ε#5783. ꥷϢ뼭 (connective) -o- ȥƥϢ뼭 -i- ([2025-02-25-1]) Ǽ夲 -o- ˤĤơKruisinga (II. 3, p. 7) ʤ˱ԤȤŦƤ롥
1587. In literary English there is a formal way of distinguishing compounds from groups: the use of the Greek and Latin suffix -o to the first element:
Anglo-Indian, Anglo-Catholic, the Franco-German war, the Russo-Japanese war.
Of course, this use, though quite common, is of a learned character, clearly contrary to the natural structure of English words.
Ƭ "a formal way of distinguishing compounds from groups" Ǥ롥ñǤ2¤٤硤ŪȤ߹碌ʣ (compound) ȤʤꡤŪȤ߹碌 (phrase) Ȥʤ롥̤θȡʣ12Ǥ롥ؾ¸ߤλۤʤΤŪ˲ۤʤΤȡΤ˾֤פ롥
ȯƤߤС֤ۤʤȤϤ褯Ǥ bláckbòard ʹġˤʣblack bóard ʹġˤ϶Ǥcf. #4855. ʣǧ --- blackboard ʣ black board ϶ ([2022-08-12-1])ˡֻǤ⥹ڡ뤫ݤȤ̤롥ϱΧˡˤ̤Ǥꡤζ̤Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤʣȶʬˡϡճȤʤΤ⤷ʤ
դˤΤȤ˵դƤ줿ΤΰѤäʤۤɡϢ뼭 -o- 2Ǵ֤ƤСΤ϶ǤϤʤʣǤȽǤǤ롥ޤŪʶȤˡ֤ĤʤפȤ -o- Ѥ¸ߤʤʾʤȤ⡤פ⤫٤ʤˡȡϢ뼭 -o- ϤƷŪǤǤɸǤ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥
Kruisinga, E A Handbook of Present-Day English. 4 vols. Groningen, Noordhoff, 1909--11.
#552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1]) ˤơϢη (3) ǡanthropology anthrop- -logy combining form ʤ뤬֤ˤϤޤäƤϢ첻 -o- Τˤɤ°ȤϤפȤƼ夲 -o- ȤΤϲ
رѸ츻ŵٸ츻õȡꥷˤƹʡʣˤ1Ǥ2Ǥ֡Ϣ뼭 (connective) Ȥ롥ΤˤСꥷ̾졦ƻθ촴첻ˤΤܤ롥aristocracy, philosophy, technology ˤߤ̤ꡤϥꥷǤĤʤ륱ͭä˥ƥ䤽¾νǤ־ˤѤ褦ˤʤä
̤ʣΤۤAnglo-French, Franco-Canadian, Graeco-Latin, Russo-Japanese Τ褦Ʊʴطɽ魯ʣ (dvandva) ˤ褯Ѥ롥ѸθˤǤϡμʣŪΤǤꡤʥꥷϢ뼭 -o- β̤Ϸ褷ƾʤˤĤƤϡ#4449. ꥷαѸؤΥѥȡ ([2021-07-02-1]) ȡ
ƱͤϢ뼭ȤơꥷǤϤʤƥͳ褹 -i- ⤢롥ѸäƤʣȤ omnivorous, pacific, uniform ʤɤ롥 -i- Ϻǽ2ñˤĤƤϸ촴ΰȤƤäǸθˤĤƤϤʤäΤǡϢ뼭ȤƵǽƤȤˤʤ롥
Ϣŵͳ褷եФơѸˤäƤѸˤ붦ŪȤƤϡ֤Ĥʤ첻פȤȤ館ƤƤ褤ʳѸ濴ȤƹѤ褦ˤʤäʥǤǤ롥
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
ε#5779. Ϣϸб빴«ǤǤ ([2025-02-21-1]) ǡϢ (combining_form) ܤ³ܤƤؿѸؼŵ٤βɤǤߤ褦
combining form ʸ͡Ϣˡʣ졤¤ȤѤ빴«Ūʰ۷֤ѸǤϸ (BASE) ȶ̤ʤꥷ졦ƥͳ褹֤ξϢȼ¸ߤΤդĤǤ롥Ϣħ鸫Ϣ㤨 philo-ˤȸϢ㤨 -sophyˤȤʬ뤳ȤǤ롥ƬΤ褦ʽʹ«ȰۤʤꡤϢϸߤˤƱΤǷ礷ꡤ뤤ܼȤ뤳ȤǤ롥
褽εҤȽŤʤ뤬ֱѸǤϸ (BASE) ȶ̤ʤפλŦӸŪˤоȸŪˤⶽ̣ѸǤϡŤʳθűѸǤ顤 (word) ñ̤ʤΤǡȤ̤˸촴 (stem) 캬 (root) ڤФŪưŤŪ夤
ФơꥷƥʤɤθŵǤϡѸ٤ƶޤ褯ĤäƤꡤȿǤơŪΩȤϰۤʤΩŪϢ¸ߤ롥
θŵϢȴϢƻפФΤϡܸΩ뤤ʤȸƤФ֤#3390. ܸ i-mutation Ȥ٤첻ء ([2018-08-08-1]) Ƴ̤ꡤ㤨С֤סˤȡ֤סˡ֤դ͡סˤȡ֤դʡסˡ֤סʱˤȡ֤ޡסʱˤΤ褦ˡΩȡʣݤѤΩ2äŪˤϲŪѲη̡2ΤθŵϢˤĤƤƱȤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
Ƭ (prefix) ݤ뤤 (suffix) ݤǤƤɤǤʤȤȾüʰ֤Ťη (morpheme) 롥Ϣ combining_form Ǥ롥ϢˤĤƤϡ#552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1]) ǿ줿ȤرѸ켭ŵ٤Ǥβ⤬ʬ䤹äΤǡϤιܤѤ
