ε#5057. because θ츻Ūˡ ([2023-03-02-1]) ǡŪ³Ū˷겼ȤȤƳ that λ٤ɬפǤꡤbecause that ȤѤ줿14ޤǤˤ that ά졤 because ñΤ³ȤѤФƤθѸޤ because that ¹ԤƤȤդפ롥
ơbecause ϰ̣ǽȤƤϡͳפɽ魯ȲƤ뤬Ūפɽ魯ŪˤϤäεκǸˡbecause + to פι¤˿줿ΰ̣ǽϡŪפäͳŪϰ̣Ū˴Ϣ㤨ֻ for ξɽ魯ȤǤ櫓ʤΤǡbecause ξˡ뤳ȼΤϤۤɶä٤ȤǤϤʤbecause ξˤϡǽäŪˡˤβѤ줿Ȥ̣ʤˤϻĤäƤˡ
OED ˤȡbecause, adv., conj., n. ³ȤƤ2βˡѤȤʤäŪɽ魯15--17ʸ4ĵƤ롥
2. With the purpose that, to the end that, in order that, so that, that. Obsolete. (Common dialect.)
1485 W. Caxton tr. Paris & Vienne (1957) 31 Tolde to hys fader..by cause he shold..doo that, whyche he wold requyre hym.
1526 Bible (Tyndale) Matt. xii. f. xvv They axed hym..because [other versions 'that'] they myght acuse him.
1628 R. Burton Anat. Melancholy (ed. 3) iii. ii. iii. 482 Annointing the doores and hinges with oile, because they shall not creake.
1656 H. More Antidote Atheism (1712) ii. ix. 67 The reason why Birds are Oviparous is because there might be more plenty of them.
because ˤϤˡư줬ѤƤꡤŪɤߤ¥Ƥ뤳Ȥʬ롥
˻ because ͳΤߤɽ魯ȤˤʤꡤŪ¾ˡ㤨 (so) that ʤɤɽ蘆뤳ȤŪȤʤäƬǽҤ٤褦ˡȤȷȤƤ because that ϤޤäȤȡthat because ͳòbecause that ŪòȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʤߤ18εʸˡ Lowth Ūˡ because λѤդ¥Ƥ롥#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1]) ȡ
ε#4919. Lowth αʸˡ9ʻ ([2022-10-15-1]) ơ Lindley Murray (1745--1826) ʻˤĤơMurray ȤС#2592. Lindley Murray, English Grammar ([2016-06-01-1]) Ǥ夲̤ꡤLowth ʤɤߤˤĤġ18ϱʸˡֱʸˡפǤ롥
1795ǯ English Grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners; With an Appendix, containing Rules and Observations for Promoting Perspicuity in Speaking and Writing ǤȯŪʿ͵ؤꡤ夲1850ǯޤǤ150ʾϿȤƣ (42) ˤȡEnglish Grammar ϡܺǽܳŪʱʸˡפȤʤľˤرʸաʤ֤ߡˡ (1840--41) ܤȤʤä
Murray αʸˡ Lowth ʤɤѤ9ʻܤȤʤäƤ롥ƣ (45) ʬ
(1) (Article): Definite/Indefinite
(2) ̾ (Substantive or Noun): Common/Proper
(Number): Singular/Plural
(Case): Nominative/Possessive/Objective
(Gender): Masculine/Feminine/Neuter
(3) ƻ (Adjective)
(Comparison): Positive/Comparative/Superlative
(4) ̾ (Pronoun): Personal1/Relative2/Adjective3
1 ; (Person): First/Second/Third
2 Interrogative ϡRelative pronoun ΰ
3 Adjective: Possessive/Distributive/Demonstrative/Indefinite
(5) ư (Verb): Active (Transitive)/Passive/Neuter (Intransitive)
ˡ (Mood or Mode):
Indicative/Imperative/Potential/Subjunctive/Infinitive
(Tense):
Present/Past (Imperfect)/PerfectʸߴλΤȡ/PluperfectʲλΤȡ/First futureñ̤Τȡ/Second future̤贰λΤȡ
ʬ (Participle)ư (Auxiliary or helping Verbs)
ǽư֡ư (Active voice/Passive voice)
§Ե§ǡư (Regular/Irregular/Defective)
(6) (Adverb):
Number/Order/Place/Time/Quantity/Manner or quality/Doubt/Affirmation/Negation/Interrogation/Comparison
(7) ֻ (Preposition)
(8) ³ (Conjunction): Copulative/Disjunctive
(9) (interjection)
Ʊ9ʻǤ Lowth ζʬȤδ֤˼㴳κۤ롥㤨̾γʤΥƥˤĤơMurray Lowth Nominative/Possessive ˲ä Objective ޤƤ롥ޤʬˤĤ Lowth ˡΥƥ˴ޤƤ뤬Murray ư1ȤߤƤ롥
ΤȤ Murray 9ʻϡŪʱʸˡѤˤޤŤƤȤȤǤ
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
Ǥ̾18εʸˡ Robert Lowth (1710--87) Ȥ A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) ˤĤơhellog Ǥϡ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) lowth γƵǼ夲Ƥε#4918. William Bullokar 8ʻ ([2022-10-14-1]) ơLowth ʻǧƤLowth 9ʻǤƤ롥ʲƣ (26--27) ꡥ
(1) (Article): Definite/Indefinite
(2) ̾ (Substantive, or Noun): Common/Proper
(Number): Singular/Plural
(Case): Nominative/Possessive
(Gender): Masculine/Feminine/Neuter
(3) ̾ (Pronoun):
Personal/Relative/Interrogative/Definitive/Distributive/Reciprocal
