
ǯ١ʳäɤƤϢܤޤط YouTube/Podcast ֤ͥإ饸ο٤ˤơ֤ȤФѲĤޤפꤷƼɮƤ륷ǤѲ (language_change) ȤȤ⤹ŪǷɱ줬ʥơޤ˸ơθԤؤΥӥ塼̤Ƥγ˿ȤŪʴǤǯ٤ܻȯԤˤȤĤƤޤޤ
Ϣ3Ȥʤǿ6ǤϡȯȥȤϤɤܤ --- ˸ؼԡʿã餵ʹפꤷơѲΤʤǤä˺ŪȤ벻Ѳ (sound_change) Ƥޤ伫ȡѸ˸ΤʤDz֤Ѳ礿եɤȤƤˡΥơޤˤϤȤ櫓ؿޤƴԤ˰鷺εϿ˿ɤΤޤ
ѲϸѲˤΥߥƥǤ롤ȻϹͤƤޤäʸˡѲƤƤ⤷ΤǤưδפȤʤֲפʤɤΤ褦ˤѤΤȤ䤤ϡǤª̥ŪʤΤǤȤǤ˵礹뤳Ȥ¿ˡؤʿãؤΥӥ塼̤ƥäƤޤι⤤ȥԥåۤʬ䤹ƳƤʸϤϤޤɤȤޤ
ϡ֤ʤȯѤΤפȤѤʵ䤫Ϥޤޤʿϡμפư1ĤĴﴱΥࡼʱưפؤߵᡤʤȯڤˤȤüԤԹ˵ޤϸؤǡֺǾϤθ§ (The Principle of Least Effort) ȤƤΤǤ䤿̵ռΤˡȯڤؤѲƤ롤Ȥ櫓Ǥ
⤷θ§ŪʤС٤ƤȯϤɤɤά졤㤨첻Ϥ٤ۣ첻˼̤ƤޤǤ礦ȡߥ˥ƻȤƵǽ˴٤äƤޤϤǤ¤ϤʤäƤʤޤˡֻߤפȤʤϤƯƤ뤫Ǥ
ˤĤơʿϼΤ褦˻ŦƤޤ (p. 171) ָȤΤϲ櫓ǤϤޤñʸˡʤɡۤηϤ̩ܤˤäƤޤ顤Ȥη礤ǡˤϿʤޤʤȤ𤬤ޤ
Τ˲ϸäʸˡȤäηϤ¾ιǤȸǤӤĤƤޤơʿϲѲܼΤ褦˳ˤޤ (p. 172) ֤ĤޤȯѲϡĴԹǥ饯Ȥưȡ¾ιǤΤǶĥطݤʤ鵯櫓Ǥ
ֶĥطפȤˡѲΥʥߥबŽ̤Ƥޤ͡˰ĥϤȡ˹⤦ϡɹΤʤǡϾɤưѤѤƤޤεϡʣʥץ¸ߤȤǤʤɼԤˤ´ƤޤҳˤεľɤǤФȻפޤ
Ҳ𤷤 heldio Ǥ#1459. ѲΥߥƥ --- إ饸οΡϢܡ֤ȤФѲĤޤפȤƾҲ𤷤ƤޤİС
ϢܡȤФѲĤޤ롧ȯȥȤϤɤܤ --- ˸ؼԡʿã餵ʹס١ҡ2025ǯ6桥2025ǯ168--75ǡ
ƹǤϥȥ2.0ȯͽ¬ǽΥơäƤƤ롥οǤϡDEI (= diversity, equity, and inclusion) ǰΥæޤƤȤ롥1Ĥ diversity ϡ¿פ̣륭ɤǤꡤѸˤϥƥ줫եФ14ȾФ˼ѤƤ
̾δΤϥƥηƻ dīversum Ǥꡤ켫Τư dīvertere ʤ來ؤ餹žˤ̤롥ž̡̼Ρ¿ͤʡĤΡפŸȤˤʤ롥
ȤǡѸ켭ˤ divers /ˈdaɪvəz/ diverse /daɪˈvəːs/ Ȥ̡ΩवƤ롥ֻϸ <e> 뤫ʤΰ㤤ꡤȯ϶벻ᤪӸҲ̵ͭ㤬롥̣ˡȤƤϡԤϸʸŪʶäơ̼ΡĤΡפѤ졤Ԥϼˡ¿ͤʡפθѤ롥ȤȤξԤϸߤ˰۷ˤѸʹߤθˤѤƤ1700ǯ˸̣ˤʬƤ
divers /ˈdaɪvəz/ ϡֿġ͡פ̣̾졦̾ȤƤѤ褦ˤʤäᤫθҲϡ̾ʣ -s ȿǤ뤫Τ褦 /z/ ؤžޤdiverse /daɪˈvəːs/ ȯֻϡƥͳ adverse, inverse ʤɤȴϢŤ夷ΤȻפ롥
OED Ǥξ̡ΩवƤ뤬Diverse, Adj. & Adv. ιˤξη֤ȯˤܺ٤˲⤵Ƥ롥
Form and pronunciation history
The stress was originally on the second syllable, but was at an early date shifted to the first, although both pronunciations long coexisted, especially in verse. In early modern English divers (with stress on the first syllable) is the dominant form (overwhelmingly so in the 17th cent.), especially in the very common sense 'several, sundry, various' (see divers adj.) in which the word always occurs with a plural noun (the final -s coming to be pronounced /z/ after the plural ending -s, making the word homophonous with the plural of diver n.).