combining form ̸͡Ϣ¤ˡ (COMPOUND) Ȥ (DERIVATIVE WORD) ηѤ빽ǤOED aero- ˤϤѤ줿ȹͤ롥ϥꥷ졦ƥϤͳ褹Τ¿Ϣ philo-ˤȸϢ -logyˤ2ब롥Ϣϼͳ (FREE FORM) ʤ (WORD) ι«۷ (bound allomorph) ȤȤǤΩȤѤʤǶǤ anti ( anti-)graph ( -graph) Τ褦㳰ŪˡäƤ롥ޤϢƬ (PREFIX) (SUFFIX) ٤ựضŪǤꡤϢδطŪǤ롥ǶǤ bio-degradable (= biologically ---) Τ褦㳰ǧ롥ˡƬľܸߤϢ뤹뤳ȤʤΤФơϢϸ¾ϢΤܼۤäϢ뤹뤳ȤǽǤ㡧-morphic ( -morph + -ic)heteroness ( hetero- + -ness)ˡ
Ϣϸб빴«ǤǤפȤªϡȤƤʬ䤹
ʤˤ OED ؤθڤˤĤƤcombining form ιܤ˽ȤưʲǺܤƤ
1884 Gr. ἀερο-, combining form of ἀήρ, ἀέρα
New English Dictionary (OED first edition) at Aero-
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ
Ūʺʬ (reanalysis) ˤϤĤμब뤬 Fertig (32) ѤĤġ̾첽 -ness ¤ -ess ͳ褹ȤҲ𤹤롥
This [type of reanalysis] occurs frequently when the reanalysis affects the location of a boundary between stem and affix. A well-known example involves the Germanic suffix that became English -ness. The corresponding suffix in proto-Germanic was -assu. This suffix was frequently attached to stems ending in -n, and this n was subsequently reanalyzed as belonging to the suffix rather than the stem. In Old English, we find examples based on past participles, such as forgifeness 'forgiveness', which could still be analyzed as forgifen + ess, but also many instances based on adjectives, such as gōdness 'goodness' or beorhtness 'brightness', which provide unambiguous evidence of the reanalysis and the new productive rule of -ness suffixation . . . . Similar reanalyses give us the common Germanic suffix -ling --- as in English darling, sapling, nestling, etc. --- from attachment of -ing (OED -ing, suffix3 'one belonging to') to stems ending in l, as well as the German suffixes -ner and -ler, attributable to words where -er was attached to stems ending in -n or -l and then extended to give us new words such as Rentner 'pensioner' < Rente 'pension' and Sportler 'sportsman'.
رѸ츻ŵ٤⤦äƤ -ness ϶Ѳʬθ˸ n ޥĸμѲưܼ *-atjan ͳ褹 *-assus ʸθűѸ -essˤ³ΤǤ롥Ĥޤ n ϴΤΰäΤ줬 -ess Ȱβơ-ness ʤ뿷ǤȤ櫓
-nisɥĸ -nisȸ -inassus Τ褦ʿŪ㤬ޥ˳ǧ뤳Ȥ顤κʬϤβϥޥĸʳǵäƤȹͤ롥ޥ֤첻κۤˤĤƤԾܤǤ롥ѸǤߤƤѸǤ -nes(se) -nis(se) ʻ¸ƤѸʹߤԤͥȤʤä
ȶ -ness Ȥ1ĤȤäƤ⡤̣ˤƤΤ
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
