥ơΤ褦ʸϼԤߤȤδطDzռƹɬפΤҲǤϡդԤݤȤФǤijڻդˤäơʸϿ٤Ĺ˸Ρ֥ƥȡפ졤Ƥ
Τ褦ʲȤζĥäɬפȤʤҲĤޤǮӥեꥫΥԥߡʥ֥ƥʤɡˤ̤Υ⡼ʥ̥åȤʤɡˤΤ褦ˡʿʾĤǼġνͷưŪĤǤҲϡ̵ʸҲΤʤǤޤˤɬפȤʤäҲȤȤǤ롥
Τ褦ˤߤƤȡʸҲ̵ʸҲȤ̤ŪʤΤǤϤʤȤ狼롥ʸҲΤʤˤ̵ʸŪؤΤƱˡ̵ʸҲˤˤɬפȤפȤ¤ǡʸҲȶ̤ʬΤ顥Τ褦ĤءʤʬϡȤȤˡ٤Ƥʸ¦˵ۼƤΤ˾ޤȤϤʤʹ֤ΤǡˤȤΤĤʤǤнռѲळȤָ롤ʸȯʬȡֺޤǤäƤȡפΤ꤫˰ꤷ̵ͤʸ˺ʬȤϡ䤦طǿμҲŤäƤ줫⤫ŤäƤ
ǽҤ٤Ƥ롤ʸҲ̵ʸҲζ̤ȡ˽Ҥΰջ̵֤ͭȤ̤碌ȡΤ褦ʿˤʤ
| ˤɬפȤҲ | ˤɬפȤʤҲ | |
|---|---|---|
| ʸҲ | (1) ΡʸҲ | (2) ˤʤʸҲ |
| ̵ʸҲ | (3) ƬΤߤļҲ | (4) Ρ̵ʸҲ |
#3043. ѸμΨ ([2017-08-26-1])#3066. פȼΨ ([2017-09-18-1]) ǡѸҲμΨˤĤˤϿ (116--17) ꡤƥ塼ī濴Ȥ16--17ΥɤμΨߤƤߤ褦
ȥλҤɤ⤿ˤȤäƤϹ餬ҲŪɬפǤäԤˡΧȤˤʤˤϤˡʤäޤԻԤξͤλҤɤ⤿ˤȤäƤɤ߽ȷΤɬפǤäϹۤǡ͵ؤβǤҤɤ˹뤿ˤϡȷפǤγ褦ʽи礻ͤФʤʤäΤǤ롥ϤؤǤϻҤɤϫƯϤȷפˤɬפäΤǡҤɤ⤬ɤ߽¼Įνع˹ԤäȤƤ⡤Ż˽̳ؤû֤ǽ뤳Ȥ¿äɤ߽ƤԲķȤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ깩ȤηиŪʵѡμμΤۤפȹͤ뤳Ȥ¿ä
λΥɤǤϥȥء͡͵̱ؤ濴˼Ψ夷켷˥ȥޥؤμΨϤۤܰ졻%˶դƤءͷ̱ؤǤȾ褦ˤʤ롥ؤϤ̱μΨ㤯켷Ǥ졻%%ã٤ǤäȿꤵƤ롥
ޤǿפǤ뤷ؤˤäƿͤۤʤȤä櫓ʤΤǡμΨĤळȤưפǤϤʤλΰѤڡʪ̤ȯԡפ˸岡줿ɽθʤɤˤꡤ¤˿͡μΨ夷ƤȤϴְ㤤ʤɸֻϺ⡤ޤˤλνäȤ碌ƳǧƤ
Τҡؿ⡡ƥ塼īˡ١Ͻн˼2011ǯ
פϡΨ˱ƶͿȤ롥#2927. סѡѸϰ̤θ ([2017-05-02-1])#2937. סѡѸϰ̤θ (2) ([2017-05-12-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡפȰѤγѤͻӤǿŸǤ롥ºݡפǤ16ƬƱȤ٤ȡΨä褦ŪʼΨ뤳Ȥ͡ʿפäŦƤ롥
(40--42) ϡɥĤ衼åΤ˴ؤƼοפҲ𤷤Ƥ롥פˤС16ΥɥĤǤ3--4%ԻǤ5%ۤɤä1600ǯΥϥ֥륯Ǥ10%餽οܤο͡ʸΤäƤȤޤ衼åΤˤĤƤ⡤16ˤԻǼΨ50%ˤʤäƤȤ⤢롥͡ʿפơ (42) ϡȲȤơֽϻƬɤ߽ǤҤȤϸޥѡȰʲäνˤʤȡԻǤϻޡѡȶޤǾ徺פȤѤƤ롥
ΨäȤϤߤʤɤȤˤϤۤɱ֤Ǥ롥Τ褦Դʼ䤦ˡפοɤϡǵβɤΤ褦ʡֽɽפԤʤäꡤκҤDzǿ͡ؤ褦ȤΥǥάդơɥĤۤϰǽפŸƤäΤǤ롥
ʤϲä1900ǯΥ衼åѤμΨˤĤƤ⡤Τ褦ʿפ礤˽ФƤΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥְ塻ǯץɥĤμΨȬȬѡȡȥꥢϼѡȡեȬѡȡꥢϸѡȤǤסʱġp. 42ˡ̤˥衼åѤμδϴŤʬ̾ɤ߽Ǥ٤ǤʸΤäƤȤߤʤ줿Τǡ餫ɾɬפϤꤽ
ʰ졡ؽפο¡ȥåȥץƥȤμҲˡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2004ǯ
μҲμΨ뤳Ȥϰ̤ѸαѸҲˤĤơʬäƤ뤳Ȥ롥ʲ˥⤷Ƥ
ޤFairman (265) ϡ19ξȤƼλ¤ŦƤ롥
1) In some parts of England 70% of the population could not write . . . . For them English was only sound, and not also marks on paper.
2) Of the one-third to 40% who could write, less than 5% could produce texts near enough to schooled English --- that is, to the type of English taught formally --- to have a chance of being printed.