; (Person): First/Second/Third
(4) ƻ (Adjective), (5) (Adverb)
(Comparison): Positive/Comparative/Superlative
(6) ư (Verb): Active (Transitive)/Passive/Neuter (Intransitive)
ˡ (Mode): Indicative/Imperative/Subjunctive/Infinitive/Participle
(Tense):
Present/Past/Future
Present Imperfect/Present Perfect/Past Imperfect
Past Perfect/Future Imperfect/Future Perfect
'Imperfect' ϡΡֿʹԷפ
ư (Auxiliary)§Ե§ư (Regular/Irregular)
ǡư (Defective)
(7) ֻ (Preposition)
(8) ³ (Conjunction): Copulative/Disjunctive
(9) (interjection)
Bullokar 8ʻ٤ Lowth 9ʻˤĤܤ٤ϡ (Article) äƤ뤳ȡ̾줫ƻ줬ʬ̤褦ˤʤäƤ뤳ȡʬ줬ư۲1ʬȤƳʲƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ƣ (27) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ΤȤƸСΤˤȤʤ߿ǰ¿ΩƤ뤳Ȥ¤Ǥꡤ줳16³Ժΰãäפ뤳ȤǤ롥
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
ǯ5˸ҤǤ줿ƣˡܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ٤ɤΥꥷʸˡϤޤꡤƥʸˡ˼Ѥ졤νŸܤˤäƤ2500ǯ˵ڤ֡ʱѡʸˡή˾Ǥ빥Ǥ롥

ܽ1ϤκǽΥڡˡܤΡֳؽʸˡפˤϡĤ2500ǯ;ˤڤĹʸʬϤޤƤ (p. 8) ȤꡤΤ褦ʸޤƤ롥ޤŬڤǡ˿ͤƤꡤʬ䤹ƴưƤޤä
ڸۥꥷʸˡ
ȥåζδ
ڡʸ~ۥƥʸˡ
㽡ע
16~18۱ʸˡ
19ꥹΥʽТ
19~20ܤΡֳؽʸˡ
㡡˰ϤޤƤϡưפɽ路ƤȤʸˡˤΥåޤüŪˡ7ԤǡŤߤˤޤϤߤȤʤϡ
奮ꥷʸˡƥʸˡФơΥʥ顼ȤƤαʸˡϺ˻ޤǤˡܤˤֳؽʸˡפܤܽδߤȡˡסˤˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥ͡˵ƤȤ櫓ŵȤδϢǤϡΤ褦ƤΤǡؿΤϤҰʲɤ
#664. littera, figura, potestas ([2011-02-20-1])
#892. ʸˡ Dionysius Thrax η ([2011-10-06-1])
#1256. Τʻʬˡ ([2012-10-04-1])
#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1])
#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1])
ܽǤϡѸػˤαǽ뤳ȤǤ롥Ѹ˴ؤƤϱѸˤȱѸػˤθͻⵯäƤƤΤǡҤΥȥɤĤߤȤ
ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
ܸʤѸʤΡʸˡפȤΤϡüԽĤˤΤʤǰ˺夲ߤ˽äƤδǤΰ̣ǤϡܸʤѸʤˤ餫ʸˡפäȤȤϤޤǤ⤢ޤʹֽĤäȤǤϸ̩ˤäƿŪʸˡǤˤϰ㤤ޤۤɰռŪˤ館ʸˡǤϤʤȤʤŪʸˡ餷ΤǤäƤȤθСޤǼȯŪʸˡȤޤ
ФưռޤäƤζˤƤϡʸ̤Ūʸˡ館ȤưФƤޤꥹǤ¾㴳٤ޤ18ޤˤλǤ٤ϤȤưռŪ˺줿ʸˡȤ̣ǵʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ȸƤФޤλˤǤäֵϱʸˡפϰŪ˻ٻ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ˻ޤǡֱʸˡפȤСǥեȤǤλˤǤäƸ˼Ѥ줿ʸˡؤȤȤˤʤäƤޤܤμʸˡ TOEIC αʸˡ⤳Ǥ
Τ褦Ūʻ𤬤äȤƧޤϤɸΤ褦ˡ֡رʸˡ٤250ǯۤ˵Ū˺夲줿פȽҤ٤뤳ȤˤƤޤ䤿ǥեȤƤֱʸˡפȤΤϡ250ǯۤ˥ꥹμ֤ͤͭǡֱʸˡפ尴͡˼줿ִ֤ˡޤ줿ȤäƤǤϤޤĤޤֱʸˡפȤϡ餬ֱʸˡפ夲ִ֤ˤǤäʪȤȤˤʤޤˤϡֱʸˡפϤʤäΤǤ
ո줿 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ19Ƥֱʸˡʤߤʤˤȿͤ18εʸˡȤǤڰʼδѸظإͥ # 19 ۡȤȥǤήǴط̾ˤϤᡤ18εʸˡλäڤӤޤ
ơ YouTube Ƥơäʤäʬ٤κī Voicy Ǥ18ȾФ˱ʸˡ夲 Robert Lowth ȤϤäԡꤷơϢ뤳Ȥäޤεʸˡλˤǽʪ Robert Lowth ȤͤǤ
ܤϡ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) ϤȤ lowth 뤤 prescriptive_grammar γƵ
äƤ顤αѸˤǤФȤƤ18ᵬϼλפв褦ˤʤäƤ18ᵬϼλפȤŪѤʤεʸˡȤ٤ϡʬŪˤϵŪ¦̤ʤꤢäߤδ֤˲ٺ⤢äȤä˺ɾʤǤΤǤ롥ηˤĤƤϡ#2815. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (1) ([2017-01-10-1])#2816. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (2) ([2017-01-11-1]) ǿ줿
ŪˤϡRobert Lowth (1710--1787) A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) ǶŪ٤ΤФơ饤Хطˤä Joseph Priestley (1733--1804) The Rudiments of English Grammar; Adapted to the Use of Schools with Observations on Style (1761) DzǵŪ٤Ȥ椵Τä
ԸȤ (100) ˤȡֵʸˡȤ˶ᤤѤͭƤȤ Priestley ⡤ǤǤϡprescriptive comment Ϥ鷺 22 comments Ǥä2ǤǤϡ238 comments10ܰʾäǧƤפȤLowth ܤˤơǤä Priestley εʸˡȤžȤȤˤ⸫롥̤ˡ֥饤Хطפˤäȸ뤬¤ Priestley Lowth ˥饤Х뤷ƤȤȤΤ褦ʻܡp. 98ˡ
Ĥʸˡܤ夲 Lowth Priestley ΰоȤ塤 (108) ϼΤ褦äƤ롥
Lowth Priestly ɮʸˡϡȤ˵ŪǤꡤŪǤäȤϸޤǤʤά͡ŪʻˤĤƤϡŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥǧ줿ʸˡϡʸˡܤˤäưۤʤ뵬ϤŬѤƤǤʤεϤϻѶŪˡˤϾöŪǤäȤܹƤǤLowth ϡط̾ξάˤĤơηǡδ侩ʤĤޤ궯Ū٤Priestley ϴط̾ that λѤˤĤơLowth ˶ŪΩȤäƤư̾ˤĤƤϡξԤȤѶŪ˵ŪʥȤȯƤ뤬ӤФƤϡLowth ϡŪΩPriestley ϡŪΩ줾ȤäΤ褦ˡLowth Priestley ʸˡˤϡʸˡܤФ more proscriptive more descriptive ǤϤʤmore proscriptive less proscriptive Ȥäܺ٤٤ޤȿǤƤ18εʸˡθζ̣1ĤϡʸˡȤθѤ̯õ᤹뤳Ȥˤȸ롥
ҡ2ͤεʸˡȡRobert Lowth Joseph PriestleyסĻرءʹֲʳס10桤2019ǯ93--111ǡ