̣δ顤餫ǰ̣ôäƤŪñ̤̣ (semantic constituent) ȸƤ֡㤨 the cat sat on the mat ˤơthe cat, sat, on the mat ϳợǤǤȤ롥on the mat ܤС on, the, mat ʬǤγơϰ̣ŪˤϤʾʬǤʤñ̤Ǥ뤿ᡤǾ̣ (minimal semantic constituent) Ȥ롥
Ǥϡcranberry, bilberry, raspberry, gooseberry ʤɤˤĤƤϤɤͤФ褤cf. #554. cranberry morpheme ([2010-11-02-1])#886. ǤˤޤĤ̻Ū ([2011-09-30-1])ˡ berry μؤδȾǤ cran-, bil-, rasp-, goose- 줾ڤФȻפ뤫⤷ʤ̣δ餳γợǤȲᤷƤ褤Τ
С̣ǤȤϲǤʤȤ櫓 cran-, bil-, rasp- Τʰ̣äƤʤ褦˴뤫줾ǤϡʤȤ cranberry, bilberry, raspberry Ȥñߤ˶̤ۤɤôäƤ롥ְ̣פȤˤʤ⤹뤬ŪʡפϳΤ˲̤Ƥ롥Τ褦Ǥ̣ (semantic tally) ȸƤǤgoose- ˤĤƤϤ켫Τǡ֥祦פΰ̣ñȤʤ뤬Ǥ¾ʿŪ˰̣ȲᤷƤʤȾ berry ̣Ƽ (semantic categoriser) ȸƤ֤Ȥˤ롥
̣ˤ cran-, bil-, rasp-, goose- Τ褦ʰ̣ (pure tally) ⤢СʬŪ˰̣ôäƤȲǤԽʰ̣ (impure tally) ⤢롥㤨 blackbird ʥɥˤϡɬ⤹٤ƤθΤȤϸ¤ʤʼºݡ㿧餷ˡȤפħȤʤäƤĻˤϰ㤤ʤθ¤ˤ black ʹˤΰ̣Ϥ٤ƤȤ롥ϰ̣ôʤֻפˤʤϤäỌ̇̄ɽФƤȤǡԽפȤ櫓Ǥ롥
blackbird ˤ black- Τ褦ˡ̣ǤȤϤʤΤβ餫ΰ̣ôäƤȹͤ롤ȾüʿǤ˥٥ŽäƤ̣ɸ (semantic indicator) ̾դƤblackbird ˤ black- ɸ (full indicator) ȤʤСgreenhouse -house ʬɸ (partial indicator) ȸƤ٤greenhouse ϡֲȡפ餷ΤǤϤ뤬ֲȡפΤΤǤϤʤȤạ̇̄ΤԽʬ˴뤫Ʊͤ disappoint, disgust, dismay dis- ʤɤ⡤̣ǤȤϤʤΤβ餫ΰ̣ôäƤȹͤΤạ̇̄ɸȤߤʤƤ褤⤷ʤ
Ǹˡ졦ָ (onomatopoeia) 䲻ħ (sound_symbolism) Τ褦ǤϡΤʰ̣äƤȤϤ̣ǤȤʤʤƤʤ鷺˰̣餷ΤôäƤȤȤ館Ω줫ϡꥮΰ̣Ūñ̤ȤߤʤơỤ̄Ƴм (phonetic elicitor) ۤɤǸƤǤȤǽ
ʾ塤Cruse (24--35) ȤợѸ⤷
Cruse, D. A. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1986.
ùܤμѤϤФ뤬ʸˡܤμѤϤޤǤ롥ΤȤϡ (borrowing) ܿ (contact) εǰŪǧƤ뤳ȤʸˡܤȤäƤ͡Ǥ롥㤨СŪѤϳΤ˵Τ褦ŪѤ˻礫ʤԤΤʤǤǤ϶Ǥùܤ˶ᤤ˼ѻ¿Ȥ롥ޤŪäǤ롥
ʸˡѤϤɤΤ褦ʾΤȤΤˤϤɤΤ褦ʸŪ¤ݤƤΤܿǤ⤿ӤƤǡܥ֥ǤϰʲεǸڤƤ
#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1])
#2113. ʸˡѤξ ([2015-02-08-1])
#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1])
#4410. ܿη̤˴ؤ礭ʸޡ ([2021-05-24-1])
Winford (93--96) ϡWeinreich, Heath, Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤԸȤʤ顤ּѤ˲ݤ¤Ȥ4Ƥ롥
Morphological constraint 1 (borrowing):
The greater the congruence between morphological structures across languages in contact, the greater the ease of borrowing.
. . . .
Morphological constraint 2 (borrowing):
The greater the degree of transparency of a morpheme, the greater the likelihood of its diffusion. By contrast, the more opaque (complex, bound, phonologically reduced) a morpheme is, the less likely it is to be borrowed.
. . . .
Morphological constraint 3 (borrowing):
The existence of gaps in the morphemic inventory of a recipient language facilitates the importation of new morphemes and functional categories from a source language.
. . . .