By the 18th cent. the senses of the word had come to be distinguished in form, with divers typically used to express the notions of variety and (especially) indefinite number (see divers adj. & n.) and diverse (probably by more immediate association with Latin diversus) the notion of difference (as in senses A.1 and A.3); thus Johnson (1755), Sheridan (1780), and Walker (1791), all of whom have two parallel entries. Both forms were typically stressed on the first syllable, and differed only in the pronunciation of the final consonant (respectively /z/ and /s/ ). The same formal and semantic distinction is reflected in 19th-cent. dictionaries, including Smart (1836), Worcester (1846), Knowles (1851), Stormonth (1877), Cent. Dict. (1889), and New English Dictionary (OED first edition) (1897). The latter notes at divers adj. (in sense 'various, sundry, several') that it is 'now somewhat archaic, but well known in legal and scriptural phraseology'; in this form the word is now chiefly archaic and used mainly in literary or legal contexts.
In the second half of the 19th cent. (as divers adj. was gradually becoming more restricted in use), the dictionaries begin to note an alternative pronunciation for diverse adj. with stress on the second syllable. This pronunciation probably continues the original one that had never entirely disappeared for this form, as is shown by examples from verse (compare e.g. quots. a1618, 1837 at sense A.1a, 1754 at sense A.3a). Knowles (1851) is one of the first dictionaries to note this pronunciation of diverse adj. (which, interestingly, he gives as the sole pronunciation); more commonly the two alternatives are given, as e.g. Craig (1882), who puts the pronunciation with initial stress first, and Stormonth (1877), Cent. Dict. (1889), New English Dictionary (OED first edition) (1897), who give priority to the pronunciation with stress on the second syllable; this has since become by far the more common pronunciation of the word.
¤ءˤˡƱؤdz֤ƤҲμȤˤޤ꤬Ȥޤ˼ֳγʤɤνǡ֤ܥΥå (senbonknock) Ԥޤꤵ2ͤǤΥ饤Τ褦ܥΥåȤʤޤ䤬ӽФ80ʬۤɤΥƥʥåȤʤޤ
μȤΰϽ Voicy heldio ǼϿޤΤȾȸȾʬơۿޤʲ˳Ƽ䤪бץʬäޤ
Ⱦ48ʬ #1284. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥå at --- Part 1
(1) Chapter 2, 03:55 --- ȯΥȤʤΤǤĤϤޤʸˤ륢Ȥ¸߰յϡ
(2) Chapter 3, 04:58 --- ʤܸˤϡֻס͡סֲפʤ1;Τ¿θΤǤ
(3) Chapter 4, 00:03 --- ܸˤ褦ϱѸˤ¸ߤΤǤʡּפء
(4) Chapter 4, 04:40 --- ʤ you ˤϡ֤ʤפȡ֤ʤפξΰ̣ΤǤ
(5) Chapter 5, 02:57 --- ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤǤ
(6) Chapter 5, 01:26 --- 㤦²ʤΤ˻ƤϤޤʸζ̡θοء
ڸȾ35ʬ #1287. ؤܥΥå with (2)
(7) Chapter 2, 00:05 --- ǽ2Ĥθʹ֤ïǤ
(8) Chapter 2, 02:57 --- ζ̸뤳Ȥϼ¸ǽǤ
(9) Chapter 3, 03:35 --- ǽ˱Ѹ줬ܤäƤȤɤΤ褦ǤΤǤ
(10) Chapter 3, 02:51 --- ѸΤ褦ʤΤ¾ˤ⤢ΤǤ
(11) Chapter 4, 00:46 --- ܸΥХȷɸΤ褦ʤΤϱѸˤ⤢ޤ
(12) Chapter 5, 00:00 --- ʤѸˤ say, speak, tell ʤɡָפ̣ñ줬¿ΤǤ
ȤȤ⡤ꤵȤ heldio ۿ٥ȤȤʤޤ꤬Ȥޤ

*
925Ҥηؤդ10ԤޤΡؤդ٤ˤơǯ١ϢֱܵѸˤįեפƤƤޤϢܤ7Ǥ֥եϱѸβФѤפꤷƵɮޤʲФȤޤ
1. Ҳȯؤαƶ
ե줫μѸ줬ѸȯͿƶˤĤƳƤޤä /v/ γΩ䡤/f/ /v/ βΩηˤĤƲ⤷ޤ
2. 첻ȯؤαƶ
եͳ첻2첻ѸβηϤͿƶƤޤ/ɔɪ/ ƳʤɡʤβǤ
3. Ȥؤαƶ
եѸˤäƱѸζѥɤΤ褦ѲƤޤۤʤ붯ѥζ¸ʤɡѸˤδ鶽̣ޤ
4. Ѹ餷η
ѸϥեαƶĤĤ⡤ȼβηϤȯãƤޤβǷƤȯΡֱѸ餷פˤĤȽŪ˹ͻޤ
εǤϡե줬ѸΡʸäǤϤʤȯͿƶʤ⤷ƤޤեθŪʱƶˤĤƤΤäƤȤ⡤ȯؤαƶˤĤƤϰճʹȤʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦̾٥ԤѸˤȤʤäƤޤ
ҡؤդ10˼äƤФȻפޤ6Ϣܵ hellog ǾҲ𤷤ƤޤΤǡɤȤ
#5449. ؤդ٤DZѸϢܤϤޤޤ ([2024-03-28-1])