ʸˡˤĤѤɸ3ĤѸϡ褽ƱƤؤΤȤƤ褦˻פ롥ĿͤˤäƸ촶ϰۤʤ뤫⤷ʤ伫Ȥޤ̤ռ3ԤѤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤷ͳ˸Ƥ륱ʤʤ
ƹͤƤߤȡ̯˥˥奢ۤʤ褦˻פ롥餫ǤϤ뤬ƱǤϤʤ3ԤȤؼоݤƱʤȤϸ鷺Ȥ⡤ʤȤ⤪褽ŤʤˤΤؼ٤ۤʤ롥ե졼ήˤС3Ԥϡְ̣ (Bedeutung) ۤƱǤְյ (Sinn) ϰۤʤcf. #2795. ְ̣ؼоݡ ([2016-12-21-1])ˡθĿŪʸ촶Ǥ뤳ȤǤĤġ3Ԥζ̤ˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ֵʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ϡѸ˸ԤǤˤȤä˱ѸѸǤ롥17νФơλȤ18˶δ쵬ϼ (prescriptivism) ΩӤոΥޥʡȤƼʤФʤʤϢθˡ뤤϶ܤȻפʤз褷ȯƤϤʤʤ֤٤餺פȤƤαʸˡǤ롥Robert Lowth (1710--87) Lindley Murray (1745--1826) ˤʸˡȤ롥Ǥϵʸˡ (descriptive grammar) ֤뤳Ȥ¿ʸˡǤϤʤȤơФȽоݤȤ롥Ѹʳء˻ˤ˰֤ŤʤСʸˡܼϡǤ˱ѸƤꡤ̤˻ȤʤѸüԤǰƬˤոΥޥʡǤȤˤȻϹͤƤ롥
ֳعʸˡפϰ "school grammar" ȱͿ뤳ȤϤǤΤΡŪˤܤαѸ춵ʻˡ˾ѸǤϤʤʸֳ̤عdzؤ֡ʸˡפȼʤС嵭18εʸˡ˴ŤƤʤ⡤ŪʴäƸ˥åץǡȤ줿ܤγعαѸ춵ˤ븽αʸˡؤΤȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤ롥ʸˡȤƼºݤ⤫ƤȤƤϡʸˡعʸˡʬϤưۤʤʤؼоݤƱȤϸ鷺Ȥ⡤ʬ˶̤Ƥ롥عʸˡܼϡѸȤʤѸؽԤعˤƽ٤ʸˡǤȤˤ롥ʸˡܼȤƿָոΥޥʡפϡ˱ʸˡƤѸüԤˤȤäƤؿȤʤΤФơعʸˡȤϤޤ2ȤƤαѸ뤿˳عǼ갷ʸˡǤ롥褽ƱƤؤƤȤϤξԤΥ礭ۤʤ롥
ǸˡʸˡפˤĤơ"traditional grammar" ȱ뤬ؼƤƤϡʸˡعʸˡ礭ۤʤ櫓ǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥18εʸˡ21ޤǶƤعʸˡδ֤Υΰ㤤ϾҤ̤ŪˤξԤϡפȤϢ³ƤȤ¤ĴˡԥäѸǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥˴Ťǿαʸˡ֤Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢ˤȤäƤϡ18εʸˡήߤĤġޤǡʳعʸˡˤƤ˱ƶϤ³Ƥ륿פαʸˡȤްդ롥ΤᡤѸüԤˤȤäƤüԤˤȤäƤȤѸʤΤǤϤʤ
ʾޤȤȡʸˡعʸˡʸˡ3ĤѸϡؤƤʸˡܤƤΤΤ礭ۤʤʤɤȤ館뤫Ȥ˱ơ伫ȤϡʻȤʬƤˤϡ˻ȤʬƤ褦˻פΤǤ롥
ߤʤϡ3ĤѸɤΤ褦ˤȤ館Ƥޤ
ε ([2019-05-27-1]) ˰³ư lie ¾ư lay ˤĤơɸѸˤơξԤκƱ֡ŪȤäƤۤ뤵褦ˤʤäΤϡʸˡȤ18θ塤19ʹߤΤȤ18ˤΤ褦ʼʸˡȤɽ꤬ Robert Lowth (1710--87) Ǥ롥
Lowth (56) ϡ#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡľܤˤ2ĤưκƱˤĤƸڤƤcf. #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])ˡΤ褦 Pope ΡָѡĤġ餫ɼԤմƤ롥
This Neuter Verb is frequently confounded with the Verb Active to lay, [that is, to put or place;] which is Regular, and in the Past Time and Participle layed or laid.
"For him, thro' hostile camps I bent my way,
For him, thus prostrate at thy feet I lay;
Large gifts proportion'd to thy wrath I bear." Pope, Iliad xxiv. 622.
Here lay is evidently used for the present time, instead of lie.
Lowth ξưκѤ˥ФȤϱѸ˾褯ΤƤ뤬ճȻŦƤʤȤ롥ΰѤʬ̤ꡤξưμ¾ζ̤ȻλȤʬˤĤƤմƤ뤬layed laid δ֤ηֻ֡ɤˤĤƤä뤷ƤͻҤϤʤȤ
Ϣ Lowth ϼư lie Τ˽о줵Ƥսǡ"Lie,lay,lien, or lain" ȳѤƤ롥ʬɤ줬Ф꤫lien ȤɸŪˤϺ˴֤Τۤष˵ƤΤäLowth ɤդ˲𤷤ƤͻҤϤޤäʤʸˡܻؤȤͣפǤȤʤСlie Lowth εϤˤ⼫Ƶ˴٤äƤ褦ˤߤ롥
ȽǤˡʸˡ Lowth ܻؤȤϡͣפǤϤʤäȤȤ館٤18εʸˡȤϡФи褦ˤۤɥä櫓ǤϤʤʴƤƤΤǤ롥ʸˡȤɤΤ褦ɾƤ뤤ѤƤȤΤۤäȽפʤΤ⤷ʤ
ºݡǯ18εʸˡȤˤĤƺɾεƤƤ롥#3035. Lowth ϤޤǤиƤʤä ([2017-08-18-1])#2815. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (1) ([2017-01-10-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ
ư lie ʲˤ¾ư lay ʲˤζ̤Ĥ٤ȤʸˡդϡܤμѸ쳦Ǥͭ̾Ǥʡ#124. Ѹʸˡε ([2009-08-29-1]) ȡˡư lie -- lay -- lain ȳѤ¾ư lay -- laid -- laid ȳѤ롥ԤΤβȸԤθƱˤʤΤǡΤɬǤ롥⤳ŵƤѸؽԤ1ͤѸѤˤƤμѤ뵡˷äޤ줿Ȥϡޤʤ
ѸǤξԤκƱФ˶Ȥʬʤȡ̵ܡפȤΥåƥŽۤɤʤΤǡȴʤʤȤְ㤨Ƥʸ̮λ٤ˤۤȤɸʤȻפ뤬äƤޤä饢ȤȤNGɤФƤޤäƤΤǤ롥¾ˤäȸͶڥ¿ϤΤ褦ˤơΥڥФƤ褦˻פ롥ζ̤Ѹ춦ƱΤˤƶܤ̵ͭʬȥޥȤʤäƤΤlie lay ΥڥϡʹߡΤ褦ʸΤФƤˡɽȤäƤ褤
ߤǤȥޥȤƺѤȤȤϡǤ⺮ƱԤפ䤿ʤȤȤǤ롥Ūˤ17, 18ˤ⺮ѤӤǤꡤä˳ʤȤߤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäˤƵϼĬޤˤĤơ٤ѤȤƤȤаޤ롥
Fowler (445) ˡФ lay and lie ȤܤΩƤƤΤǡѤƤ
Verbs. In intransitive uses, coinciding with or resembling those of lie, except in certain nautical expressions, lay 'is only dialectal or an illiterate substitute for lie' (OED). Its identity of form with the past tense of lie no doubt largely accounts for the confusion. In the 17c. and 18c. the alternation of lay and lie seems not to have been regarded as a solecism. Nowadays confusion of the two is taken to be certain evidence of imperfect education or is accepted in regional speech as being a deep-rooted survival from an earlier period. . . .