Morphological constraint 4 (borrowing):
The lack of a functional category in a source language may lead to loss of a similar category in a recipient language
ԸǤǤ˻ŦƤ4Ȥǡ̤Ϥ褯ʤäƤ롥2ˤޤС2֤ι¤Ūפȡָ naturalnessפ˹Ԥ夯
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Heath, Jeffrey. Linguistic Diffusion in Arnhem Land. Australian Aboriginal Studies: Research and Regional Studies 13. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1978.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ɸθ input ϡ츻ŪˤϡƬ in- + ư putפΤ褦ˤߤΤǡ츫Ȳ꤬ʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ޤimpact, imperfect, imperil, impersonal, important ʤɤֻפ⤫٤ƤߤСƬ in- ³Τ p ǻϤޤΤǤС̾Ƭ im- η뤳Ȥʬޤȡʤ input ˤĤƤϡ*imput ֤ʤΤȤ䤬ͯƤޤ¤Ǥͤİ
Ƭ in- ϡ츻Ūˤ2̤ɬפäΤǤ͡1ĤϰŪ¿ɤƥͳ in- ꡤ뤤ϡפΰաˤǡ⤦1ĤϾɤȤΩʤѸ in- ʡפΰաˤǤȯ⸫ǤۤȤƱǤ̣פ˴ؤƤнŤʤäƤޤΤǡդƤʤ٤ƤޤޤۤʤʪǤԤϴΤƬ˽ä im-, il-, ir- ʤɤȲΤ§ǤԤϷ褷Ʋޤinput ϾɤθԤ°Τǡin- ʬϷ褷Ʋ<in> + <put> Ȥ¤ľֻȤʤäƤΤǤ
ʤֳפ̣еƬͤƤߤȡƥ in- ˤ ex- бѸ in- ˤ out- бޤǡimport/export ϥƥͳΥڥinput/output ϱѸΥڥȤʬޤ͡
ˤĤơ⤦ܤΤꤿϡ#3309. ʤ input *imput ֤ʤΤ ([2018-05-19-1]) ɤߤ
ε#4042. anti- ϡ֥ƥפ֥פ --- Ѹ˷ǼĤǤμ ([2020-05-21-1]) ơƬ anti- ˤĤƤ⤦ä³
ǽ餤СƬ anti- ŵŪ˿ʷƻΤŪѤޤ̾줫ƻȤȤ˿ʷƻä (ex. anti-social, anti-clerical, anti-clockwise) ̤̾ƻˡ̾äꤷޤ (ex. anti-missile, anti-war) ֲ餤С嵭˵褦ˡƤθˤƬ anti- 켫Τ121ϴΤΤȤƤޤǡƬϴΤˤä֤ݻ뤿 "stress-neutral prefix" Ǥȸޤ
antimony, antinomy, antiphony ʤɤǤ, Ūˤ츻ŪˤΤƬ anti- ǧ뤳ȤǤޤ2첻 /ɪ/ˤ˶ȾʬˤޤĤޤꡤƬ϶֤˰ܼŪʰ̣ôȾʬåȤǡ"stress-shifting prefix" ȸޤʤߤ antibody Ƭ12ǤϤʤˤ˶Ƥꡤ㳰ŪȤޤ20Υɥĸ Antikörper (loan_translation) ȤͿƤ뤫⤷ޤˡȾʬΩȤΩƤʤ«ǡʤ뤤Ϣ (combining_form)ˤǤ뤳Ȥ¿Τ⤳ΥפħǤޤƬ anti- ޤޤƤϤΤΡʬŪˤϰռƤ餺ΤȤƸǧƤ봶ΤħǤȤƤ崶⤢ޤ
嵭Τ褦ˡanti- ϡ?˹롤ȿפ̣ƬȤƸ˹ѤƤޤΩñϸŪʴ2ĤΥ롼פʬ줽Ǥantibiotics antibody ϡƱ anti- ȤϤäƤ⡤ŪۤʤΤǤ
anti- еƬȤäƤ褤 pro- ѥ˹ͤ뤳ȤǤޤpro-communist, pro-American, pro-student ʤɤŪ˺ŵŪֻϥϥեդˤˤƤϡƬ켫Ȥ2ȼä /ˌprəʊ/ ȯ졤stress-neutral prefix ȤƵǽޤproceed, profession, provide ʤɤΤ褦˱ѸĹ餯Ʊ崶ΤˤƤϡƬϼ夯 /prə/ ȯ졤?¦Ρ̣ΡפȤ̣ʬϤƤ餺ΤȤ1ĤΩñ̤ȲᤵƤޤʰʾ塤Quirk et al. (1543) ȡˡ
ʸ嵭2020/05/22(Fri)antimony 2˶ȵޤºݤˤϤθ1˶ȤλŦޤ̤ǤΤǾ嵭Τ褦ޤޤ antíphony ȴϢ ántiphon Ǥ϶֤ѤȤŦ⤤ޤƬˤܤƤƤϲ褷ʤȤȤ褯ʬޤ꤬Ȥޤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
̻ŪݤȤƤɸνѸ췲ˤĤ⡤« (bound morpheme) ȼͳ (free morpheme) δ֤ιԤ˴ؤѸ졦ǰǤ롥 (111--12) Ѥ롥
̻ݤȤơ (agglutination) ȤϡΩ줬岽Ωä¾ǤղäܼˤʤؤȤСѸ friendly -ly εΩ̾ līc ΡΡפǤä
εդβ Jespersen (1922: 284) ʤġ(secretion) ǤꡤŪʬϤʤñ̤ʬ (metanalysis) η̡Ūϰ̤ơܼΤ褦Ǥ¤ƤѸǤϡ?ΥϥСפ̣ -burgerֽʹפ̣ -gate ʤɤǤβޤ졤줾 cheeseburger, baconburger Koreagate, Irangate ο줬Ƥ롥
դΤϡפȤѸ϶ˤơȤ櫓ʬˤơ̤γǰɽ魯Ȥʡ#522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1]) ȡˡ夲Τϡ̻ŪʸݡʸѲˤ˴ؤѤפǤ롥ȤƵƤ līc -ly ϡȤΩƤͳǤ«DzȤʤäǤ롥
СפפƱ«Dz1ͳǤǤϤʤȤȤʤ̣ͭñ̤ǤʤäΤǤħ롥˵Ƥ burger ϡȤ Hamburg + er Ǥ hamburger ʬ (metanalysis) ηָ̡äơڤФ줿Τ줬«ǤȤ夷ƤޤäǤ롥äȤ⡤burger hamburger û̷ȤƤѤΤǡ«Ǥ餵˿ʤǼͳDzȤƤ뤳ȤǤ (cf. hamburger)
Ǥ˴ط붦ŪѸ췲ˤĤƤϡ#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤Ρ ([2011-03-28-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿ޤȤƿ줿 -ly ˤĤƤϡ#40. -ly ([2009-06-07-1])#1032. -e ο -ly ȯãס#1036. ֻѷפ -ly ([2012-02-27-1]) ⻲ͤޤǤˡФ¾ȤƤϡ#97. ֥åס ([2009-08-02-1])#98. ֥åפ֥˥åפǤϤʤ֥åפڤФͳ ([2009-08-03-1])#105. ܸä֥å ([2009-08-10-1])#538. monokini trikini ([2010-10-17-1]) ʤɤȡ