Simon (160) ϡ19μΨηä˽ͤäˤĤƿƤ롥
The nineteenth century witnessed a huge increase in literacy, especially in the second half of the century. In 1850 30 per cent of men and 45 per cent of women were unable to sign their own names; by 1900 that figure had shrunk to just 1 per cent for both sexes.
Τ褦ʼΨȴϢơTieken-Boon van Ostade (45--46) λֻˤĤƤ롥Ϥ椨˽ش֤ûȾüֻ餷ʤäҶϡñ֤ˤʤäΤȤϡϤ褽֤뤬ۤ¿줫ʤƥե줫μѸ֤ʤȤ̣롥ʸΥ٥ι⤤Ѹͳ˰ʤ褦ǤϼҲŪˤ̵ܤȤߤʤΤ顤Ͻդˤ¥ɡ (restricted code) ˴ŤʤäɽƤ褤
Ψֻ顤ȼѸ졤¥ɡϸȼҲɤǤ롥
Fairman, Tony. "Letters of the English Labouring Classes and the English Language, 1800--34." Insights into Late Modern English. 2nd ed. Ed. Marina Dossena and Charles Jones. Bern: Peter Lang, 2007. 265--82.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
Swadesh θǯ (glottochronology) ˤСŪʳǰɽ路ʸˤۤܰ¸ʤȹͤøäϡ֤ȤȤ˰Ψ֤ƤȤǰƬ֤ƤΤϡäդθݤǤꡤդȤƤʤȤȤϡɤ߽ǽ (literacy) ϤΡְΨפ̤ʱƶڤܤʤȤȤްդƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ľŪˤϡɤ߽ǽϤȽդϸФݼŪ˺ѤĹˤ錄ä¸ʤɤˤΤǤϤʤȤ⵿롥
Zengel ϤΤ褦ռ顤衼åѻˤ2ǯʾˤ錄Ѿ줿ˡʸˡΧäФݻΨĴĴˡΧʸŵΤʤǺǤŤΤϡ450ǯ The Twelve Tables Ǥ롥ˡǯδ֤Ƶ533ǯ Justinian I ˤ The InstitutesǸˡǯʾλ֤Ф1621ǯ˥եǽǤ줿 The Custom of Brittany Ǥ롥ĴˤơƱδϸ촴٥ǤΰפǤꡤŪѷʤɤϹθƤʤǽǯ "First interval"ǯ "Second interval" ȤƥƥˡΧäݻΨ¬ȤΤ褦ʿͤ줿 (Zengel 137)
| Number of items | Items retained | Rate of retention | |
|---|---|---|---|
| First interval | 68 | 58 | 85.1% |
| Second interval | 58 | 46 | 80.5% |
Some new factor must be recognized to account for the astonishing stability disclosed in this study . . . . Since these materials have been selected within an area where total literacy is a primary and integral necessity in the communicative process, it seems reasonable to conclude that it is to be reckoned with in language change through time and may be expected to retard the rate of vocabulary change.