#5477. ʤʩѸˤϻƤñ줬Ρ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ2ơ ([2024-04-25-1])
#5509. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ǽʩñ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ3ơ ([2024-05-27-1])
#5538. եѸή --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ4ơ ([2024-06-25-1])
#5566. ѸΥեѸ줬ѸäͿ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ5ơ ([2024-07-23-1])
#5600. ե촷줷ƤѸ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ6ơ ([2024-08-26-1])
δ졡ֱѸˤįե졡7եϱѸβФѤסؤդ2024ǯ10桤ҡ2024ǯ92554--55ǡ
ǯ٤ꡤī㡼ɶˤƥָֺ츻ŵǤɤѸˡ˰٤Υڡdz֤Ƥޤ
ޤǤ1ָ츻ŵǤɤѸˡפ427ڡˤˡ2ֱѸäˤѤפ58ڡˤ˳֤ޤ줾äۤ¿ˤäȤʤޤؿؤפޤ
3ֱñȡ֥ˡ§ספ轵68ڡˤ 17:30--1900 ˳֤ޤ̤ơ̡饤ˤϥ֥åɷǤγ֤Ȥʤꡤֵ1֤Ρָƨۿץӥ⤴ѲǽǤֺ¤ǤϤޤƲϤΩƤޤפɬפʬ䤤ޤΤǡ椫λäǤꤢޤؿΤϡꤪߤ

2ƤΥȥ3ϡ褤ѸûˤγäƤޤΥɤˡ§ (grimms_law) Ǥ̾ʲ§ (sound law) 뤳ȤǡѸûˤΤ̥Ū¦̤˵ŤǤ礦ˡ§αѸû˾ΰյϡפΤۤĹǿǤѸóؽΩĤȤϤ²¾θäؤδؿͯƤȻפޤرѸ츻ŵ١ʸҡ1997ǯϤȤ츻ŵ䡤̤αѸ켭ŵޤᡤλȤɤμ¤ѤäƤϤǤ
ֺ¤Ǥϥˡ§δؤ¿θ츻ŵǰҤɤ߲ʤ顤ŪƱˡ§ƤͽǤɤñ줬夲뤫ͽۤĤĹֺ¤פǤޤȡޤޤڤʤϤǤرѸ츻ŵ٤ϡΡָ츻زפ 3.4.1. Grimm ˡ§ 3.4.2. Verner ˡ§ ɤͽƤȤᤷޤ

ͤޤǤˡܥ˴ؤ hellog βؤΥʲĥäƤޤ3ֺ¤⡤¿γΤäԤƤޤ
#5453. īֺ¤οָ츻ŵǤɤѸˡפ427Ϥޤޤ ([2024-04-01-1])
#5481. īֺ¤οָ츻ŵǤɤѸˡפ1λޤ ([2024-04-29-1])
#5486. 518ڡˤī뿷ֺ2ֱѸäˤѤפΤ ([2024-05-04-1])
ʰʲ嵭2024/05/30(Thu)
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
#5212. ̾ؼԤϤʤեɥΤ ([2023-08-04-1]) Ǹڤ Taylor ʸθȾǡåȥ̾ζ֤˴ؤä٤˽Ф路 (82--83) 츻줬äʤʤäƿλ֤ФȤƤ⡤̾ζ֤ݤ뷹ȤȤ§ǤϤʤȤȤΤ褦դˤж֤γǧˤäƸ츻줬٤γΨǤȤȤˤĤʤ롥
It is very important to record how a place-name is pronounced, since this can yield vital clues for its correct analysis. For example it is a general, though by no means universal, rule that place-names which are stressed on the first element are in languages of Germanic origin, such as Scots or Norse, while place-names which are stressed on the second or third element are of Celtic origin, such as Pictish or Gaelic. It would be more accurate to say that in both language groups it is the specific element which bears the stress, but that in Scots and Norse names the specific usually comes first, the generic second, while in names of Celtic origin it is usually the other way round. It is a remarkable fact that the original stress pattern of a name tends to survive, even when the original language of coining has not been spoken locally for many hundreds of years.
Ϥ⤷ʵ䤬Ƭͯ夬äƤ롥
̸Ū specific/generic ζ̤֤䶯֤شطˤΤʤΤ
̾Ȱ̸ȤǤϡŪʶ֤ݻ䤹˺ΤʤΤ
Ʊ̾Ǥ⸽üԤȳüԤȤδ֤Ƕ֤ȯۤʤ뤳Ȥ뤬̾ϰˤ뺹ƱȤȤ館Ƥ褤Τ
Taylor, Simon. "Methodologies in Place-name Research." Chapter 5 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 69--86.
ɸ3ȯϳơΤ褦ˤʤ롥Ҳܤ줿
knowledge [ˈnɑlɪʤ]
Greenwich [ˈgrɪnɪʤ, ˈgrɛnɪʤ, ˈgrɛnɪʧ]
spinach [ˈspɪnɪʧ, ˈspɪnɪʤ]
ֻ̾ȯδطǤ <dge> [ʤ]<ch> [ʧ] ̤Ǥ롥knowledge ͽ̤Greenwich, spinach ˤĤƤ <ch> [ʤ] ȯ⤢ȤǤۼǤ롥
θˤͭ˻ [ʤ] ϡ̵˻ѸͭΤǤ롥ѸǤ Verner's Law ȤΤ벻Ѳ (cf. #858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1])ˡ֥ȤҲľˤʤȤλҲͭפȤ§ѲǡȤƤ褯Τ ˈabsolute -- abˈsolve, ˈanxious -- anxˈiety, ˈexecute -- exˈecutive, exhiˈbition -- exˈhibit, ˈluxury -- luxˈurious, ˈoff -- of ʤ [s, z, ks, gz, ʃ, ʒ, f, v] ؤڥɸθΤ褦˻ [[ʧ, ʤ]] ؤΤ⤢롥
Prins (225) ꡤԤȤ
5. ʧ > ʤ
ME knowleche > MoE knowledge partriche > partridge spinach > spinach ['spinidʒ]
and in the suffix -wich in place-names: Norwich [noridʒ], Greenwich [grinidʒ], Woolwich [wulidʒ], Harwich [hæridʒ], Bromwich [brʌmidʒ]
Instead of the obsolete old pronunciation Ipswich [ipsidʒ] we find now [ipswitʃ].