ůȡ6ϡѲä ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ106--30ǡ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
Ƭ in- ϡ§ȤƸ³ΤɤΤ褦ʲǻϤޤ뤫ˤäơǥեȤ in- Ǥʤ, im b, m, p , il- l , ir- r , i- g ˤʤɤΰ۷֤Ȥ롥̣ȤƤϡƬ in- ˤϡפȡˡפ2Ĥ̤뤬۷֤ˤĤƤξȤƱͤ˿줾Сinactive, inconclusive, inspirit; imbalance, immature, immoral, imperil, implode, impossible; illegal, illicit, illogical; irreducible, irregular, irruptive; ignoble, ignominy, ignorant ʤɤǤ롥
in- λҲ³벻ˤäĴĴͼ㴳Ѱۤ븽ݤϡҲƱ (assimilation) Ȥ뤬ҲƱȤΤϡۤȤɤξ硤ѸΥƥʤեˤˤƤǤꡤѸäƤݤˤϡǤˤΤ褦ʰ۷֤ȤäƤȤΤ¤Ǥ롥षѸ¦Ω줫ϡμѸ夫ʬϤơƬ in- ڤФȤߤΤǤ롥äΤ褦ʬϤʤ夹ȡʹ in- ϤѸͭƬǤ뤫Τ褦˿Ф۷֤μ⥪ꥸʥΥƥʤɤƱͤ˵§ŪʤΤȤȤ館褦ˤʤä
ƥͳΡפȡˡפ̣Ƭ in- Ͼ嵭Τ褦˿դ٤ϱѸˤˡפ̣Ʊ֤ in ¸ߤ뤳Ȥֻ졦ȤƤαѸ in ƬȤѤˤϡ嵭ΥƥƬ in- Τ褦˰۷֤Ȥ뤳ȤϤʤĤޤꡤin- ѲǤ롥ɸñ input in- ϡȿи output out- ٤ʬȤꡤޤƬ in- Ǥ롥äơ*imput ȤϤʤʤʤʤߤ˥ƥ out- бΤ ex- Ǥˡδ in-between, in-place, inmate ʤɤƱͤǤ롥
ȯϼºݤΤȤҲƱƤ뤳Ȥ¿input ֤ƤƤ⡤/ˈɪnpʊt/ ˲ä /ˈɪmpʊt/ ԤʤƤ롥
(morphology) Ȥϡ (inflectional morphology) (derivational morphology) ʬΤǤ롥2ʬˡϡ#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1])#1761. Ȥʧֹ⤵פȡֹߡס ([2014-02-21-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡŪʤǤϤʤؤǤϹȤƤ롥
2ʬˡˤ˺ʬƤ椯ȤǤ뤬Bauer (33) ŪѸ췲ƳĤķʬ⤷ƤƤΤǡѤ褦ˤϡε#2652. ʣ̾ΰ̣Ūʬ ([2016-07-31-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ʬޤƤ롥
Morphology deals with the internal structure of word-forms. In morphology, the analyst divides word-forms into their component formatives (most of which are morphs realizing roots or affixes), and attempts to account for the occurrence of each formative. Morphology can be divided into two main branches, inflectional morphology and word-formation (also called lexical morphology). Inflectional morphology deals with the various forms of lexemes, while word-formation deals with the formation of new lexemes from given bases. Word-formation can, in turn, be subdivided into derivation and compounding (or composition). Derivation is concerned with the formation of new lexemes by affixation, compounding with the formation of new lexemes from two (or more) potential stems. Derivation is sometimes also subdivided into class-maintaining derivation and class-changing derivation. Class-maintaining derivation is the derivation of new lexemes which are of the same form class ('part of speech') as the base from which they are formed, whereas class-changing derivation produces lexemes which belong to different form classes from their bases. Compounding is usually subdivided according to the form class of the resultant compound: that is, into compound nouns, compound adjectives, etc. It may also be subdivided according to the semantic criteria . . . into exocentric, endocentric, appositional and dvandva compounds.