The paradigm is merciless, admitting no exceptions in standard English. Incorrect uses: She layed hands on people and everybody layed hands on each other and everybody spoke in tongues---T. Parks, 1985 (read laid); Laying back some distance from the road . . . it was built in 1770 in the Italian style---Fulham Times, 1987 (read lying); Where's the glory in . . . leaving people out with their medals all brushed up laying under the rubble, dying for the glory of the revolution?--New Musical Express, 1988 (read lying); We are going to lay under the stars by the sea---Sun, 1990 (read lie); They may have lost the last fight [sc. the final of a ruby tournament], but how narrow it was, and they can still be proud of all the battle honours that will lay for ever in their cathedral in Twickenham--(sport column in) Observer, 1991 (read lie).
ξưκƱ˥֡ŪǤ뤫ϡ"The paradigm is merciless, admitting no exceptions in standard English." Ȥ1ʸˤä䤫˼Ƥ롥˻ޤǡΡָѡפפ䤿ʤ褦
Υ֡ϻϤΤϡRobert Lowth (1710--87) ϤȤ18εϼʸˡȤȤcf. #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1])ˡ餬ϻϤȤƤ⡤줬ѤƤʤСפȤϤʤʤѤǤ͡ƺѤǤ͡ΤΥ֡ݻƤΤǤ롥ε#3681. βͤŤμΤüԤǤ ([2019-05-26-1]) #3672. ȥꥢ50ɥ뻥 responsibility Υڥߥ (2) ([2019-05-17-1]) ε˽С⤽1ͤ⤷ʤʤ⤽1ͤ⤷ʤ
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
ѸʳΰϤۤȤʸˡŪäƤ뤬ѸˤϤ줬ʤűѸˤϤäΤѸʹߤ˴˾üƤޤääơѸˤʸˡŪ (grammatical gender) ϤʤΤϡ˼ääŪ (natural gender) ˤʤ
ŪʸˡŪξüˤꡤѸϸ콬ΥåȤȤ뤬ˤäư䥲ޥΥץȥפ礭æѤäפȤʤäȤޤ¤Ǥ롥Ѹ줬Ū˳ħˤĤơʸˡθȤ⤤ Robert Lowth (1710--87) ν A Short Introduction to English Grammar ˤơؤ⤷Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ä괶ƤޤäΤǡ٤ưѤƤ (27--28)
The English Language, with singular propriety, following nature alone, applies the distinction of Masculine and Feminine only to the names of Animals; all the rest are Neuter: except when, by a Poetical or Rhetorical fiction, things inanimate and Qualities are exhibited as Person, and consequently become either Male or Female. And this gives the English an advantage above most other languages in the Poetical and Rhetorical Style: for when Nouns naturally Neuter are converted into Masculine and Feminine [3], the Personification is more distinctly and forcibly marked.
ѸʸˡŪʤ椨ˡޤ˵Ū̾ͿȡεˡҤȤ⤭Ωġǽ餫餹٤Ƥ̾ʸˡŪƤƤ褦ʸǤϡΤȤδؤ꤬Ūơޤ˵ˡǸ̤ФȻפäƤ⡤⤭Ω뤳ȤϡΤ褦ʸΤʸءؾμߤȤäƤ褤
ˤϻŦޤǵդʤäܤڤ褦ʻŦޤ˵žȯۡ
Lowth (27--28) ϡ˰Ѥս [3] ȤͿƤꡤǶФʤ顤ΤȤǫƤ롥
[3] "At his command th'uprooted hills retir'd
Each to his place: they heard his voice and went
(18) Obsequious: Heaven his wonted face renew'd,
And with fresh flowrets hill and valley smil'd." Milton, P. L. B. vi.
"Was I deceiv'd or did a sable cloud
Turn forth her silver lining on the Night?" Milton, Comus.
"Of Law no less can be acknowledged, than that her seat is the bosom of God; her voice, the harmony of the world. All things in heaven and earth do her homage; the very least, as feeling her care; and the greatest, as not exempted from her power." Hooker, B. i. 16. "Go to your Natural Religion: lay before her Mahomet and his disciples, arrayed in armour and in blood:---shew her the cities which he set in flames; the countries which he ravaged:---when she has viewed him in this scene, carry her into his retirements; shew her the Prophet's chamber, his concubines and his wives:---when she is tired with this prospect, then shew her the Blessed Jesus---" See the whole passage in the conclusion of Bp. Sherlock's 9th Sermon, vol. i.
Of these beautiful passages we may observe, that as in the English if you put it and its instead of his, she, her, you confound and destroy the images, and reduce, what was before highly Poetical and Rhetorical, to mere prose and common discourse; so if you render them into another language, Greek, Latin, French, Italian, or German; in which Hill, Heave, Cloud, Law, Religion, are constantly Masculine, or Feminine, or Neuter, respectively; you make the images obscure and doubtful, and in proportion diminish their beauty. This excellent remark is Mr. Harris's , HERMES, p. 58.
嵭ϡΤ Lowth ̡ɤߤʤ鵤դݥȤʤΤϤȸʸˡȤΥȤΤϡȤˤޤФ椯ԤˤʸˡŪȼŪεˡʸꤲƤ줿
Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ
#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) #3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡʸˡȤͼ Robert Lowth ˤ1762ǯʸˡˤ͡ʸˡζػ߾बߤ뤬Ϣ夲ƤƻӤˤĤƤ⡤2ӵ (double_comparative) ȡ̣Ū˲ʺǾؤΥФʤƤ롥Lowth (34--35) ϢսȴФ
[4] Double Comparatives and Superlatives are improper.
"The Duke of Milan, / And his more braver Daughter could controul thee." "After the most straitest sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee." Shakespeare, Tempest. Acts xxvi. 5. So likewise Adjectives, that have in themselves a Superlative signification, admit not properly the Superlative form superadded: "Whosoever of you will be chiefest, shall be servant of all." Mark x. 44. "One of the first and chiefest instances of prudence." Atterbury, Serm. IV. "While the extremest parts of the earth were meditating a submission." Ibid. I. 4.
"But first and chiefest with thee bring
Him, that you soars on golden wing,
Guiding the fiery-wheeled throne,
The Cherub Contemplation." Milton, Il Penseroso.
"That on the sea's extremest border stood." Addison, Travels.
But poetry is in possession of these two improper Superlatives, and may be indulged in the use of them.
. . . .
[5] "Lesser, says Mr. Johnson, is a barbarous corruption of Less, formed by the vulgar from the habit of terminating comparisons in er."
"Attend to what a lesser Muse indites." Addison.
Worser sounds much more barbarous, only because it has not been so frequently used:
"Chang'd to a worser shape thou canst not be." Shakespeare, 1 Hen. VI.
"A dreadful quiet felt, and worser far / Than arms, a sullen interval of war." Dryden.
ƤΤ more braver, lesser, worser Τ褦2ӵ顤most straitest Τ褦2źǾ顤 chiefest, extremest Τ褦ˤȤȺǾ̣äƤƻ˺Ǿ鲽ǾǤ롥⡤̤ˤäƤΤ Shakespeare, Milton, Addison, Dryden ʤɤʪ·ɤ߱ʤά Lowth ξʤǤˡʤlesser ϸߤǤ̤ѤƤ뤳Ȥա
Shakespeare worser ѤˤĤƤϡ#195. Shakespeare ˴ؤ Web resources ([2009-11-08-1]) Ȥ줿ޤDryden Ϥ worser λѤ椨 Lowth ˤäǺᤵƤ뤬#3220. ɻ˾αѸ쥢ǥߡɤ Dryden αѸ˾ɾ ([2018-02-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ¤ Dryden Ȥ2ӤƤΤǤ롥
Ѹˤ2ӤˤĤƤϡ#3615. Ѹ2ӵ顦ǾԸˤʤ ([2019-03-21-1]) ȡ
Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade ͤ (553--55) ˡ"LOWTH'S NORMATIVE STRICTURES" ΰǤƤA Short Introduction to English Grammar 1762ǯνǤäƤΤǤ롥˺ϿȤưʲ˵ϿƤ
Adjectives used as adverbs (pp. 124--5)
As
instead of relative that or which (pp. 151--2)
improperly omitted, e.g. so bold to pronounce (p. 152)
Be for have with mutative intransitive verbs (p. 63)
Because expressing motive or end (instead of that) (pp. 93--4)
Do: scope in the sentence, e.g. Did he not fear and besought . . . (p. 117)
His for its (pp. 34--5)
Double comparatives
Lesser (p. 43)
Worser (p. 43)
Wrong degrees of comparison (easilier, highliest) (p. 91)
Fly for flee (p. 77)
-ing form
him descending vs. he descending (pp. 107--8)
the sending to them the light (pp. 111--13)
It is I
Whom for who (p. 106)
Lay for lie (p. 76)
Let with subject pronoun, e.g. let thee and I (p. 117)
Mood: consistent use (pp. 119--20)
Neither sometimes included in nor (pp. 149--50)
Never so (p. 147)
Not before finite (p. 116)
Nouns of multitude with plural finite (p. 104)
Past participle forms (pp. 86--8)
Sitten (pp. 75--6)
Chosed (p. 65)
Pronominalization/relativization problems (pp. 138--41)
Relative clause dangling (p. 124)
Relative and preposition omitted, e.g. in the posture I lay (p. 137)
So . . ., as for so . . ., that (pp. 150--1)
Subject
lacking, e.g. which it is not lawful to eat (pp. 110; 122--4)
superfluous after who (p. 135)
Tense: consistent use (pp. 117--19)
Than with pronoun following (pp. 144--7)
That including which: of that [which] is moved (p. 134)
That (conj.)
improperly accompanied by the subjunctive (p. 143)
omitted (p. 147)
This means/these means/this mean (p. 120)
To superfluous, e.g. to see him to do it (p. 109)
Verb forms
subjunctive verbs in the Indicative (wert for wast) (p. 52)
Thou might for thou mightest (pp. 97, 137)
I am the Lord that maketh . . .: first person subject with third person finite in relative clause (p. 136)
Thou for you
Who
Whom for who in subject position (p. 97)
Who for whom in object position (pp. 99, 127)
Whose as the possessive of which (p. 38)
Who used for as, e.g. no man so sanguine who did not apprehend (. . . so sanguine as to . . .) (p. 152)
Woe is me (p. 132); ah me (p. 153)
Ye for you in object position (pp. 33--4)
You was (pp. 48--9)
Various:
"Improper use of the Infinitive" (p. 111)
Sentences "abounding" with adverbs (p. 127)
"Disused in common discourse": whereunto, whereby, thereof, therewith (p. 131)
Improperly used: too . . ., that, too . . ., than, so . . ., but (pp. 152--3)
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. "Eighteenth-Century Prescriptivism and the Norm of Correctness." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 539--57.
Robert Lowth θؤαƶϤϷפΤʤŪʲǤϡA Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) Ǽ줿 Lowth εϤϡ༫ȤǤиΤǤȤΤơLowth ǸŪĴҤϡιԤȤƤΩȴطƤȤƤ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade (543) ˤСβɬäƤʤȤLowth ɾȤ¿ϡΥɥ綵ȤƤΩĴ뤬Lowth οΤ1777ǯΤȤǤ롥Τ˾Τܤ1766ǯˤ St. David's Oxford μ綵ȤʤäƤ뤬ˤƤ1762ǯʸˡνǤοǯΤȤǤ롥äơֹԤˤդ路ǤиפȤɾϡʥȤȤˤʤ롥
ޤLowth δǤΥˤĤƤ褦ƱԤǤ William Melmoth (1710--99) A Short Introduction to English Grammar νǤФƻܤLowth Ȥ2 (1763) Τ˼줿Ȥ¤롥ˡǤνʸˤ Lowth ɼԤ˲Τξľ˸ƤӤƤΤ
If those, who are qualified to judge of such matters, and do not look upon them as beneath their notice, shall so far approve of it, as to think it worth a revisal, and capable of being improved into something really useful; their remarks and assistance, communicated through the hands of the Bookseller, shall be received with all proper deference and acknowledgement. (1762: xv; quoted in Tieken-Boon van Ostade, 543.)
äȤ⡤νʸʸϤμҸᤫ⤷ʤˤ衤Lowth ΥϸεʸˡΤʤǺ夲졤¿쾯ʤĥƤΤǤ뤳ȤϳΤ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. "Eighteenth-Century Prescriptivism and the Norm of Correctness." Chapter 21 of ''The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 539--57.
Ѹ˾塤18 "doctrine of correctness" ħŤ줿ϼλǤɾƤΤˤˤϡȾ50ۤɤΡȾˤ200ĶʸˡǤ졤ϱʸˡȤäƤǤϤʤ
Beal ϡ5 "Grammars and Grammarians" ˤơ18Ϳ줿ŪɾˤĤƺƹͤ¥Beal (90) ϡ18ˤϵϼĬΤϴְ㤤ʤäΤΡȤΩϡŪ䥤ǥ˱͡ʣǤꡤñ˵ŪȤäɾǤԽʬǤƤ롥
[E]ighteenth-century grammarians had a range of motives for writing their grammars, and . . . these and later grammars, far from being uniformly 'prescriptive', would be better described as occupying different points on a prescriptive-descriptive continuum.
Ѹ˴ؤΤȤϡơŪѸˤĤȯƤ㤨СSwift Ann ȷȤݼʪư⤷Ƥޤ1707ǯ֥ƥϢ粦ΩơɸŪʱѸѸᡤåȥɿͤʤɤˤ餹ɬⴶƤϼطʤˤϡŪǤäΤǤ (Beal 97)
Whilst it is perfectly valid to see eighteenth- and nineteenth-century grammars both as the necessary agents of codification and as self-help guides for the aspiring middle classes, it cannot be denied that many of the authors of these works were politically and/or ideologically motivated.
Beal (111) ϡФΩ Lowth Priestley ˤڤξԤΰ㤤ΰ㤤ʴްդȤŪΰ㤤ˤǤȤƤ롥
These two grammarians [= Lowth and Priestley] were writing within a year of each other, so any norms of usage to which they refer must have been the same. Although both used a classical system of parts of speech, neither is influenced by Latin here: they both describe preposition-stranding as a naturally occurring feature of English, more suited to informal usage. The difference between Lowth and Priestley is one of emphasis only, far from the prescriptive-descriptive polarization which we have been led to expect.
18ʵڤӤʹߡˤθŪϼˤĤơɤäƤȤ¤ܤ٤ȤˤǼ줿Beal κɾɤǡɾ礭ۤʤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ褦˻פ줿Ǥϡ18ϵϼλǤȤ¤Фơ礭ʽϲäƤʤBeal Ǥ "prescriptive-descriptive continuum" ȤɽʤƤ뤬ϡִܤ prescriptive Ǥꡤ prescription Ȥ reason-usage continuum äפȹͤ뤳Ȥϡ³ǤǤ롥λä "descriptive" ȤƻѤ뤳Ȥϡޤ᤹ΤǤϤʤ
Ϣơ#141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1])#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])#2778. Joseph Priestley --- ѽŻӤʸˡȡ ([2016-12-04-1])#2796. Joseph Priestley --- ѽŻӤʸˡ (2) ([2016-12-22-1]) ȡ
Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.
#2778. Joseph Priestley --- ѽŻӤʸˡȡ ([2016-12-04-1]) 2ơεǽҤ٤褦ˡRudiments of English Grammar νǤ1761ǯ˽Ǥ줿1 Lowth A Short Introduction to English Grammar Ǥ졤1762ǯˤ James Buchanan The British Grammar 1763ǯˤ John Ash Grammatical Institutes 줾Ω³˽ǤƤ롥ޤ¿λ֤Фơ1784ǯˤ Noah Webster A Grammatical Institute of the English Language ˽ФƤ롥Τ褦ˡ18ȾϼפʵʸˡνǹλǤäʤʤΩ1755ǯˤ Johnson Dictionary of the English Language ǤƤˡ
Priestley Rudiments ϡνǹ˯ȤʤäǽפʸˡˤĤƤʾ˸ħϡִѤμפʴȤŪѤǤǤФפˤʻp. 279ˡPriestley δѽŻλϡθδѼϤȤơۤʤϤȤƻȵȤˤʤä
(287) ɾˤȡʲ̤Ǥ롥
Rudiments Ҥȷ٤ A Short Introduction to English Grammar Ǥ Robert Lowth 䡤ʸˡůŪǤä Hermes (1751) James Harris ʸˡȽؤɤ°ȤʤСJoseph Priestley 18ˤʳɤɽؼԤǤäPriestley ϶ϱʸˡƥʸˡΤ勞ĶæΤޤޤαѸ¤˴ѻơ§٤ϤФؤΤᡤѸ֤˿ͰŪäơ¦鵬ꤷ褦ȤεؤǤػα (Academy) ΩˤȿФƤ롥Τ褦ʼͳǿŪ٤ϡ§ȤƤʸˡǤΧڤʤδ (Usage) ¸ߤ뤳Ȥդ٤ˤĤʤäƤ롥Priestley ˤȤäƤϡPreface ǽҤ٤ƤդڤƤʤСäդδ (the custom of speaking)פθܸŪͣʤΤǤ롥¤ˡPriestley 18ˤƽƱѸδѤǧؼԤǤȤ뤬 Priestley βʳؼŪܤȤ˴ŤȽϤ˵ΤǤäPriestley δѤŻ뤹٤ϡΤ1776ǯ The Philosophy of Rhetoric 路 George Campbell ˰Ѥ졤ˤä usage Ť줿 Campbell ⡤good usage ǧ줿ɽ⡤ϰ̤ݻ뤿˰͵ʤФʤʤ (canons) ꤷƤꡤusage Ф븫˰礯Ȥäǯᤤ Priestley Τۤ٤ӤƤꡤPriestley ǤŪ츦ƻƳߤ⤽ԤǤȤ롥Priestley Υƥ켰ʸˡ§ˤ餺줿Ȥˤ˾Ȥ餷ƴܤʿʲƤ뤳ȤϡRudiments Ǥ⡤Ȥ 'Notes and Observations' ΩħǤ롥ϸߤ˻ޤǸԤĤоݤȤʤꡤʹ2֤ˤʸˡͻüȤʤäƤ뤳ȤɼԤ˵Ť褦
ΥꥹȷӤĤ륳ȤǰϡѽŻλȤ⤤롥Priestley ϡѸػ˾̾ȤƤ Lowth Murray ٤бƤ⤷ʤ̣ǥꥹǤ褯ɽʸˡȤäȤ롥
Priestley, Joseph. The Rudiments of English Grammar with Explanatory Remarks by Kikuo Yamakawa and A Course of lectures on the Theory of Language, and Universal Grammar with Explanatory Remarks by Kikuo Yamakawa. Reprint. Tokyo: Naun'un-Do, 1971.
18ˤ͡ʸˡȤָɾȡפȤ٤͡о줷Samuel Johnson (1709--84), Robert Lowth (1710--87), John Walker (1732--1807), Lindley Murray (1745--1826) Ȥ櫓ͭ̾⤦1ͤνפоʪȤ Joseph Priestley (1733--1804) ̾ʤ櫓ˤϤʤŻ뤷 Lowth ФPriestley ϴѤŻ뤷ʸˡ路Ƥ롥Priestley ϤλδɤɽŪҤȤäƤ褤
㤨С1761ǯ˽Ǥ줿 Rudiments of English Grammar ȤʸˡǡPriestley ϡǤä夲Ūʸˡ§ǤϤʤ˰ޤƤѤ˴Ťʸˡ§ǤΩƤ٤Ƥ롥
It must be allowed, that the custom of speaking is the original and only just standard of any language. We see, in all grammars, that this is sufficient to establish a rule, even contrary to the strongest analogies of the language with itself. Must not this custom, therefore, be allowed to have some weight, in favour of those forms of speech, to which our best writers and speakers seem evidently prone . . . ?" (qtd. from Baugh and Cable 277)
The best and the most numerous authorities have been carefully followed. Where they have been contradictory, recourse hath been had to analogy, as the last resource. If this should decide for neither of two contrary practices, the thing must remain undecided, till all-governing custom shall declare in favour of the one or the other. (qtd. from Baugh and Cable 277)
ޤPriestley Ʊ Rudiments ΤʤǡǥߡˤĤƤȯƤꡤΤ褦ʵؤߤϴѤ˽ۤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
As to a public Academy, invested with authority to ascertain the use of words, which is a project that some persons are very sanguine in their expectations from, I think it not only unsuitable to the genius of a free nation, but in itself ill calculated to reform and fix a language. We need make no doubt but that the best forms of speech will, in time, establish themselves by their own superior excellence: and, in all controversies, it is better to wait the decisions of time, which are slow and sure, than to take those of synods, which are often hasty and injudicious. (qtd. from Baugh and Cable 264)
1762ǯ Theory of Language Ǥ⡤Ʊݤ֤롥
In modern and living languages, it is absurd to pretend to set up the compositions of any person or persons whatsoever as the standard of writing, or their conversation as the invariable rule of speaking. With respect to custom, laws, and every thing that is changeable, the body of a people, who, in this respect, cannot but be free, will certainly assert their liberty, in making what innovations they judge to be expedient and useful. The general prevailing custom, whatever it happen to be, can be the only standard for the time that it prevails. (qtd. from Baugh and Cable 277)
Priestley θѤˤϡ¤ŪǸŪʶ롥θѤϡǤȯؼԤȤƤ Priestley ̾1ġ֤ҤȤĤȯʤȤȡɬޤǹͤĤ⤷ʤä̤Դμ뤳ȤˤʤġġסʤʤμϾȯŸˤȤⶦĤƤ褦˻פ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ѸѸȾФˤƵäѸɸಽȵϲĬήˤĤơ#1237. ɸѸΥǥȱѸɸಽ ([2012-09-15-1])#1244. ʤϼ18˵Ĺ ([2012-09-22-1])#2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1]) 濴Ȥơstandardisation prescriptive_grammar γƵˤƤήˤĤħŪĶ̣ϡΥСåפϤˤ衤âʸˡȯν˵ϲλߤʤƤȤ
ɡƥꥹ줿ѸɸಽܻؤƤǽϡää16ȾϸäƤȤϤθ17ˤƤϡֻε§첽˾Ƥ褦ˤʤääȤֻϡ17--18ޤǤˤϤ褽褷Ƥꡤ1755ǯ Johnson μνǤϤᲡȤߤƤ褤ʴϢơ#1407. Ѹ3Ĥ ([2013-03-04-1])#2321. ֻɸಽδĬή ([2015-09-04-1]) ȡˡ
ɸಽϲΥåȤȤʤäΤϡʸˡǤ롥18ˤϵʸˡνǤ꼡Ǥ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) #2592. Lindley Murray, English Grammar ([2016-06-01-1]) 繥ɾ
ơ٤18Ⱦ19ˤơȯפؤΤ꤬褦ˤʤ롥Ū (orthoepy) ؤδؿϡ#571. orthoepy ([2010-11-19-1]) ǽҤ٤褦16鸫ΤŪˡȯפԤʤ٤ȤĬ͡δ֤Ǥˤ狼˹ޤäƤΤ18ȾԤʤФʤʤä礭ʹʤΤϡ#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) Ǥ롥
ȯפμĥʤ褦ˤʤäΤ18ȾȤŪ٤äȤˤĤơBaugh and Cable (306) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The first century and a half of English lexicography including Johnson's Dictionary of 1755, paid little attention to pronunciation, Johnson marking only the main stress in words. However, during the second half of the eighteenth century and throughout the nineteenth century, a tradition of pronouncing dictionaries flourished, with systems of diacritics indicating the length and quality of vowels and what were considered the proper consonants. Although the ostensible purpose of these guides was to eliminate linguistic bias by making the approved pronunciation available to all, the actual effect was the opposite: "good" and "bad" pronunciations were codified, and speakers of English who were not born into the right families or did not have access to elocutionary instruction suffered linguistic scorn all the more.
ǤϡḽѸɸಽȵϲλߤáֻޤˢʸˡȯȤǿʤǤäΤϤʤˤĤƤεǡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Swift ˤ A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue (1712) ϡѸΥǥߡ (academy) Ω˸ƺǤᤤȤޤߤäǤ17ȾˤϱѸ쥢ǥߡϾ夬äƤꡤ18Ƭ Swift Ƥˤƥԡޤˤ衤θ18⥢ǥߡΩϤñˤϾǤʤäˤ֤äƤߤСSwift Ƥ̤ʤäȤˤꡤǥߡΩƤʱ٤뤳ȤˤʤäȤϸäƤ褤Ǥϡʤ Swift Ƥή줿Τ
ˤϡĿŪŪ Anne λȤ𤬤äBaugh and Cable (262) ˼Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Apparently the only dissenting voice was that of John Oldmixon, who, in the same year that Swift's Proposal appeared, published Reflections on Dr. Swift's Letter to the Earl of Oxford, about the English Tongue. It was a violent Whig attack inspired by purely political motives. He says, "I do here in the Name of all the Whigs, protest against all and everything done or to be done in it, by him or in his Name." Much in the thirty-five pages is a personal attack on Swift, in which he quotes passages from the Tale of a Tub as examples of vulgar English, to show that Swift was no fit person to suggest standards for the language. And he ridicules the idea that anything can be done to prevent languages from changing. "I should rejoice with him, if a way could be found out to fix our Language for ever, that like the Spanish cloak, it might always be in Fashion." But such a thing is impossible.
Oldmixon's attack was not directed against the idea of an academy. He approves of the design, "which must be own'd to be very good in itself." Yet nothing came of Swift's Proposal. The explanation of its failure in the Dublin edition is probably correct; at least it represented contemporary opinion. "It is well known," it says, "that if the Queen had lived a year or two longer, this proposal would, in all probability, have taken effect. For the Lord Treasurer had already nominated several persons without distinction of quality or party, who were to compose a society for the purposes mentioned by the author; and resolved to use his credit with her majesty, that a fund should be applied to support the expense of a large room, where the society should meet, and for other incidents. But this scheme fell to the ground, partly by the dissensions among the great men at court; but chiefly by the lamented death of that glorious princess."
ĤޤꡤSwift ƤƤ켫ΤäȤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ롥ǥߡΩ¿ο͡δꤤǤ⤢ä塹ȿʤǤŪˤ Swift ȿФʪ˶ӡոפޤ줿ȤȡƲ⡤ǥߡΩ˸ưФƤ Anne 1714ǯ˴ʤäȤSwift αοԤä
־夫פαѸ쥢ǥߡĤ˺ʤäȤˤꡤ18ϡֲפθ쵬Ϥκ꤬ʤǤȤˤʤ (see #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]), #1421. Johnson θѡ ([2013-03-18-1]), #141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1])) ꥹϡǥߡջ֤ʤä櫓ǤϤʤȾˤζǺ˻ʤäɾΤŬڤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
1918ȾФεϱʸˡΥ٥ȥ顼#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) Ҳ𤷤ϡ1918ȾˤäðۤαʸˡȤȤԤҲ𤹤롥
Lindley Murray (1745--1826) ϡPennsylvania Υ̤εȤޤ줿Ƥ¶ȲȤǤꡤפѤ褦˸ƤˡΧƻ˿ʤߡNew York ۸ΤȤʤä̤ʤɿŪDzʻŻ֤꤫۸ΤȤᡤ30ȾˤϤǤ˰ʤƤͳ⤢1784ǯˤϥꥹ York ˶ᤤ Holgate ž֤ơᤤʳ鱣Ϥޤ˥νع졤ζդ˱Ѹ콤ؤʤɤ뵡äȤˡ褤ʸˡζʽʤΤǽƤȺꤵ줿ϼ뵤ϤʤäǤڤ줺ˡ1ǯ餺ǽ夲줬18˶äƽǤƤεʸˡ軻Ȥ٤ English Grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners; With an Appendix, containing Rules and Observations for Promoting Perspicuity in Speaking and Writing (1795) Ǥ롥äơʸˡϡϼ侦䵤Ȥ̵طޤ줿λʪǤ롥
Murray ϡʸˤƤˤƸǤꡤʸˡ (work) ȤϸƤФãˤʸˡԻ (compilation) ȸƤȤԤȤ Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote Ƥ뤬Ȥ Lowth ߤˤƤ뤳ȤϵʤεʤɤޤơLowth ȾषȤäƤ褤餤Ǥ롥ȤƳȤȤϤʤ֤ݼŪŪɼԤռǺӤδϳΤǤꡤ̤ȤơȴѤΥХμ줿軻ȸƤ֤ˤդ路ʸˡ˻ž夬ä
English Grammar ϽǤƱȯŪԤ1850ǯޤǤ150줿Ȥꥹ⥢ꥫǤΤۤԤ褯衼åѤܤǤǤ줿19ȾˤƤϱʸˡ̾ȤƷפθγعʸˡθȤʤä
ʾ塤Crystal (53) Ӻڡڸԡ(248--49) Ȥ
ʸ嵭2016/06/06(Mon)Ƭ2١19פȽޤ18פθǤŦäк꤬Ȥޤ
Crystal, David. Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices. London: The British Library, 2010.
ãڸ ԡرѸؿ̾ŵ١ҡ1995ǯ
ϼʴ18ȾˤǤפʸˡȤϡåեɤλضӥɥμ綵̳ Robert Lowth (1710--87) Ǥ롥1755ǯ Samuel Johnson ˵ŪȤ뼭˽Ф7ǯ1762ǯˡ٤ Lowth Ӥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뵬ϱʸˡ Short Introduction to English Grammar: with Critical Notes ƿ̾Ǿ尴ܤ1800ǯޤǤ45Ф٥ȥ顼ȤʤꡤˤεϿɤؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ Lindley Murray ʸˡ English Grammar (1795) δäȤʤäܤǤ⤢롥Lowth ʸˡ˸뵬ŪʸˡܤϡθĹꥹλҶ˶졤αƶ20ȾФޤǴ줿ޤ˵ʸˡθĤΤ褦Ǥ롥
Lowth εϼŪΩϽʸ˵Ƥ롥Lowth κǤⶵܤؤι̱ǤʸˡˡθȤƤꡤȤλ̿ǤȹͤƤ褦㤨Сͭ̾ʵʸˡȤơֻ (preposition_stranding) ζػߤ롥Lowth ۩
The Preposition is often separated from the Relative which it governs, and joined to the Verb at the end of the Sentence, or of some member of it: as, "Horace is an author, whom I am much delighted with." . . . . This is an Idiom which our language is strongly inclined to; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing; but the placing of the Preposition before the Relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous; and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated Style.
⤷ȤˡΰѤǤ Lowth Ȥ "an Idiom which our language is strongly inclined to" ֻ֤ѤƤ뤬ѰդȤϡξ̤⤷ʤˤ衤ʸˡǤϤΤ褦ʵϼŪʼĥ֤ΤǤ롥
Lowth ʸˡܤػߤĴϤۤɸΤǤϤʤLowth ߤˤʸˡȤϤζػߤ̵§ơ궯ĥ褦ˤʤäĤʸˡȤ "Never end a sentence with a preposition." ȶĴǸ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
ε§ФƤȿͭ̾ͤ Winston Churchill 롥Churchill "(this was a regulated English) 'up with which we will not put'" ȽҤ٤Ȥϡ褯ΤƤ (Crystal 51)
Crystal, David. Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices. London: The British Library, 2010.
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