The voicing is also found in MoE ajar < Scots and Nth dialect achar < on char-e (OE čerr, 'turn').
ѤκǸˤ̤ꡤajar űѸ on cierre ̤ȤΤ̣
Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.
δñѸ in English٤10椬ȯȤʤޤϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפ19ϡ֤ʤñ줴Ȥ˥Ȥΰ֤ޤäƤΡפǤ

ñΥǤñ줴Ȥ˥Ȱ֤ޤäƤޤˤ100%ε§ʤǤʵ§ʤȤǡͽ¬ǤȤΤ¤ʤΤǤϤǤϤޤ
㤨Сnature mature 1ʸ㤤Ǥʤȯʤ˰ۤʤΤǤפȤ̣Ȥޤ hellog ǡ#3652. nature mature 1ʸ㤤Ǥʤȯʤ˰ۤʤΤǤ ([2019-04-27-1]) εƤޤλϤȤƤ⤪⤷ΤǺϢܵΤʤǤ夲Ǥ
ñʥεϥΥޥǤθűѸǤϡȤΰ֤ϸ§Ȥ1˸ǡΤʵ§ޤΥޥ˻ϤޤѸ³Ѹˤơեƥ줫̤ñ줬ѤƤޤμѸϡħѤơɬ1˥Ȥ⤿ʤΤ¿äᡤˤѸΥηϤϺ˴٤뤳Ȥˤʤޤ
ϢܵǤϡդλפߺդƲ⤷ޤ10ƥȤ˼äƤФȻפޤ
ѸΥȰ֤ˤĤƤϡhellog εå stress γƵɤߤ
ε#4853. ȥ⡼ ([2022-08-10-1]) ˰³ѸαΧоȤ롥ʲ (27--28) Ȥ롥
ܸϥ⡼ʲꥺ (mora-timed/syllable-timed rhythm) Ѹ϶ꥺ (stress-timed rhythm) ĤȤ롥
ܸΥ⡼ʲꥺȤϡƱĹñ̡ʥ⡼䲻ʤɤñ̤ǡܸξˤŵŪ˥⡼ˤϢ³ƸΤǡϢ³Υꥺ (rhythm of succession) 뤤ϡֵؽƥꥺ (machine-gun rhythm) ȤƤФ롥ѸüԤˤȤäơܸΥꥺϡ֥פΤ褦ñĴʤΤʹȤ
ѸζꥺȤϡΤ벻ȤʤȤŵŪ˸ߤ˸ΤǡָؤΥꥺ (rhythm of alternation) 뤤ϡ֥⡼륹ꥺ (Morse-code rhythm) Ȥ⤤롥ܸüԤˤȤäơѸΥꥺ϶ΥϥΤ벻βη֤ʹ롥ѸδŪʥꥺശϡΤ褦ŪоŪʤᡤߤ˰´礭
Ѹ줬ꥺĤȤϴְ㤤ʤѸˤδϡλ¤ǤвªƤɬפ롥űѸϽʶꥺθǤϤʤäȤ⤢뤷ѸǤФвꥺबʹ뤳ȤΤǤ롥ѸߤĤꥺळѸˤ̤˭٤ˤߤ첻ѲθưϤäȤ븫⤢롥Ѹˤˤꥺ (rhythm) ϡפΤۤ礭ʲεȡ
#1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])
#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])
#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])
#4470. եꥫϤαѸˤߤꥺȶη ([2021-07-23-1])
#4799. Jenkins ˤ "The Lingua Franca Core" ([2022-06-17-1])
ס1ϡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ
ĥ֤ä饤ʾۤƤޤؤͫƤޤīåפ Voicy ΡֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 Ǥϡʿ¤ĤġƺξŪطʤ˻٤ǡ֥饤ʡʸˤˤĤơפȤϤƤޤɤİϢ hellog å碌Ƥɤ
äѤޤ#4672. μͭӥMondפDZѸ˴ؤѤʵ˲Ƥޤ ([2022-02-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3֤ۤMond˴ƤѸˡѸءؤμ˲Ƥޤ館ʤۤɤ䤬¿Ǥ˥åץåפʤΤǤޤǰʲ10˲ƤޤֲפȤϤޤ¤ǡȥꥬȤƻ䤬ͤȤƤߤȤܥ֥γưαĹʤΤǤ⤷äƤ館ФȻפޤޤ
Ƹȯˡι⤵ˤϴطΤǤ礦
Ѹ¾ȤθܿˤޤѤʤɤ̵ʤäƤäȤΤȤǤȲˤĤƤϤΤ褦ʷʤΤϤɤƤǤ礦
ˤäƲǤο礭ۤʤΤϤʤǤ礦
ߤΤȤ虜λ줬ޤϤޤޤƤʤȤ虜λ줬ɴǯޤǽϤޤ
ƱȯʤΤˤޤạ̈ΰ㤦դ¸ߤΤϤʤǤ礦
ܸʤSOVѸʤSVOӥʤVSOʤɸˤäƸ礬ۤʤޤϤɤΤ褦ʸ㤤ʤΤǤ礦
֥ꥫѸȥꥹѸ졤ȥꥢѸδطϡܤǸȤϰۤʤΤʤΤǤ礦
ֲȲؤΰ㤤褯ʬʤΤǤѤƶƤ
֥ɥĸեϡֽ̾פȡ̾פȤʬबޤɤΤ褦ޤäƤΤǤ礦
ָ줬ʸΤǤ礦ȤʸΤǤ礦
첻ˤϥԥå (pitch) Ȥ°롥⤤ο͡㤤οͤ⤤СƱͤǤ⤤äȤ㤤äȤ롥üԸĿͤȤ⡤ŪħȤƤΥԥå⤢롥 (intonation)㥢 (pitch accent)Ĵ (tone) ʤɤǤ롥
ԥåϼȿ (frequency) ȴϢξԤƱ뤵뤳Ȥ¿̩ˤмȿϲιбʪŪʻɸǤꡤԥåϤΤ褦ʲιФ뿴ŪʻɸǤ롥ԤϲŪʻɸԤİвŪʻɸȤäƤ褤ˤĤơɴʼŵ PITCH ι2ۤɰѤ롥
When an object vibrates, its movement produces changes in air pressure that radiate like waves from the source. If the frequencies of the vibrations are roughly between 20 and 20,000 cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), ideally they can be heard by a young, healthy human listener. The range of hearing frequencies declines with age. The physical characteristic of the vibrating body, frequency, produces a psychological experience called pitch. In general, a low frequency produces the sensation of a low pitch (for example, the 60 Hz hum produced by electrical power in a poorly grounded radio), with the pitch increasing as the frequency increases (a male voice at 100 Hz, a female voice at 200 Hz, a child's voice at 300 Hz). Because there is a close correspondence between frequency and pitch, people frequently use the terms interchangeably. However, in addition to frequency, the sensation of pitch is influenced by an interaction between the amplitude of the vibration and the range of the frequency. Pitch is also influenced by the complexity of the vibration and its corresponding wave form. (623)
Pitch is closely related to the physical stimulus frequency, but as a psychological event, it is influenced by the complexity, frequency range, and loudness of the tone. (624)
ϡ֤Ū˴Τ첻ι⤵ʼȿˤȿʹ֤Τ첻ι⤵ʥԥåˤϡΤ̩ܤʴطϤΤΥǤϤʤȤȤԥåϡ첻βŪװΤۤˤ⡤¾͡װαƶƷޤ롥Ϣơ#2687. 첻μȿȲ٥ ([2016-09-04-1]) ⻲ȡ
Hogan, Patrick Colm, ed. The Cambridge Encylopedia of the Language Sciences. Cambridge :CUP, 2011.
ˤ͡ʱѸѼ郎ꡤҤä World Englishes New Englishes ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿䥢եꥫˤŪʷаޤ ESL (English as a Second Language) Ѽ郎¿¿ΥեꥫѼ˶̤Ƹ뱤ΧħĤŦƤ롥Ǥ2褦1Ĥ "syllable-timing" ȸƤФꥺ (rhythm) ⤦1Ĥϸζ (stress) ΰ֤˴ؤ뷹Ǥ롥ʲ Mesthrie and Bhatt (129) ȤƲ⤹롥
syllable-timing Ȥϡꥺδθ1ĤǡɸѸ줬 stress-timing ֤ΤǤ롥Ԥϲʥ⡼ˤֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡܸե줬Ԥ϶ֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡɸѸɥĸ줬cf. #1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])ˡ
եꥫϤνˤ syllable-timing ĤΤ¿δؤξ˾äƤ ESL Ѽˤ syllable-timing ΥꥺबۤȤȤ㤨СɷեꥫѸ졤ͷեꥫѸ졤쥢եꥫѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ʱѸ졤ɱѸ졤ѥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤եԥѸʤɤ syllable-timing Υꥺħ̤ħȤơѼˤϡ첻ˤ첻ŪƤݤȤ⤢롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥϡsyllable-timing ΥꥺϤ̣ǤͥȤäƤ褤
Ѽˤϡζ˴ؤƤⶦ̤Ƥߤ뷹롥ФɸѸȤϰۤʤ֤˶֤뤳Ȥrealíse Τ褦˶֤¦˴ΤȤ櫓¿롼ѸʤɤǤ adólescence Τ褦˺¦˴Τߤ롥ޤѼǤɸѸ ábsent (adj.) absént (v.) Τ褦ʡʻˤäƶ֤ư븽 (diatone) ϤߤʤȤ
ŪˤСظαƶβDZΧε§άΤȤäƤ褤ܸüԤˤȤäơͥױΧħǤꡤŸˤܤƤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
Ѹϡ² (indo-european) Τʤ1ȶǤ륲ޥ (germanic) °롥ɥĸ졤졤ɸ졤եꥸʤɤƱȶθǤ롥ȶθˤϡ¾ȶˤɬѻʤ̤ħ롥ϡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) ˽Ҥ٤ȤǤȤ櫓פʤΤϡޥˤƤϡ˸ŪʶȤȤ¤Ǥ롥
ǤϡָŪʶȡפȤϲޤ (stress accent) ˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦ȤȤϡ벻ܤȤˡ줬ȯ뤫夯ȯ뤫Ȥͥ륮ζδߤȤΤȤǤ롥ˤϡ⤦1̤˹㥢 (pitch accent) ȤΤ롥ܸ줬㥢ȤθʤΤǡȤȤΰ㤤䤹Ȼפ뤬פ˶ΤΤȯιʥԥåˤˤäƶ̤륢ȤǤ롥ԥΤαդˤȤСƱΥɤθפ϶ζʥեƤԥΤˤˤäѤΤȤǤꡤƱɤȤäƤ1㤤ɤȹ⤤ɤȤǸ夹Τ㥢ȤȤä褤ܤϡ#2627. Ȥʬ ([2016-07-06-1]) Ȥ줿
ˡŪʥȤȤΤϡʤʸ̮ˤƤ⡤ζϸ§ȤƤθηޤäȤȤ㤨Сvisit, visits, visited, visiting ʤɤϡۤʤĤƤ뤱ɡȤѤʤ1Ƥ롥
ѸؤǤȡָ˸ŪʶȤפΤ褦˻פΤϼ¤ϱѸȤ⥲ޥΤ˶̤ħʤΤǤ롥ơβŪħϡŪˤ⥲ޥβΤߤʤ餺ˤʱƶͿƤޥŪħ¿¤ϤΥȤ˴ؤħʪȤäƤ褤餤ʤΤǤ롥
ϡѸ˸ԤĤȤ˶ĴƤȤǤ롥ǶѥѥȤäƤѸ첻θŵ Prins (33) ˤ⡤μݤεҤäΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
One of the chief characteristics of the Germanic languages was and still is their strong dynamic accent. Indo-European was characterised by a musical accent which was not fixed, and though in later time this was often replaced by a dynamic accent which was combined with the musical accent, this accent was still free at the time when the Germanic group of dialects began to differentiate from the other Indo-European dialects. The strong dynamic accent of Germanic was, however, fixed and generally fell on the stem or first syllable. This had important results for the vowels in the weaker-stressed syllables . . . .
Prins "dynamic accent" "musical accent" ȤѸϡơ嵭Ρֶȡפȡֹ㥢ȡפɤؤƺ٤ʤѸ --- ƥޥ --- ˤϡ褽ΡָŪʶȡפ˱̿ŤƤȤäƤ褤ۤɽפħǤ롥
Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.
hellog 饸Ǥϡʤ곧˼Ǥñ harass(ment) ΥȤϤɤ֤ޤ1 hárass(ment) Ǥ礦뤤2 haráss(ment) Ǥ礦ϡɤ¤Ϥ˱Ѹˤ̥ϤƤޤ
ǤǤ礦β˶֤ȤΤϡƺȤŪΤ褦ˤ⸫ϤǴְäƤʤΤǤǻŪǤ⤢Ȥ̣¦̤ΤǤꥫѸǤ haráss(ment) ͥǡꥹѸǤ hárass(ment) ͥǤȤ礭ʷϳΤ˸ޤ⤪⤷ΤϡαѸǤǯؤ haráss(ment) ȯǤ뤳ȤǤΤȤΤϡ夫鼡ˤơޤޤ haráss(ment) ƤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ䤿1ĤθѲꥢ륿ܤˤƤΤǤ
ѸˤȤäƤ⡤˸űѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤ1500ǯȤǵäƤѲˤƤ櫓ǤϤޤǯȤû֤Ѳ⡤ΩɤʱѸˤǤΤ褦ñζ֤ɤʤɡѻǤ variation ȤΤϡޤ˸ѲäƤ뤳ȤƤΤǤͤȡѸˤʬǤȤȤʬ뤫ȻפޤŤˤѸˤǤϤʤΤǤ
̤ñζ֤ɤ˴ؿäϡ##342,321,366,488εå
Υԥ졼ǡɸιټ (agentive_suffix) ˴ؿĸϥեͳΤΤۤȤɤǤꡤȿǤơȤ˶Ȥħߤ롥Ĥޤȯ /ˈɪə(r)/ Ȥʤ롥engineer, pioneer, volunteer ϤȤơauctioneer, electioneer, gazetteer, mountaineer, profiteer ʤɤ롥츻Ūˤ -ier ⤽ηȤ٤Ǥꡤcachier, cavalier, chevalier, cuirassier, financier, gondolier ʤɤ -eer Ʊħͭ롥ե餷ʤѸˤƤΥեηȯֻˤ夷ΤȤǶ̣cf. #594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħ ([2010-12-12-1])#1291. եѸμѻκ ([2012-11-08-1])ˡ
Jespersen (15.51; 243) ꡤ-eer, -ier ˴ؤѤ롥
15.51 Words in -eer, -ier (stressed) -[ˈɪə] are mostly originally F words in -ier (generally from L -arius). Most of the OF words in -ier were adopted in ME with -er, and the stress was shifted to the first syllable . . . , as also in a few in which the i was kept . . . .
A few words borrowed in ME times kept the final stress, and so did nearly all the later loans (many from the 16th and 17th c.). The established spelling of most of these, and of nearly all words coined on English soil, is -eer, as in auctioneer, cannoneer, charioteer (Keats 46), gazetteer, jargoneer (NED from 1913), mountaineer, muffineer, 'small castor for sprinkling salt or sugar on muffins' (NED 1806), muleteer [mjuˑliˈtiə], musketeer, pioneer, pistoleer (Carlyle Essays 251), routineer (Shaw D 54), and volunteer, but many of them preserved the F spelling, e.g. cavalier and chevalier, cuirassier, and finanicier.
The recent motorneer, is coined on the pattern of engineer.
Sh in some cases has initial-stressed -er-forms instead of -eer, e.g. ˈenginer, ˈmutiner (Cor I. 1.244), and ˈpioner.