ʸϤƤʬΤפʽˤĤƿ褦Bauer (34) ѤƼˡ
[ The Basic Divisions of Morphology ]
INFLECTIONAL
(deals with forms CLASS-MAINTAINING
of individual lexemes)
MORPHOLOGY DERIVATION
(affixation)
CLASS-CHANGING
WORD-FORMATION
(deals with COMPOUND NOUNS
formation of
new lexemes) COMPOUNDING COMPOUND VERBS
(more than one
root) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
ε#2431. դμΩ˴ؤ Bolinger ε ([2015-12-23-1]) ǡBolinger λŪ (visual morpheme) ȤѸФˤȡΰˤϡ𤷤ʤľŪɽ㤬ȤBolinger (335--38) ϸѸˡֻȤơĤμʬƻҲ𤷤Ƥ롥¾䤤ʤ⤷褦
(1) Ʊָ (homonyms) 㤨С"Sea is an ocean and si is a tone, as you can readily see." ȤͷӤ˸褦Ǥʸ̮ΥҥȤͿƤ뤬3줬ñΤȯж̤ĤʤˤƤ3ԤΤ˶̤롥äơܤ˸Ƕ̤ǤȸƤǤ褤⤷ȤǤϡ"The big clock tolled (told) the hour." "The danger is safely passed (past)." Τ褦ˡñФλȤʬۤȤɰ̣ΰ㤤˷ӤĤʤ褦⤢롥
(2) ֻΰ̣ȯã (semantic evolution of spellings) ŪˤƱñֻۤʤ餻뤳Ȥˤꡤ̣ǽ㴳㤨륱롥let us let'sgood and good ʤɤǤ롥gray grey ǤϡԤ She has lovely gray eyes. ʤɤΤ褦˹ŪѤ뷹ΤФơԤ It was a grey, gloomy day. ʤɤΤ褦ŪѤȤ롥check/cheque, controller/comptroller, compliment/complement ʤɤȤȤ館뤫⤷ʤʤHall (17) ϡ (2) μֻ "semantic representation" ȸƤǤꡤʸإȤƤ fantasy ȸۤȤƤ phantasy ΰ㤤䡤Ye Olde Gifte Shoppe ʤɤˤ;Ū final_e θ̤ܤƤ (cf. #13. ѹΥѥ֤ ye äƤ椷 ([2009-05-11-2])#1428. ye = the ([2013-03-25-1])) (1) (2) ΰ㤤ϡԤ homonymy ǡԤ polysemy бȹͤФ褤
(3) (constellations) ֻĸ췲˶̣ͭĤȤֻỌ̇̄ӤĤ褦ʾ롥㤨Сټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) -or ϡadjustor, auditor, chancellor, editor, mortgagor, sailor, settlor, tailor ʤɤ˼褦ˡ-er ٤ҿι⤵ްդ褦Ǥ (see #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])) ޤ -y -ie ǤϡԤΤۤؾ (diminutive) ȤƤʤ褦˴롥Τ褦ʻ㤫顤ˤ phonaesthesia νǤȤ "graphaesthesia" ʤѸäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
(4) Ūʳݻ (visual paronomasia) ŪϸȤơ˰Ƥ City Haul ǤȤտŪʸֻȤƸŤᤫ The Compleat Military Expert ʤɡֳ±ʣ <z> ([2011-07-05-1]) #825. "pronunciation spelling" ([2011-07-31-1]) ⻲ȡ
(5) ֻǤϤʤ (punctuation) ѤΤ⤢롥the dog's masters the dogs' masters ϸߤ˰ۤʤ̣ɽ魯the longest undiscovered vein the longest-undiscovered vein ۤʤ롥#1772. greengrocer's apostrophe ([2014-03-04-1]) ⡤μ˿
ʾ "visual morpheme" ϡˤΤͿƤ뵡ǽǤ롥
Bolinger. "Visual Morphemes." Language 22 (1946): 333--40.
Hall, Robert A., Jr. "A Theory of Graphemics." Acta Linguistica 8 (1960): 13--20.
դμΩˤĤơľŪˤϡ#2339. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (1) ([2015-09-22-1]) Ȥĥäε#2340. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (2) ([2015-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤϡդäդȤ (medium) 齽ʬΩƤȤȤˤĤơBolinger (333) λŪ (visual morpheme) ˴ؤʸΰѤ̤ơĥ
The fact that most writing is the graphic representation of vocal-auditory processes tends to obscure the fact that writing can exist as a series of morphemes at its own level, independent of or interacting with the more fundamental (or at least more primitive) vocal-auditory morphemes. Recognition of visual morphemes is also hampered by the controversy, not yet subsided, over the primacy of the spoken versus the written; the victory of those who sensibly insist upon language as fundamentally a vocal-auditory process has been so hard won that any concession to writing savors of retreat. Yet, so long as a point-to-point correspondence is maintained, it is theoretically possible to transform any series of morphemes from any sensory field into any other sensory field, and keep them comprehensible; the only condition is that contact with the nervous system be maintained at some point. More than theoretically: it is actually done for the congenitally deaf-and-dumb reader of Braille, who 'reads' and 'comprehends' with his finger-tips. Just as here is a system of tactile morphemes existing with no connexion (other than historical) with the vocal-auditory field, so there is nothing unscientific in the assumption that a similarly independent visual series may be found.