ʤۤɡZengel ϥƥˡΧäȤˤꡤݻФɤ߽ǽϤαƶ¾ڤ褦Ȼߤ櫓ǤϤ롥Ф줿ϡ̣ľŪQŪˤȤɤޤηȤʤʤSwadesh ˤиʸ˰¸äݻΨŪ㤤ϤǤꡤˡΧѸϤʸŪʸäȹͤ뤫顤ޤޤݻΨ㤤ϤȤλǤϤषݻΨϹ⤫äϡäȤ٤ʸŪǤäƤ⡤줬Ĺˤ錄٤ȷӤĤΤǤС˱ƸäĹݤ롤Ȥθݤɽ路ƤˤʤΤǤϤʤξ硤ä٤ϡäݻΨǤϤʤ2ǯˤ錄ä٤ȤƵǽƤˡη³ϤʤΤǤϤʤˡΧѸΤۤѸʳѸʤɡ̤ΤѤȹͤͤʤɤɽäϡβͤ¸³뤢Ϥ¸³ΤǤϤʤΤ褦ʼθäϡɤ߽ǽϤդ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ뤳Ȥ¿Τǡ⤪˴ͿƤȤưפ롥ޤää٤ǤϤʤ
Ѳ® (speed_of_change) ˤĤơȴϢơ#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1])#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1])#795. ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® ([2011-07-01-1])#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])#2641. Ѳ®٤ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2016-07-20-1])#2670. դݼˤĤơ ([2016-08-18-1]) ʤɤ⻲Ȥ줿
Zengel, Marjorie S. "Literacy as a Factor in Language Change." American Anthropologist 64 (1962): 132--39.
ˤˤơ°ʸˤȤ롥°¤ϡʸ٤ȯãͤɽƽƽиΤȤȤʸǤФлŦƤ롥ȤСǶᡤвäΤȤ2Ѥ褦
ʸʽ°ʸdependent clauseˤϽ°³ޤϴطˤäƳ롥ȯã˾塤ʸϿʹ֤ɽǽϤ٤ȯŸʳάŪˤϤޤˡΤˤʣʽˡȯãʲܡp. 57
La comparaison des langues indo-européennes montre que la proposition relative est une acquisition tardive, et l'observation synchronique indique que le type d'expansion représenté par les propositions subordonnées ne s'impose, dans certaines communautés, que sous la pression de besoins nouveaux apportés par la culture occidentale. (Martinet 179)
Ӥˤꡤط٤Ƴ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤƤ뤷Ūʴѻˤꡤ°μγϡ붦ƱΤǤϡʸˤäƤ⤿餵뿷ɬפΰϤΤȤǤʤ
ǹθɬפΤϡܻΤֿʹ֤ɽǽϤ٤ȯŸʳפ䡤Martinet ΤʸˤäƤ⤿餵뿷ɬפΰϤΤȤǤפȤɽ˴ްդƤ褦˻פʸȯãȡʣ칽¤1ȤƤν°ʸȯãȤϡʤطˤ뤫ȤȤǤ롥
ʤȤʸ̮ǤϡMartinet θ褦ˡ°ȯãȯãŪ٤ʳ˸ȤΤϵҴŪʻ¤Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤʸȯãȽ°ʸȯãȤŪˤ褽礹뤳ȤϳΤŪϡ¨̴طްդ櫓ǤϤʤξԤδ֤˰̴طϤΤʤΤȤСɤ٤ΰ̴طʤΤʳʸ̮ǤϤɤʤΤ
ľŪˤϡʸȯã뤳ȤˤäơҲʣȼäƻؼоݤͤͼʣȼäбɽʣȤΤϡΤ褦˻פMartinet ϡȯȼ le bateau qui marche à la vapeur Ȥɽ˵Ƥˡ
̤ΥƥåפפȤǤ롥ʸȯãȡμνѤȾãɬפ礹롥ɬפ˱뤿μ礿Τ졤ä˽ȤФȤСʪδطΤ˵ŪɽˡɬפȤʤ롥ǡŪãΤɬפ졤֡ˡʤɤ˺Ф뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬Ūʺ1ĤȤƽ°ʸȯãȤȤäΤǤϤʤ
ʸȯãȽ°ʸΰ̴ط¾ڤ뤳Ȥ϶ˤξȯãȤ⡤ˤƤǤϤʤĹλ֤ƵäΤǤꡤΤ¾¿װʶǽ뤫Ūʰ̴طꤽȤȤϤޤǤǤƤ⡤̴ط¤ʤϤäȤȤ
Ϣƶ̣㤬ΤǼƤ (59) Τ褦ˡʻɸդŪŪ繽¤ϿͤθħŤΤǤꡤʣ칽¤ȯãŪˤɤθǤǽǤ롥ʣ칽¤߲뤫ɤϸˤäưۤʤꡤˤʸŪװؤäƤ뤫⤷ʤޥήμĺν̱²ˤääԥϡˤϲŪ߹¤ʤȤ졤ԤܤƤ뤬 (59) ˤС֥ԥϡˤϡ¾θƱͤˡʲŪȤƤΡʻɸդϤꡤŪ繽¤߽Ф뤬ʸŪDzŪ߹¤ޤǤϤʤפǤ֤ޤʣʲʤפˤʤȤ
ʸȯãȸ̤ʸȤϰۤʤȤϤ쳰װˤä칽¤ȤηϤѲǽȤȤϡܤ٤Ǥ롥쳰װạ̈˱ƶڤܤ¿뤬Ū٥ˤƱͤ˱ƶڤܤΤȤϡʤʤɵ椹Τ
ˤĤƤϡ[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹פ˰Ѥ Leech et al. μĥˤ⼪ޤʸȯãȸȯãȤǡ[2011-08-25-1]ε#850. դȯŪͤδطפ⡤ܵȴϢ뤫⤷ʤ
ͺӸ١ҡ1999ǯ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ
εä (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) ι (3) ǡŵŪˤäơդäդʬŪŪǤܸǤѸǤɸŪʽդȤˤĤƤԤˤȤäơϾQŪ˼դΤۤҤȤʸʸΤˤľϡŪʻͤθȤҡʹʸˡʸʤɤؤοˤäƤɽ蘆Ƥ롥
ʸȯʹ֤λͼѤȤΤϷ̤ȤƤϻ¤ΰ̴طä˽դȯŸŪͤȯŸΰ̴طɤΤ餤ľŪǤ뤫ˤĤƤǮ蘆Ƥ롥Kramsch (40--41) Ѥ롥
. . . as has been hotly debated in recent years, the cognitive skills associated with literacy are not intrinsic to the technology of writing. Although the written medium does have its own physical parameters, there is nothing in alphabet and script that would make them more suited, say, for logical and analytic thinking than the spoken medium. To understand why literacy has become associated with logic and analysis, one needs to understand the historical association of the invention of the Greek alphabet with Plato's philosophy, and the influence of Plato's dichotomy between ideas and language on the whole of Western thought. It is cultural and historical contingency, not technology per se, that determines the way we think, but technology serves to enhance and give power to one way of thinking over another. Technology is always linked to power, as power is linked to dominant cultures.
ΤˡդΤŪͤǽˤʤäȤΤŪ˴ְ㤤ȤϤʤľܤΰ̴طΤǤϤʤդŪͤϸߤ褤ȤϳΤɬŪ¾߽ФȤطˤϤʤ褦˻פ롥ξԤΤŪΥƥåפʳäƤ롥Ѥˤ륮ꥷե٥åȤȥץȥǹͤȡʲΤ褦ʥƥåפꤵ롥
(1) 1000ǯꥷ˽աʥե٥åȡˤ줿 ([2010-06-24-1])
(2) Ż뤹ץȥ (427?--347?BC) ůؤꥷ˸줿
(3) ƶ˥ꥷǽդӤĤ
(4) ξԤϰöӤĤϤ褤ΤǡθϤɬŪʴطǤ뤫Τ褦˸褦ˤʤä
ˤȤäƤʸȯ ([2009-06-08-1]) 䡤ʸؤνդƳϡ˾˳̿ŪǤɾƤ㤨С[2010-02-17-1]εֳ轡ѸܸͿŪƶפǼ夲褦ˡѸؤϥꥹȶطʤ˥ƥͳǥޥե٥åȤܸؤʩطʤͳǴ줾Ƴ졤ξΤθŪȯŸŤʸƳȤѰžΤΤθŪȯŸľܤοϤä櫓ǤϤʤե٥åȤȤʸθƤԤŪʸؤӼäȤľܤθưϤäϤǤ롥ʸϤޤǡʤ˶ϤʡΤǤʤäȤȤʸƳϤθŪȯŸˤȤäƳ̿ŪäפȤ⤤ϡȤȤªƤΤ褤Τ⤷ʤ
Τ褦˹ͤȡεΩ (3) ƤϡޤǷΤǤꡤλʸ˰¸ŪʤΤǤȹͤ٤ʤΤ
Kramsch, Clair. Language and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
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