β˽С-eer ϻ䤿褯Τټ -er ΰѤäȤƤȤ館Ƥ褵
-eer ˤϰ̣ŪŪܤ٤롥ޤ줿ټ̾ϡŪʰ̣ӤӤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¤롥crotcheteer, garreteer, pamphleteer, patrioteer, privateer, profiteer, pulpiteer, racketeer, sonneteer ʤɤǤ롥
⤦1Ĥϡټ̾줬Τޤưʻž (conversion) 㤬ߤ뤳Ȥelectioneer, engineer, pamphleteer, profiteer, pioneer, volunteer ʤɤǤ롥Ͼ嵭ηŪʸȤ̩ܤ˴طƤ뤫⤷ʤʤcommandeer ϡưȤƤѤʤȤ̯ -eer Ǥ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
hellog 饸ǤǤϡ#4156. ʤѸˤ s ̯˰ۤʤ th Τ褦ȯˤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-09-12-1]) ȤѤʵ夲ޤ³ th-sound ˴ؤǤth ֻбȯˤϡ /θ/ ä /ð/ 2बޤʲؤǤϳơ̵ͭȸƤǤޤˡǤϡɤΤ褦ʤȤ̵ȤʤꡤͭȤʤΤǤ礦ñ줴Ȥ1ĤҤȤİŵʤФʤʤΤǤ礦
ǰʤ顤̵ͭʬۤͽ¬ֵ§פȤΤ¸ߤޤʤͭʡַפϻŦǤޤŪʴ2ĤηҲ𤷤ȻפޤǤϡʲβɤ
ʾ塤2ĤηҲ𤷤ޤñ˸ th ̵ͭϡΰֻ̣顤٤Ͽ䤷̤뤳ȤǤȤȤʬäǤ礦ơơηˤϿɴǯǯʾˤȤȤפʥݥȤǤΤȯΡ֥פȯΤʤ˻ĤäƤȻפԻĤʴޤ͡
ѤʵȤμդˤĤơ##842,858,3713,1365,702,3298,4069εåɤߤ
ε#4042. anti- ϡ֥ƥפ֥פ --- Ѹ˷ǼĤǤμ ([2020-05-21-1]) ơƬ anti- ˤĤƤ⤦ä³
ǽ餤СƬ anti- ŵŪ˿ʷƻΤŪѤޤ̾줫ƻȤȤ˿ʷƻä (ex. anti-social, anti-clerical, anti-clockwise) ̤̾ƻˡ̾äꤷޤ (ex. anti-missile, anti-war) ֲ餤С嵭˵褦ˡƤθˤƬ anti- 켫Τ121ϴΤΤȤƤޤǡƬϴΤˤä֤ݻ뤿 "stress-neutral prefix" Ǥȸޤ
antimony, antinomy, antiphony ʤɤǤ, Ūˤ츻ŪˤΤƬ anti- ǧ뤳ȤǤޤ2첻 /ɪ/ˤ˶ȾʬˤޤĤޤꡤƬ϶֤˰ܼŪʰ̣ôȾʬåȤǡ"stress-shifting prefix" ȸޤʤߤ antibody Ƭ12ǤϤʤˤ˶Ƥꡤ㳰ŪȤޤ20Υɥĸ Antikörper (loan_translation) ȤͿƤ뤫⤷ޤˡȾʬΩȤΩƤʤ«ǡʤ뤤Ϣ (combining_form)ˤǤ뤳Ȥ¿Τ⤳ΥפħǤޤƬ anti- ޤޤƤϤΤΡʬŪˤϰռƤ餺ΤȤƸǧƤ봶ΤħǤȤƤ崶⤢ޤ
嵭Τ褦ˡanti- ϡ?˹롤ȿפ̣ƬȤƸ˹ѤƤޤΩñϸŪʴ2ĤΥ롼פʬ줽Ǥantibiotics antibody ϡƱ anti- ȤϤäƤ⡤ŪۤʤΤǤ
anti- еƬȤäƤ褤 pro- ѥ˹ͤ뤳ȤǤޤpro-communist, pro-American, pro-student ʤɤŪ˺ŵŪֻϥϥեդˤˤƤϡƬ켫Ȥ2ȼä /ˌprəʊ/ ȯ졤stress-neutral prefix ȤƵǽޤproceed, profession, provide ʤɤΤ褦˱ѸĹ餯Ʊ崶ΤˤƤϡƬϼ夯 /prə/ ȯ졤?¦Ρ̣ΡפȤ̣ʬϤƤ餺ΤȤ1ĤΩñ̤ȲᤵƤޤʰʾ塤Quirk et al. (1543) ȡˡ
ʸ嵭2020/05/22(Fri)antimony 2˶ȵޤºݤˤϤθ1˶ȤλŦޤ̤ǤΤǾ嵭Τ褦ޤޤ antíphony ȴϢ ántiphon Ǥ϶֤ѤȤŦ⤤ޤƬˤܤƤƤϲ褷ʤȤȤ褯ʬޤ꤬Ȥޤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ɸ2ĤѸ prosody {{cat('meter')} (or metre) ζ̤ϰճԤˤäƤơλؼΤۤʤäƤ⤢뤷ФˤäξȤֱΧפ롥ŪʲˤäƤСȡꥺʤɤ˴Ϣ뤬prosody äդ°ŪʸݤǤꡤmeter ϻ°üʸݤȤ롥Minkova (323) ϡξԤδطˤĤƼ٤ͿƤ롥
The term prosody, as used here is restricted to stress phenomena in the spoken language, so 'prosody' is short for 'speech prosody' . . . . Meter describes the modes of versification, where linguistic material is arranged in specific recursive frames; as used here, 'meter' is short for 'verse or poetic meter'. Meter always draws on the prosodic structures available in the language. The two systems rely on the same fundamental distinctive categories and relations, though meter obeys verse-specific conventions such as repetition, alliteration and end-rhyme, and not all prosodic features have to be harnessed into a specific verse form. Nevertheless, there are important correspondences between the structure of verse and the structure of the ambient language. This makes meter a valuable source of information about language. The linguistic competence of the poet provides the raw material for verse; the way in which that material is manipulated to fit the metrical constraints of a particular tradition reveals the poet's, or the copyist's intuitions about prosody.
Ѹˤޤ˸ؤˤơǽҤ٤Ƥ prosody meter ߴطƤȤϡȤƤפǤ롥¿ξ硤¸뤫ĤƤνդλ˴Ťơбäդ prosody 뤳ȤϺˤ롥ʸɤ meter ꤬ˡȿǤƤꤵŪäդ prosody ʤΤʤˤˤ٤Ǥǽ롥prosody meter ˴Ūmeter ϤѤƻȤȤˡprosody Ƥ¸ߤʤΤǤ롥
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ε#3915. 첻ܤȼդ첻Ѳν۴Ū ([2020-01-15-1]) κǸ˼褦ˡ˱Ѹ첻Ǥϡ̵ͭꥺʤɤαΧ첻Ѳˤδ֤ˤ̩ܤʴطȹͤƤ롥
Ѹ¾ΥޥǤϡΤΤ褦ˡζζ̡ҤƤ첻ζζ̤ǽŪ˽Ż뤵롥ˤꡤΧΥꥺˤηи뤳ȤˤʤꡤηĴ¤첻⤽μ̤ѲѰۤƤȤθˤĤƤϡ#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])#3466. űѸ첻β̤Ѹʹߤ첻βŻ뤷 ([2018-10-23-1])#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ʤɤǾҲ𤷤ƤϱѸˤˤפĹ첻Ѳ˴ؤ븦路 Stenbrenden ηꡤݤεѤ (318)
. . . stressed syllables and vowels behave differently from unstressed syllables and vowels. Since stress in Gmc involves intensity (perceptual loudness and more muscular and respiratory force) in addition to pitch prominence, various articulatory features are a consequence of stress: stressed vowels are longer and usually more peripheral (in terms of the vowel space), fortis plosives have more aspiration, etc. Lack of stress, on the other hand, involves little muscular effort and perceptual 'softness', and often low/level pitch; unstress therefore has articulatory consequences like shorter and more centralised vowels (or at least loss of vowel contrasts . . .), vowel reduction, vowel and consonant elision, and little to no aspiration of fortis plosives, etc. Thus, what is known as the 'syncopation period' in early Gmc may be interpreted as only the beginning of a long process involving the gradual reduction and loss of unstressed vowels and syllables, the last major instance of which is witnessed (in English) in the loss of final schwa. Related to this reduction process are the lOE and ME processes that lengthen vowels in open syllables and shorten vowels in words of two or more syllables. Clearly, metrical considerations play a crucial role here . . . .
ΰѤκǸǡѸ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ʤɤ˿Ƥꡤ첻 (gvs) ˤƤʤΤΡԤޤƥޥɺή (drift) ͤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤפ첻Ѳ¿餫ηǴϢƤꡤΰ̣ǤϤ٤ƤҤä "chain shift" ʤΤȤͤǤ롥
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
#3719. ܸϳ졤ѸIJ ([2019-07-03-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸŪˤͭɸβפǤIJ¿ĸǤ뤳Ȥϻ¤ǤѸβѲĬήįƤߤȡѸ̵ɸγָƤȹͤ줽Ǥ롥
ƣ߷ĤϸѸˤߤ r Ʋ (flapping; city, data ʤɤ t [ɾ] Ȥʤ븽)l ΰƬ (pharyngealization; feel, help ʤɤ l Ť [ɫ] Ȥʤ븽)Ҳæattem(p)t, exac(t)ly, mos(t) people ʤɡˤȤä夲ⲻλҲؤäƤꡤβ˶ŤƤΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ʲβѤ褦 (70)
Ʋϡ˳ /t/ 첻ŪʶIJѤ븽ݤǤꡤϰ첻 (vocalization) ȹͤ롥ᤤäǤϡbetter [bɛ́r] Τ褦ˡƲ줿 /t/ æ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤ/l/ ΰƬǤϡΤ˰ưä뤬ܼŪ첻ŪưǤꡤ/l/ ܸΡ֥פΤ褦첻˶Ťºݡfeel [fíːjo] Τ褦ˡ/l/ 첻ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥äơ/l/ ΰƬ⡤IJ /l/ 첻˶Ť첻ȹͤ롥Ҳæϡ첻ǤϤʤIJˤ벻λҲϢñ㲽븽ݤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡĤθݤϡ⡤λҲ첻ꡤæ뤳ȤˤäơǸ夬첻ǽ볫˶Ť褦ȤƤ븽ݤǤꡤǽŪˤ϶̤Ƥ뤳Ȥ狼롥άܼŪ˳ָѸϡޤޤʲݤʤ顤IJ˶Ť褦ȤƤȹͤ롥
ϲѲṽ¤ΤȴϢƤȤβṽ¤Τ켫ȤϡꥺȤäΧˤäƷꤵƤȤ⤤롥ϲѲ˴ؤʲǤ롥#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])#3466. űѸ첻β̤Ѹʹߤ첻βŻ뤷 ([2018-10-23-1]) ȡ
ƣ ͺ߷ رѸ١ҡ2001ǯ
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