Ȥ櫓 "the victory of those who sensibly insist upon language as fundamentally a vocal-auditory process has been so hard won that any concession to writing savors of retreat" ȽҤ٤ƤȤϡȤ⤦ޤְ̤Ǥϡդϡΰҿ修椨ˡäդ̤˰֤Ť뤳Ȥ¿ؤǤϡΰ̤θФơषδܤϲǤȤĥʤƤΤǤꡤη̡ؼԤˤȤäƤääդͥθ⤬ǥߥåǤϳΩƤȤְ̤ȸؼԤιͤΤ褦˱ԤΩƤȤˡޤ˸ؼԥθ¤줿ǤϤ뤬դμΩȤ̣Ǥְ̤ǰߴ뤫Τ褦ʸƤȤΤ顤ä
٤餯äդȽդʤɤˤȤäƤΤʤ褦ˡΤޤޤɾؼԤˤؼԤˤ٤ȹͤ롥سθȤƤϡޤդΰǤ롥
Bolinger ʸηϰʲ̤Ǥ (340) ɴ̣
1. Visual morphemes exist at their own level, independently of vocal-auditory morphemes. Even a perfect phonemic transcription would, if used for communication, immediately become a system of visual morphemes. In modern English, education has made the visual system part of the public domain, so that it exhibits some evolutionary tendencies unsecured to vocal-auditory morphemes.
2. In the implicit reactions of literate people, eye movements combine with other implicit movements. There is as good reason to posit eye movements as the physiological correlate of 'thinking' and 'understanding' as there is to posit laryngeal movements as such a correlate.
3. In view of the close integration of the 'language organization', it is probably necessary to revise the dictum that 'language must always be studied without reference to writing'. This in no way detracts from the value of that dictum as applied to all languages at some stage of their development and to largely literate speech communities today; it is merely a recognition of a shift that has taken place in the communicative behavior of some highly literate societies.
4. If it is true that the residue of language after the vocal-auditory is subtracted has provided a redoubt from which attacks could be made on linguistic science, then an appreciation of visual morphemes by both parties to the controversy may prove a step in the direction of reconciliation.
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Visual Morphemes." Language 22 (1946): 333--40.
#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ˤ -er -or ˤĤơξԤϤȤ˹ټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ȸƤФ빴«Ǥ̣֡ʬۤʤɤ˴ؤơߤˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤϡŪʻȤϸѸζŪʻ顤ξԤΰƱ
Carney (426--27), Huddleston and Pullum (1698) (170--73)ĤʤɡĤλʸäƤߤȤȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥
| -er | -or | |
|---|---|---|
| ¿ | Ūʤ | |
| Ū | Ū | |
| ܼ饹 | Class II | Class I |
| ³Τθ츻 | Romance Ϥ˸¤ʤ | Romance Ϥ˸¤ |
| ³Τμͳ | ͳ˸¤ | ͳ˸¤ʤ |
| ư | ʤ | |
| Τؤζ | ʤ | |
| ʤղ | ʤ | Class I դ |
| Ending | Word types | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -ator | 291 | indicator, navigator |
| -ctor | 63 | contractor, predictor |
| -itor | 29 | inheritor, depositor |
| -utor | 16 | contributor, prosecutor |
| -essor | 15 | successor, professor |
| -ntor | 14 | grantor, inventor |
| -stor | 12 | investor, assistor |
-st θź (paragoge) ˤĤƤϡε#1573. amidst -st ([2013-08-17-1]) ޤᡤ##508,509,510,739,1389,1393,1394,1399,1554,1555,1573 γƵǰäƤήǡ amongst ˤĤơ
OED ˤȡź÷15˵äƤꡤƤȤƤ amongest ֻ16Ƭ "1509 Bp. J. Fisher Wks. (1876) 296 Yf ony faccyons or bendes were made secretely amongest her hede Officers." ǤŤľܤΥǥȤʤäȹͤ amonges Τ褦ʷ֤ϤǤѸǹѤƤMED among(es (prep.) ȡˡapheresis ʸƬüˤФ 'mongst 16ȾФ鸽Ƥ롥
(69) ˤСamong amongst Τ˰̣ΰ㤤Ϥʤ٤101Ǥ롥ꥹѸǤϥꥫѸ amongst λ٤⤤첻ǤϹĴ (euphony) amongst Ѥ뷹ȤŦ⤢뤬BNC ѤĴǤϤΤ褦ʷ̤ϽФʤäȤƤ롥λŦŪʤΤϡ#1554. against -st ([2013-07-29-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ-st źäϸ³괧θƬҲȤη˵ȤȤδϢˤƤǤ롥⤷ amongst + 첻ηȤСǤϤ뤬Ʊ euphony 뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ơܥ֥ǤϤޤ -st θźäˤĤ against, amidst, amongst, betwixt, unbeknownst, whilst 6ˤĤƤߤƤOED 츻ŵлξƤߤ褦
| against | c1300 |
| betwixt | c1300 |
| whilst | a1400 |
| amongst | C15 |
| amidst | C15 |
| unbeknownst | 1854 |
lexeme ʸǡˤϤΥ֥Ǥ⤿ޤ˽ФƤѸΤ褦Ȥ#22. ǥȱѸˡ ([2009-05-20-1]) ǤƤϡФȤޤǤϤʤĤαѸؼŵȤơɤΤ褦ʸñ̤Ǥ뤫lexeme ˤϤĤΥץ롥
(1) morpheme ʷǡˤ word ʸˤӤñ̤Ȥơmorpheme ϡ#886. ǤˤޤĤ̻Ū ([2011-09-30-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǤϤʤBloomfield θŵŪˤ "a linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to any other form" (Section 10.2) Ǥ롥word ϡ##910,911,912,921,922 Ǽ夲褦ˡ̣ͭŪñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥˤϰ㤤ʤlexeme Ʊͤ˷ñ̤Ǥ롥ηˤϰ̣տ路Ƥ뤬lexeme ϤޤǤηỌ̇̄ͻΤǤ뵭ΤηʬؤǤϡmorpheme, word, lexeme Τΰ㤤ϤɤˤΤ㤨Сunderstand 12Ĥη under- -stand Ȥ롥θΰ̣2ĤηǤΰ̣¤ˤϤʤäƤ餺̣ΤȤ1ĤβȸʤʤǤϡñ̤Ọ̇̄ñ̤Ȥ줤бƤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Ʊͤˡput up with Ȥǥϡ3Ǥ3줫äƤ뤬̣ñ̤ȤƤϤϤ1ĤβǤ롥Ǥ⡤ñ̤Ọ̇̄ñ̤ȤäƤ롥ǡunderstand put up with ʬǤʤ1Ĥΰ̣ĤΤ顤Ūˤб1Ĥñ̤ꤹΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥줬 lexeme Ǥ롥 UNDERSTAND PUT UP WITH ϡ줾1Ĥ lexeme ȤƻȤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤälexeme ʸɽΤˡ
(2) 1ĤθΤߤ°Ȥơwater ˤ̾ư줬롥ĤޤꡤƱǤϤ뤬ۤʤ2Ĥθ°Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥̾ȤƤ water ưȤƤ water ̰뤳ȤǤ褦ˡword Ȥϰۤʤ lexeme Ȥñ̤ΩƤǤ롥ñ water ʣ waters ̾ lexeme ȤƤ WATER μ¸Ǥꡤ waterñ waters watered-ing watering ʤɤư lexeme ȤƤ WATER μ¸Ǥ롥
(3) ¸ۤʤޤȤᤢ뤿ɽȤơgo, goes, went, going, going Ϥ줾֤ۤʤ뤬ˤ lexeme GO Ǥ롥δ lexeme ϡheadword, citation form, lemma ʤɤȸƤؤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥
ľŪˤСˤơФ뤤ɤ߸ФȤϿƤꡤ̣ͿƤȻפ褦ʷñ̤ȤäƤФ褵̩ؼԡʳɡˤˤä͡ƤȤǤϡmorpheme, word, lexeme Τ褦ʸñ̤ɽ魯ѸΰǤ롥ʤlexeme Ȥñ̤ռԻ줿ŪʳؽѱѱѼȤơCambridge International Dictionary of English (1995) Ƥ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
Ѹʣηݤ˼갷פη ( morpheme ) 롥 combining form ϢפȸƤФƤΤǡCarstairs-McCarthy ˤȼΤ褦Ť롥
bound morpheme, more root-like than affix-like, usually of Greek or Latin origin, that occurs only in compounds, usually with other combining forms. Examples are poly- and -gamy in polygamy. (142)
ʣ combining form ʤʣϲʳѸʤɤѸ줬ŪǤ롥Ф꤬ʤex. anthropology, sociology, cardiogram, electrocardiogram, retrograde, retrospect, plantigrade
combining form äʤΤϡĤװˤ롥
(1) ̾« ( bound morpheme ) ܼȤƵǽͳ ( free morpheme ) ϸ캬ȤƵǽ롥combining form Ϲ«ǤǤʤ캬Ū˵ǽΤʬ尷ˤ
(2) ŪʻܻؤˤȤäơŵͳ褹ȤäŪ˿줶ʤǡcombining form ΰ֤Ť
(3) 㤨 anthropology anthrop- -logy combining form ʤ뤬֤ˤϤޤäƤϢ첻 -o- Τˤɤ°ȤϤ
(4) ̾ʣ̾Ǥ1Ǥ˶֤뤬combining form ޤʣ̾Ǥɬ⤽Ȥϸ¤ʤanthropology ǤϡϢ첻 -o ˶롥¾ monogamy, philosophy, aristocracy Ʊ͡
嵭 combining form νħָѸηˤͤޤ줿 Greco-Latin ѤפȸƤӤѸ줬ƥ졤ꥷ졤ƥե줫̤μѸƤƤˤˤĤƤϤΥ֥Ǥ⤤ʷǿƤϢΩäȤƤ [2010-08-18-1], [2010-05-24-1], [2009-11-14-1], [2009-08-25-1], [2009-08-19-1] դȤ줿
Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2002.
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow