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vowel - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2026-04-11 Sat

#6193. Ť l θ [l][consonant][phonetics][pronunciation][vowel][rp][etymological_respelling]

Ϣ /l/ ˤĤˤƤ롥RP Ǥ /l/ ΰ۲1ġְŤ [ɫ]פϡѸ˾塤Ԥ첻ФƼ˼ŪʱƶͿ³ƤޤΤ褦첻˱ƶͿˡ [ɫ] 첻ƾäƤȤʤäˤϸ RP Estuary English Ǥ¿쾯ʤƤǤ⤢롥Cruttenden (203) ꡤŤ [ɫ] 첻ؤαƶȡ켫Ȥ첻üˤĤƤβսѤ롥

The velarization of [ɫ] often has the effect of retracting and lowering slightly the articulation of a preceding front vowel, e.g. feel, fill, fell, canal; in the case of /iː/+[ɫ], a central glide between the vowel and [ɫ] is often noticeable, and the [ɪ] element of [eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ] tends to be obscured, e.g. in pail, pile, oil. /uː/ before [ɫ] tends to be more monophthongal and nearer to C[u].


Variations in the quality of the back vowel resonance associated with [ɫ] are, however, to be found among RP


Ϣϡ#2027. 󥰥ɤdzȤ miuk ȯ ([2014-11-14-1]) Ǥ⿨줿ޤ#3947. Ҳˤ l æ ([2020-02-16-1]) Ȥ碌ơl ϼϤβˤƶͿ뤷ʬȤü䤹ȤħǡѸ˾βѲΥץ졼䡼ȤäƤ褤ΤǤ롥

Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 6th ed. New York: OUP, 2001.

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2026-03-25 Wed

#6176. űѸηƻ졦ӵ顦ǾˤĤ Campbell [adjective][adverb][comparison][superlative][oe][suffix][oe_dialect][germanic][sound_change][vowel]

ΤȤŪĴ٤Ƥƻ졦ӵ顦ǾεȯãˤĤơűѸʸˡ路 Campbell ꡤϢ뵭Ҥ˺ϿŪ˻ĤƤ

1. ƻκǾΰ۷ȤȯãʲѲ (§331.6; p. 139)

superlatives in -ōst- had -ūst- before u, as d.p. -ūstumiz, and hence OE has -ost < -ūst, beside -ast < -ōst (§355.4) . . . .


2. ƻκǾΰ۷ʬ (§657; pp. 272--73)

The superlative normally ends in -ost < -ust (§355.4), more rarely in -ast (§331.6), and may be declined both strong and weak. The formative element is often changed to -est by vowel harmony, especially in cases with -ost- (§385). In eW-S -ost-, -ast-, and the more archaic -ust- are used occasionally, but in all texts -est- prevails heavily. In lw-S and lNorth. -ost prevails (lNorth. also -ust-). In VP and Ru.1 it is not possible to determine if -ost- or -ast- originally prevailed in the dialects, in VP because all the forms have est- by harmony, in Ru.1 owing to entire absence of material. eKt. has -ast. KG has extended -est- to the uninflected form.


3. ƻӵ顦Ǿε (§660; p. 277)

§660. Origin of forms. The comparative and superlative suffixes which caused mutation were Gmc. -izan-, -ista-, and these were regularly developed in OE, apart from the W-S syncopation in superlatives. The non-mutating suffixes were Gmc. -ōzan-, -ōsta-. The latter develops regularly to OE -ust, -ost, -ast (§331.6). The development of -ōzan- in OE is very difficult, as the invariable syncope of an originally long medial syllable has no parallel. It is a peculiarly OE development, even OFris. having -er-, a normal development of -ōz-, corresponding to OS, OHG -or-, ON -ar-, Goth. -ōz-. The OE form is presumably due to the influence of the comparatives in -iz-, in which syncope is normal. This suffix -iz- may have been used in Prim. OE, as in OHG, not only with the few a-, ō-stems with mutated comparatives, but with most i;̯a-, i;̯ō-stems, e.g. OE swētra is not from *su;̯ōtiōz- but *su;̯ōtiz-, cf. OHG suozziro. It would also probably be used with i-stem adjs. so far as these survived. Hence -r- < -iz- would be a very frequent comparative suffix, and might replace the form derived from -ōz- in the other adjectival classes.


4. ӵ顦Ǿε (§670; p. 277)

§670. Comparison of adverbs. Adjectival advs. have normally compar. -or, superl. -ost, e.g.:

     hearde, severely heardor heardost
     ġearwe, readily ġearwor ġearwost

-or also appears as -ur and -ar; -ost can appear as -ust, -ast (as in the superl. adj.). In origin -ost is merely the acc. sg. neut. of the superl. adjectival suffix. Compar. -or, -ur, -ar points to Gmc. -ōz, corresponding to Goth. -os. The final r (< z) should be lost in West Gmc., but is restored by analogy of the compar. adj.


Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.

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2026-03-17 Tue

#6168. ֲžפ򤷤ޤ [word_play][metathesis][consonant][vowel][r][etymology][notice][hel_ogiri]


hel_ogiri_metathesis.png



354Ѹ (hel_ogiri) XdzŤޤϡž (metathesis) 󤻤ƤȤǤ¤Ӥ2Ĥβְ㤤η̤Ҥä֤äƤޤäΤΡ¤ӤɸŪˤʤäƤޤäȤֱФפΤ褦ʻǤְ㤤Ȥʹ֤򤱤ˤäƿʸޤƤޤȤΤϡͶΤΤѲΤʤǤ͵ΤȥԥåǤ
Ȥä㡤ꤤ㤬󤬤äƤ뤫ȤСñʤǤ⤢ޤŵŪǶʽŪϤĤ󤬤äƤޤθ夬³ʤΤǤ˻äΤǤ³򴶤ޤ¿λüԤ⤬ʤõץ饤ѥݥȤ̤Ƥ򥷥Ƥäǡ⤷Τ³ȴ󤻤ƤޤʲˡޤȤƤȻפޤ

aks/ask
beorht bright
brand/burn
brid bird
cocodrile crocodile
fersc fresh
forst frost (cf. freeze)
gærs grass
hros horse
iern(an), yrn(an) run
mansk Manx
nutrition, nutriment/nurture
patron pattern
purpose/propose
tax/task
three/third
thirl thrill
þurh through
wæps wasp
wal (whale) + ros (horse)
worht(e) wrought (cf. work)

crocodile ˴ؤƤϡ#5999. crocodile αѸ --- إåץ꡼Ѹ츻ŵ٤ΰճƶ ([2025-09-29-1]) 򻲾ȤƤ
ʤǽ˴󤻤줿Ƥϡ~ߤ󤵤ˤʲʣʻǤ

lamella (ƥ)

la lemelle (ե󥹸)
ʬ
l'alemelle
(ؾ)θ
l'alemette
ž
l'amelette
첻Ѳ
l'omelette

omelette (Ѹ)


ܵƱݤǡ314 heldio ˤ#1749. ž --- 󽸤ޤäƤޤϤޤΤǡҤ⤪İС


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2026-03-13 Fri

#6164. -ought -aught ȯ [gh][spelling][pronunciation][vowel][orthography][onomastics][spelling_pronunciation_gap]

ε#6163. ȯteach ˡ§ --- a ޤޤưԵ§ -ought ǤϤʤ -aught Ȥʤ ([2026-03-12-1]) ˤĤơ塤Ѹֻˤδ鿼ꤷƤȹͤƤ뤬Ϥˡưβ˸¤餺<ough(t)> <augh(t)> ֻˤĤơȯбȤȤ˸Ƥ
ޤ<ought> ˤĤ Carney (345--46) ꡥ

O.15 <ought>/ɔː/ | <t>
Examples: bought, brought, fought, nought, ought, sought, thought, wrought.
  Exceptions with /aʊ/ --- doughty, drought. Names such as Boughton, Broughton, Houghton, Oughton, Oughtred, Stoughton have /ɔː/ --- /aʊ/ variation and occasionally /u;ː/ or /əʊ/. Some are only given with one variant by EPD --- Loughton /aʊ/, Moughton /əʊ/, but with the pronunciation of a name one can never be fully certain.


³ Carney (285) ꡤ<augh(t)> ˤĤɤǤߤ褦

A.9 <augh>/ɔː/
Examples: aught, caught, daughter, distraught, fraught, haughty, naught, naughty, slaught, slaughter, taught; Baugh, Bradlaugh, Connaught, Haughtn, Laughton, McNaught, Shaughnessy, Waugh. The names Baughan, Maugham, Vaughan are single syllables (/bɔːn/, etc.). This correspondence is one straightforward part of the name Featherstonehaugh, pronounced /ˈfænʃɔː/.
  Exceptions: with /ɑːf/ (AmE /æf/) in draught, laugh and derived forms.
  Efficiency: in words 89 per cent; in names 77 per cent; a marginal rule with very strong bias toward high TF words and strong bias towards shorter words.


ñ֤餫ѤƯƤȵ졤ֻȯδطεҤϰǤϤʤ̸Τߤʤ餺̾ˤ褯Ƥ뤳Ȥˤդ

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.

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2026-03-12 Thu

#6163. ȯteach ˡ§ --- a ޤޤưԵ§ -ought ǤϤʤ -aught Ȥʤ [gh][verb][spelling][pronunciation][vowel][orthography][voicy][heldio][hel_education][gradation][i-mutation][analogy][spelling_pronunciation_gap]



37 heldio ˤ #1742. ۵ --- teach/taught ˴ؤŷŪŦᤰäơۿޤѸ춵˷Ȥ4Ԥˤ̲Ǥ
夲ϡѸ˸ȤˤȤäƤ礭ʾ׷ǤȯüϡعDZѸ򶵤ƤΥ饹Ρ̤ˤȯǤ
Ѹؽˤơ -ought Ե§ѲưϳؽԤǺߤμǤthink --- thoughtbuy --- bought, bring --- brought, fight -- fought ʤɡ¿ o ޤֻȤʤޤteach --- taught catch --- caught Τ褦ˡa ޤ -aught ֻˤʤΤ⤢ޤۤȤɤαѸؽԤϡ֤ΤפȤƴݰŵƤȤǤ礦ޤ̤4ԤƱͤǤ
ȤϥΡȤǡμݤζä٤Ŧ򤷤ΤǤ teach a ޤޤƤ뤫顤 taught o ǤϤʤ a ˤʤΤǤϤʤȡ
λŦðŪʤΤϡñʤϤ碌䵭ѤμĶơѸֻ˸˻񤹤ǽˤޤѸˤδ餳 -aught ƸƤƤߤȡä٤¤⤭Ħˤʤޤtaught caught ʤɤθ¸ưǤʤˤβǵ§Ƥư򷡤굯ƤߤȡΡteach ˡ§פƤϤޤ㤬ĤĤΤǤ
ȤСߤϵ§ѲưȤʤäƤ reach ǤĤƤԵ§Ѳ raught Ȥ֤äƤޤ⸶ a ޤߡ -aught Ǥޤlatch ˤ⤫Ĥ laught Ȥ¸ߤޤ
ˡreck ȤưФƤ raught Ȥޤ a ޤޤƤޤ󤬡e a Ʊ첻ǤϤޤˡ§򾯤ơָ ae ޤޤưԵ§ -ought ǤϤʤ -aught ȤʤפȤл­ޤ
ŪˤߤСֻκϡĸ첻 (gradation) 䡤ޥΥ饦 (i-mutation)θ (analogy) ʣ߹ä̤ȹͤޤμ⤿ʤʴѻˤäƤΡˡ§פ򸫽ФȤϡƶä٤ȤǤ
ζ۵̤ǤϡλŦ˿ѸֻȤˤο¤ʹӤƤǽ뤫ޤޤǡͤΤۤ˶ʳ礭ʥͥ륮뤳ȤǤޤ
Ѹ˸ԤȤơĹǯȻפǸᤴƤ­ˡۤɤޤǤ䤫ˡ§ƤȤ˲Фޤʾˡĥեåʻº˵դ졤˲Ǥ餢ޤteach ˡ§פŪ΢դˤĤƤϡ夵ʤĴɬפǤƥ󥰤ʻߤˤʤȻפޤ
ѸؽԤγ󡤿ȶʱѸΡ֤ʤפñʤŵǺѤޤʬʤβΩƤƴѻƤߤƤˤϡȤäˡ§Ƥ뤫⤷ޤ
ʳ̤ƤϡҾ嵭 Voicy 󥯤ꤪİ

Referrer (Inside): [2026-03-13-1]

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2026-02-25 Wed

#6148. ĸ s-mobile [indo-european][morphology][reconstruction][gradation][vowel][consonant][etymology]

رѸ츻ŵ٤δˤְ캬ɽפįƤȡs ǻϤޤ캬ˤơƬ s ̤ɽƤΤʤʤ(s)ker-, (s)mer-, (s)pen-, (s)preg-, (s)teg- ʤɤΥȥդ򼨺 (s)- ϰĸκƷˤ񤷤褷Ƥ롥*(s)teg- "cover" ˡLass (118--19) ˲⤷Ƥ餪

   As we saw in teg-ō vs. stég-os, etc. . . . , certain roots appear to have 'optional' initial /s/; or perhaps better, to occur in two forms, one with and one without */s/, hence the conventional description of this phenomenon as 'mobile s'. The root 'cover' then might be represented as */(s)teg-/, or */steg-, teg/. . . .
   . . . .
   Awareness of s-mobile suggests an interesting perambulation through the lexicon of a language like English, given its enormous propensity for borrowing. The root */(s)teg-/ (in its various ablaut grades) appears in English in at least nine lexemes, both native and borrowed. Thatch of course we have already seen, and tile < tīgele < L tēg-ula. We also have borrowed L toga, and from this via French togs, a clipping of tog(e)mans 'cloak'. Still on the s-less alternant, there are various derivatives of L teg-ō and its forms, like in-teg-ument, pr-tec-t 'provide shelter for', de-tec-t 'un-cover'. The s-root is not well represented in English, but from (neo-)Greek we have the dinosaur steg-o-saurus 'roofed or covered lizard', and the rare sixteenth-century coinage steg-ano-graphy 'secret or cryptic writing'.


s-mobile ϡĸ첻 (gradation or ablaut) λҲǤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ첻ǤۤηŪǤʤ⻶ȯŪǤ롥

߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2026-02-15 Sun

#6138. Rome 첻ŪѲ [latin][french][italian][pronunciation][vowel][mond]

#6128. 1 mond 10䤤˲ޤ ([2026-02-05-1]) ΥꥹȤǿ줿μͭץåȥե mond ˤƼμ򤤤

Ѹ Rome o 첻 [ou] äƤޤűѸĹ첻oϸ [u:] ˤʤϤʤΤǡθϸűѸ줫ȯ줿ΤǤϤʤѸʹߤκ٤μѸʤΤǤ礦

ɤߤʬȤꡤʤʤä𤬤롥β뤿˼դĴ١ĤƤΤǡ򤳤˻ĤƤ
ޤ Rome ȯ /rəʊm || roʊm/ LPD3 Ǥ "Formerly also /ruːm/" ȤäޤOED ˤȡΤ褦ˤä

This pronunciation [= /ruːm/] survived in regional speech into the 20th cent. (compare quots. 1873, 1909 at sense 2a; Sc. National Dict. (at Room) records the pronunciation /rum/ as still in use in Banffshire in 1968). It shows the regular reflex of Middle English long close ō, in turn reflecting Old English ō. By contrast, the modern standard pronunciation was influenced by the pronunciation of the Latin and Italian forms of the place name.


ơǤϤۤʹʤ /ruːm/ ϡĤѤƤΤWalker μ1827ǯǤǤϡθȯ /ruːm/ ȤƼĤġεҤͿƤ롥

The o in this word is irrevocably fixed in the English sound of that letter in move, prove, &c. Pope, indeed, rhymes it with dome,
"Thus when we view some well-proprition'd dome,
"The word's just wonder, and ev'n thine, O Rome!"
But, as Mr. Nares observes, it is most probable that he pronounced this word as if written doom, as he rhymes Rome with doom afterwards in the same poem.
"From the same foes at last both felt their doom;
"And the same age saw learning fall and Rome."
                              Essay on Criticism, v. 685.
The truth is, nothing certain can be concluded from the rhyming of poets. It may serve to confirm an established usage, but can never direct us where usage is various and uncertain. But the pun which Shakespeare puts into the mouth of Cassius in Julius Cæsar decidedly shows what was the pronunciation of this word in his time:
  "Now it is Rome, indeed, and rom enough,
  "When there is in it but one only man."
And the Grammar in Queen Anne's time, recommended by Steele, says the city Rome is pronounced like Room; and Dr. Jones, in his Spelling Dictionary, 1704, gives it the same sound.


Dobson μƤڵȡ˴Ť̯ (Vol. 2, §154)

A special case of this variation is Rome, from OE Rōm reinforced by OF Rome. In this word [u:] is normal in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as in Bullokar, Robinson (see further below), Willis, Price (contrast his 'homophone' list; see below), Poole, Lye (following Price), WSC-RS, Brown's 'phonetically spelt' list, and the 'homophone' lists from Butler's onwards, including those of Hodges, Coles's Schoolmaster, and Cooper (which are the best), but with two exceptions (see below). The word has [o:] only in Hart, Price's 'homophone' list (paired with roam; contrast his text, which gives [u:]), and Coles's least selective list, that of the Engl.-Lati. Dict. Cooper in 'editing' the material of earlier 'homophone' lists removes the pairing of Rome with roam to a list of words which are pronounced 'differently' (and not even 'near alike'). Robinson, though he gives [u:] in transcribing Rome in an English text, gives [o:] in Romam in his Latin poem; this important evidence shows that the usual view, that the [o] pronunciation (whence PresE [ou]) in Rome is due to French or Italian influence, is inexact; it is more immediately derived from the English pronunciation of Latin, in which [o] in Roma may show ME substitution of ǭ for ō even in the neighbourhood of a labial, but is more likely to be due to the 'reformed pronunciation', which was based to some extent on foreign models.


mond βǤҤ٤ȤꡤDobson Τ 'reformed pronunciation' ʲȯˤؤΤϻˤʬʤΤǡŬڤɾ뤳ȤǤʤ̾Ի̾ᤰȯˤĤơΤ褦Ǯ蘆Ƥ뤳ȤΤ뤳ȤǤ

Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
Walker, John. Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language. London: 1827.
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

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2026-01-31 Sat

#6123. salmon 1첻 [vowel][spelling_pronunciation_gap][l][silent_letter][mond]

ε#6118. salmon l ϤʤȯʤΤǤ --- mond μ ([2026-01-26-1]) ǡsalmon ȯֻδطˤĤƼ夲ñϱξѼȤ /ˈsæmən/ ȯ졤l ۻȤʤΤ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤Ĥ줿첻 /æ/ Ǥ뤳ȤԻ׵ĤǤ롥
Carney (249) ˤȡ#5924. could <l> ȯ줿 --- Carney ˤߤŪʡ׸ ([2025-07-16-1]) ǰѤ1θˡΤ褦³

The string <al> is found as a spelling of /ɑː/ (half, calm, etc.) and of /ɔː/ (talk, walk, etc.) in some very common words. It is also a nonce spelling of /æ/ in salmon. The <l> in palm can only be considered an inert representation of /l/ (as both 'part of hand' and 'tree'): cf. palmary, palmic, palmiferous.


Ѥ˵󤲤Ƥ half 䤽¾ calf ʤɤ⡤ƲȤƤ /hæf/, /kæf/ Ȥʤ salmon ʿŪѲȤƤ /hɑːf/, /kɑːf/ Ȥʤ롥salmon ϱƤȤ /æ/ 򼨤ǥˡȤȤˤʤ롥
salmon /æ/ ͳˤĤƤϵꡤѸû첻 ă ȯȹͤľʤΤĹ첻 [a:] βǽⴰˤǤʤ褦MED θФǤϡº sāmŏun 1ֻȤƷǤƤ롥Dobson (Vol. 2, §62) ˼Τ褦ˤ롥

Salmon (ME sa(w)mon, &c.), which retains [æ] in PresE, has ME ă in Coles (who gives the 'phonetic spelling' sam-mun) followed by Young; so probably Strong, whose spelling is samon (but this may perhaps mean ME ā). It is not clear what Cooper's pronunciation was; he includes the word in a list of those which have silent l and fails to mark it with a dagger (thereby showing that it has not got [ɒ:] < ME au), but it is not certain that it has ME ă (as is probable) rather than [a:] < ME au (which is the probable pronunciation of the other words which are left unmarked). WSC-RS includes salmon in a list of words in which al is pronounced au, but this list is merely an unintelligent copy of Cooper's and it is doubtful whether we should assume from it that salmon had [ɒ:].


Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

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2025-11-07 Fri

#6038. New Zealand English ˤ2ȯ known, thrown, grown [new_zealand_english][vowel][syllable][pronunciation][sound_change][oe]

ε#6307. New Zealand English ˤ봧μ¸ ([2025-11-06-1]) ³New Zealand English ʹħȯˤĤƼ夲롥Bauer (391) ˼Τ褦˵Ҥ롥

There is a small set of words such as known, thrown, which are regularly pronounced with two syllables, allowing distinctions between such pairs as groan/grown.


LPD äƤߤȡ줾ɸŪñȯμˡ§/ˈnəʊ ən/, §/ˈθrəʊ ən/, §/ˈgrəʊ ən/ 2ȯǺܤƤ롤LPD ˤ § ˤĤƤϡ"Pronunciations which are widespread among educated speakers of British English but which are not, however, considered to belong to RP (Received Pronunciation) are marked with the symbol §." (xix) ȤΤǡꥹѸǤRPȯȤƤϹʹΤΤ褦
2ȯ˻פ鷺ӹäƤޤΤϡ줬餯űѸŪȯͳѤǤ뤫űѸǤϾ嵭ưϤ⶯Ѳ7°ʬϤ줾 knāwen, þrōwen, grōwen Ȥʤ롥MED ѸθΤȡ2ܤ첻򼨺첻ĤäƤΤ⤢СĤäƤʤΤ⤢롥ʤȤѸʹߡñȯ2ȯ variants ȤƤԤʤƤȤʬ롥
űѸ줫1ǯλ֤ή졤΢¦ϤäƤ븽 NZE ˤơħŪ2ȯĤäƤȤΤϴ

Bauer L. "English in New Zealand." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5. Ed. Burchfield R. Cambridge: CUP, 1994. 382--429.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

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2025-11-06 Thu

#6037. New Zealand English ˤ봧μ¸ [new_zealand_english][article][glottal_stop][consonant][vowel][phonetics][allomorph][phonetics][pronunciation]

(article) 괧괧ˤμ¸ϡѸѼˤäƤ⡤üԸĿͤˤäƤ⡤ˤäƤ͡Ǥ롥ŵŪʵǽȤƶȼ variants äƤȤ⤢ꡤϤޤޤʣȤʤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])ˡˡ³줬ҲǻϤޤ뤫첻ǻϤޤ뤫ˤäƤѰۤΤǡ
Ȥ櫓괧μ¸ˤĤƤϡ#906. the ΰۤʤȯ ([2011-10-20-1])#907. 첻 the εŪȯ ([2011-10-21-1])#2236. 첻 the ȯˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2015-06-11-1]) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿
ơϰѼˤäƤ¸ϤޤޤΤ褦New Zealand English ξ򸫤Ƥߤ褦Bauer (391) ˤȡ³ˤ餺괧 /ðə/ 괧 /ə/ ȯ뷹Ȥ첻³ˤϤƤĺĤʤȤ롥

As in South African English . . . , the and a do not always have the same range of allomorphs in New Zealand English that they have in standard English. Rather, they are realised as /ðə/ and /ə/ independent of the following sound. Where the following sound is a vowel, a [ʔ] is usually inserted.


ܲ˥塼ں NZE 򼪤ˤƤ뤬⤽ⴧϼ夯ȯ뤳Ȥ¿ɤѼǤ variants ¿뤳ȤȤƤäƤΤǡۤɥޡƤʤäϰռʹΩƤƤ
LPD the ƤߤȡΤ褦ˤ롥

the strong form ðiː, weak forms ði, ðə --- The English as a foreign language learner is advised to use ðə before a consonant sound (the boy, the house), ði before a vowel sound (the egg, the hour). Native speakers, however, sometimes ignore this distribution, in particular by using ðə before a vowel (which in turn is usually reinforced by a preceding [ʔ]), or by using ðiː in any environment, though especially before a hesitation pause. Furthermore, some speakers use stressed ðə as a strong form, rather than the usual ðiː.


NZE ˸¤餺¾ѼˤƤ¸¿ͤȹͤƤ褤ޤĤʤĺ⡤ٰŪȤäƤ褵

Bauer L. "English in New Zealand." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5. Ed. Burchfield R. Cambridge: CUP, 1994. 382--429.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-11-07-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2025-10-14 Tue

#6014. ɽڡ­ʤȤˤ첻ΤƤ --- Ѹ˾ͥ from ѡ [writing][spelling][consonant][vowel][abbreviation][alphabet]

New Zealand Christchurch 夤2ּ夬вᤷäˤʤäƤ뤤ĤΥѡޡåȤ1Ĥ"NZ's Lowest Food Prices" NZΥѡ PAK'n'SAVE Ҹ˷ε祹ѡǡ·į⤯Ǥ֤˺롥NZŪڡϤܿޤᥢΤΤ롥ŪʥΤۤɱѸǤɽФƤʤΤʤΤǡŹ⤭Τñ˱Ѹؽˤ褤
ܿêįƤȤظêˤ᡼ץ륷åפ볦äʲμ̤̿Υ٥ɤǤߤȡΤ褦ˤ롧"PAMS FINEST / MPLE SYRP / CNDIAN A GRD / 250ML"

Maple Syrup in PAK'n'SAVE 20251006

٥ε󤬶ΤǡֻάʤDzά뤫ȤСŵŪ첻Ǥ롥Ҳϲιʤ뤿ᡤ줵Ĥɤ߼ˤȤäƽʬʥҥȤˤʤ뤫ºݤ˱ѸμСʤΤΤ⤽ˤ뤿ᡤƬŸΤѰդեŸ "PAMS FINEST / MAPLE SYRUP /CANADIAN A GRADE / 250ML" Ȥʤ롥
ѡαѸֻˤ뤳Τ褦ʾάϡե٥åʸǤϹΤ٤ߤгƸβ󡤲ṽ¤ֻηϤ˰¸ΤȻפ뤬ҲĤΤܤǤ롥
ηϡʸȤ櫓ɽʸȯŸηаޤϢưƤ̣ĹʸȯŸɽʸϡʤʸʸˤơɽʸؤȯŸɽʸϡޤʸϤޤΤ̤㤨 /ka/ Ȥ֤פȲ̾1ʸǽ񤯤褦ȯۤΤ褦ʲʸϡФ첻̵뤷ƻҲΤߤɸˡȯã֤פȽ񤤤Ƥʤ顤 /k/ ȤñȤλҲȤɤޤ첻Ρɤ߼ΤơפǤ롥
ʤߤˡե٥åȯãˤįƤ⡤ҲŻ뤹ӤƤ롥ˤϡե٥åȤȤñʸҲŻβṽ¤ĥե²ˤȯȯã¤طƤŪ첻Ϸڻ뤵ƤΤǤ롥ե٥åȻˤǤ褯ΤƤ褦ˡ첻ѶŪˡֽ񤭵ߤưФΤϡե˥ʸ饮ꥷʸȤäʹߡ޻ŸФơ޻ʸǤ⡤§Ȥ첻ɽֻդ
᡼ץ륷åפΤ褦ˡɽڡ­ʤȤ󤴤Ȥʤ𤬤ˡҲĤ첻ΤƤȤΤϡ̣ʸˤ̤äƤ뤫Τ褦ʸݤʤΤǤ롥֤ä᡼ץ륷åפêǡ鷺ˡ˥ե٥åȻ3700ǯ򿶤֤ä补

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2025-09-30 Tue

#6000. إߥʡˤơָѸȯȡ첻ܡספäޤ [notice][mindmap][gvs][phonetics][sound_change][spelling_pronunciation_gap][hel][academic_conference][vowel][diphthong]

#5965. Ѹȯȡ첻ܡ --- 928ˤθ塤ܲزβإߥʡˤƤäޤ ([2025-08-26-1]) ǤΤ餻Ȥꡤ928ˤĻرؤˤơܲزڰѰŤ35إߥʡˤ (gvs) ˤĤƤäƤޤߥʡԤ³Υå碌3ֶ᤯ĹǤ̤뤤ϥ饤ˤ¿ˤäˤȤäƤ⤿ؤ󽼼¤ȤʤޤüԤγ󡤤꤬ȤޤޤزĹκƣڰѰɻȤ櫓Ƶ٤Ǥäˤʤäλɧˤϴտ夲ޤ
ߥʡγפˤĤƤ markmap ˤޥɥޥåײޤʲ򥯥åƳˡ


lib/phonetics_seminar_re_gvs_20250928_mindmap_large.png



åǤ¿μ򤤤ޤ֤¤ˤꡤ٤Ƥˤ뤳ȤǤޤǤ塤ܥ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ʤɤ̤Ƽ夲ƤȻפޤҺ첻ܡפˤܤ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2025-08-26 Tue

#5965. Ѹȯȡ첻ܡ --- 928ˤθ塤ܲزβإߥʡˤƤäޤ [notice][gvs][phonetics][sound_change][spelling_pronunciation_gap][hel][academic_conference][vowel][diphthong]

ܲزڰѰꤪ1ۤɸ92814:00--17:00 ˡ35إߥʡˤɸǤäƤȤˤʤޤѸˤˤƺǤ褯Τ벻Ѳ1ġ첻 (Great Vowel Shift; gvs) ڤȤơѸȯᤰ¿ѲˤĤƵͽǤ
ʤñ name ϡ֥ʥפǤϤʤ /neɪm/ ȯΤroom Ϥʤ֥פǤϤʤ /ruːm/ ʤΤѸؽʤï⤬٤ѤʵǤ礦ѸֻȯδطϰǤϤԵ§ϳؽԡʤӶԡˤǺޤ礭װȤʤäƤޤΡֻȯЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) طʤˤϡ͡ŪװäƤޤΤʤǤ⹭ϤʱƶڤܤΤѸѸˤȤ첻ܡפǤβѲϢܥ֥Ǥ#205. 첻ܡ ([2009-11-18-1]) Ϥᡤ¿εǼ夲Ƥޤ
첻ܤϡǤСαѸΤ٤ƤĹ첻βϢưƶͤΤ褦ѲݤǤҤ name ˤȤСĤ /naːmə/ ȯƤ첻 /aː/ 徺 /ɛː/ /e;ː/ ȤʤꡤǽŪ2첻 /eɪ/ Ȥʤޤ
βѲϹϤηŪޤ٤Ƥñˡ뤤Ϥ٤ƤϰǰΧŬѤ줿櫓ǤϤޤǤοƩԶѰӤθ̤βѲŪʸ̤ˤꡤѸˤߤȯ¿߽Ф˻ޤߤɸѸɸѸΰ㤤䡤Ѹ֤κۤˡ礭ʱƶڤܤƤΤǤ
ΥߥʡǤϡŪѲγפ⤹ȤȤˡ줬¿ͤʱѸȯˤɤΤ褦ʥѥȤͿƤΤˤƤȹͤƤޤ
ܥơޤϡؤѸˤȤϤΤȡѸܤѸ򶵤ޤؤǤ¿ˤȤäƤⶽ̣ơޤȤʤϤǤȤ櫓γعDZѸ򶵤ƤѸ춵ܻؤγˤȤäơ֤ʤѸ֤ȯϤۤɤޤǤ˿äƤΤפȤ̤κŪ䤤ˡŪʻ1ĤͿҥȤ뵡ˤʤȻפޤ
ܥߥʡϡĻرؤǤ̤ȥ饤 (Zoom) ǤΥϥ֥åɳŤȤʤޤؿΤϡҤäйǤʲˡز񥵥ȤߥʡΤ󤷤ޤ



ڡ35إߥʡѸȯȡ첻ܡס

: ܲز ڰѰĻرضʹֲʳֶʹֲʳظ
2025ǯ92814:00--17:00
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ֻա δʷʸ
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ʣ̤ȡʣ˥饤 (Zoom) Ʊϥ֥åɳ
ʣ̡Ļر Ļѥ1717410
150-8366 Խëë4-4-25
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եΡ֥åȤ򿽤פ򥯥åƲ
Ͽˤ Peatix ȤɬפǤȺˤϥ᡼륢ɥ쥹 Google ȤʤɤȤޤ
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Referrer (Inside): [2025-09-30-1]

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2025-08-14 Thu

#5953. ꥷ ei αѸؤμޤ [digraph][vowel][diphthong][greek][latin][loan_word][borrowing]

Ϣ crocodile θֻˤĤĴ٤Ƥ뤬βɽ˴ؿäꥷ κροκόδειλος 3ˤߤ ει 2Ż (digraph) ƥ˼ޤݤˤ crocodīlus Τ褦1Ĥ첻ݻƤ롥ѸֻǤ⡤Τ crocodile i 1ʸΤߤɽ
Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡꥷñ줬Ū뤤ľŪ˱Ѹ˼ޤݤˤϡĤΥѥ󤬤ȤǤϤ뤬Upward and Davidson (220--21) ˤСѸֻ˴ؤƴˤʤŪʿ񤤡ˤߤ롥

          Gr EI transliterated as E or I

Although a digraph, Gr EI perhaps represented a simple vowel sound rather than a diphthong, and was liable to misspelling in classical Gr as just iota or eta.
   Latin transliterated Gr EI as either E or I, not as EI. Direct transliteration from Gr to Eng giving EI, as in eirenic, kaleidoscope, pleistocene, seismic, protein, Pleiades typically date from the 19th or 20th centuries, and have therefore not come via Lat. The contrast between such modern transliterations and the older Lat-derived ones is seen in pairs such as apodeictic/apodictic 'demonstrably true' (< Latin apodicticus < Gr apodeiktikos), cheiropractic/chiropractic, Eirene/Irene.
   Lat gave Eng an arbitrary spelling variation by tending to transliterate Gr EI as E before a vowel and as I before a consonant: thus panacea, truchea (< Gr panakeia, tracheia) but icon, idol, lichen (< Gr eikōn, eidōlon, leichēn), and similarly with crocodile, dinosaur, empirical, idyll, pirate. Note, however, angiosperm (< Gr aggeion) with I before O, and hygiene (< Gr hugieinē) with E before N preventing a repetition of I in *hygiine.
   Underlying the Y of therapy, idolatry is Gr -EIA (Gr latreia 'worship', therapeia) whereas Gr -IA underlies the Y of theory, history (< Gr theōria, historia).


ۤñʷǤʤʬ뤬Ⱦˤäơꥷ줫ľܼѤʤΤƥͳƤδܼѤʤΤ뤳ȤȤΤ϶̣#3373. ּáס ([2018-07-22-1]) ۵롥

Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

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2025-05-15 Thu

#5862. ֤פ¥֤áפ첻Ū [japanese][phonetics][phonology][phoneme][consonant][vowel][hiragana][romaji][syllable][mora][nasal]

ε#5860. ֤פȯμ¸ ([2025-05-13-1]) ³ܸ֤פˤޤĤꡥ碌¥֤áפˤĤƤͤ롥
ܸɴŵ٤ˡܸ첻פꤹ᤬ (pp. 251--52) ǡ¥˴ؤ붽̣ͻ롥޻ɽǤϻҲɽΤǻҲŪȲ򤵤뤳Ȥ¿ष첻ŪʤΤǤϤʤȤƶ252ǤѤ롥

ʤ¥ϰ츫ҲβȤԼΤ褦ˤפ뤬ϡ̣첻1ȸ뤳ȤǤ롥ʤȤ¥ϡ³ĺ䶹λ³ˤǤmnŋ ptk ǡֲִ뤤Ϥ˽ऺΡˤȰۤʤꡤष첻ʳλ³ˤ˻Ƥ롥ֻʥ١ʥáöפʤɸ治¥ϡ³ȼ褦¥°Ǥʤ³Ҳʥɤ d 䥿 tˤ°ȸ롥
ФѸ "bat" ʤɤ t ϡĺξԤޤ椨ܿͤˤϡ֥Хåȡפǡʹ롥̣¥ϡҲ nt ʤɤȶ̤줾 NTʤ뤤 QˤǡɽΤǤ̡ġ͡


ϲؤǤ⤢ꡤǤ⤢롥Ѹޤ᤿¿θλ٤ȡܸΡü첻ǡפϳΤüǤϤ롥

ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ

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2025-03-25 Tue

#5811. ʤ wind û첻򼨤Τ (3) [sobokunagimon][vowel][gvs][emode][variation][emode][orthoepy][orthography][variation]

ɸˤĤơ#5808. ʤ wind û첻򼨤Τ ([2025-03-22-1]) ȡ#5810. ʤ wind û첻򼨤Τ (2) ([2025-03-24-1]) ǹͤƤԤεǰ OED 񤭤 Dobson ڤƤΤǡäƤߤDobson (Vol. 2, §12) ϡѸˤ첻ĹûѰۤˤĤơwind Ϣñλ󤲤ʤƤ롥ΰѤ褦

The variation occurs chiefly before OE lengthening groups. The most important class of word is those in -ind, which are normally recorded with ME ī; but there is some evidence of variation. Smith gives 'uīnd or uind' for wind sb. Mulcaster has ĭ in wind and bind against ī in kind, find, mind, and hind. Bullokar transcribes find with ī but rhymes it on ĭ. Coote says that some pronounce blind, find, and behind short, while others pronounce them long; Young's 'homophone' list shows variation in find. Hodges says that 'som men cal the winde, the wind'. It is clear that the variation was most common in wind, which has now come to have the short vowel; but in the sexteenth and seventeenth centuries it was more usually pronounced with ME ī given by Levins, Bullokar, Robinson, Gil, Willis, Wharton, Poole, J. Smith, Cooper, and Brown. Short ĭ (due to the separation of the n and d by the syllable-division) is apparently shown for winder by Fox and Hookes, who put it with window in their homophone list; but Bullokar has ī. (479)


16--17ˤ -ind ˤϡ첻Ĺûɤ줬äȤ狼롥Ȥ櫓 wind ˤĤƤɤ줬㤷ä褦ġüԤˤäƤ⡤ޤѰˤäƤ⡤ɤ줬äˤʤξȯʣʶ礬ɸѸǤϡԵ§פ˻פû첻˵뤷ƤޤäȤȤǡѰۡѲԻ׵Ĥפ鷺ˤϤʤ

Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

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2025-03-24 Mon

#5810. ʤ wind û첻򼨤Τ (2) [sobokunagimon][vowel][diphthong][gvs][homorganic_lengthening][homonymy][homonymic_clash][homophony]

ε#5808. ʤ wind û첻򼨤Τ ([2025-03-22-1]) Ǽ夲³ԡ
Ѹ첻ˤ Minkova (168--69) ϡƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ˤĤƲ⤹ʸ̮ǡ wind /wɪnd/ ˿Ƥꡤû첻¸üŦƤ롥

   The third cluster associated with Homorganic Cluster Lengthening is [-nd]. The long-term effect of this cluster is limited. It applies systematically only to the high vowels [i] and [u].

(7) OE <-ind> and <und> lengthening:

Early OE ME
blind [blind] blind [blnd] 'blind'
grindan [grindən] grind(en) [grndən] 'grind'
(be)hindan [-hindən] bihinde [-hnd(ə)] 'behind'
grund [grund] ground [grnd] 'ground'
hund [hund] hound [hnd] 'hound'
pund [pund] pound [pnd] 'pound'

The pair wind, n. - wind, v. is a special case, probably best explained on the grounds of homophony avoidance. Rhyme evidence suggests that the forms were actually homophonous into the late seventeenth century. The restriction of the lengthening effect to the high vowels leaves a whole set of common OE lexemes such as band, hand, land, sand, bend, blend, end, rend, send, spend, tender, wend with short vowels in PDE.


Minkova ϡƱ۵ (homonymic_clash) ˤ򼨺ƤΤΡĥƤ櫓ǤϤʤ첻ˤĤηŪ˺ѤƱĹλ¿ˤĤνĤæƤ뤫Τ褦 wind /wɪnd/ ü⤭ĦˤʤꡤβͭյƳǧ롥
첻Ȥ i Τߤʤ餺 u ʿŪ˹ͤȤȡ㤨С֤ʤ fund û첻򼨤ΤפƱͤƤ褤ȤˤʤĴٻϤȻäƤ롥

Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-03-25-1]

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2025-03-22 Sat

#5808. ʤ wind û첻򼨤Τ [sobokunagimon][vowel][diphthong][gvs][homorganic_lengthening][homonymy][homonymic_clash][oed][homophony]

إᥤȤ ari note #227ڿ-ind -ing ȯΰ㤤뤤 wind ȯˤĤơꤹ뵭񤫤ƤĤ꤬夲Ƥ뤬Ȥ櫓 wind ˤ /wɪnd/ û첻ȯΤϤʤȤ䤤̣äΤŪͽۤ2첻 */waɪnd/ ȤʤꤽʤΤºݤƱְ۵ wind ʶʤ꤯ͤˤ /waɪnd/ ȯʤΤǡԻ׵ĤǤ롥
ari ʬŪ˰ѤƤ뤬OED wind (n1) ȯˤ˴ؤեǰѤ褦

Pronunciation

The phonological development of this word differs from that of nouns with a similar phonological shape in Middle English, such as hind n.1 and rind n.1, and similarly the verb wind v.1 These show the result of lengthening of the vowel before the homorganic consonant cluster -nd in Old English. The evidence of the early modern orthoepists shows that there was considerable variation in early modern English between pronunciations with a short vowel or a long vowel (or its diphthongal reflex after the operation of the Great Vowel Shift); this variation appears to have been unusually persistent in the case of the present word (compare discussion in E. J. Dobson Eng. Pronunc. 1500--1700 (ed. 2, 1968) vol. II. §12), for which the pronunciation with a short vowel is the one that became usual in later standard English. Until the 18th cent. the diphthongal pronunciation appears to have been more usual, but by the end of the century had been largely supplanted in ordinary speech by the short-vowel pronunciation. Walker (1791), while listing both, puts the pronunciation with short vowel first, and notes: 'These two modes of pronunciation have been long contending for superiority, till at last the former seems to have gained a compleat victory, except in the territories of rhyme.' The poetic convention allowing rhyming use of the diphthongal pronunciation continued well into the 19th cent. (compare e.g. quot. 1811 at Phrases P.1n.ii, quot. 1820 at spring n.1 III.17a).

The preservation of the short vowel in this particular word is difficult to account for; it may have been aided by the large number of occurrences in compounds and derivatives, in which failure of vowel lengthening would have been more likely; it may also partly reflect a functional pressure to distinguish this word from wind v.1, which would otherwise have been homophonous. Frequent collocation with winter n.1 (with short vowel) could also have played a part.

Pronunciation with a diphthong (reflecting a Middle English long vowel) survives in some regional varieties and is occasionally reflected in forms such as wine and weind at α forms.


򤹤ˤϡ嵭 OED βΤɤ߲ɬפꡤΤˤϱѸβˤûˤγפΤäƤʤФʤʤȤ櫓ƱĹ (Homorganic Lengthening; homorganic_lengthening) (Great Vowel Shift: gvs)Ʊ۵ (homonymic_clash) ˴ؤ򤬷礫ʤ
OED ǤΤϽФƤʤΤǡΥ֥Ǥ⤦Ĵ٤Ƥari 󶡤꤬Ȥޤ

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2025-03-07 Fri

#5793. ֤إ饸פ pronounce/pronunciation ֻ꤬夲ޤ [youtube][yurugengogakuradio][voicy][heldio][sobokunagimon][spelling][spelling_pronunciation_gap][sound_change][u][vowel][diphthong]



ӤӤäˤʤäƤ͵ YouTube ֤ͥإ饸κǶβǡư­ᡩ ʤŵɤ٤ʤΤڤ#394ۿޤ
İԤμƿٸ󤬥ȡ򷫤깭Ǥ14:39դ꤫顤ʤˤˤˤ䤬Ϫޤpronounce pronunciation Υڥǡʤ2ʬֻ <ou> <u> ǰۤʤΤȤѤʵǤ
ϡܥ֥Ρ#2046. <pronunciation> vs <pronounciation> ([2014-12-03-1]) 򸫤Ĥɤޤ줿褦ʤΤǤ񤷤ʬʤäȤȤǡ󤬵Ƥ򤫤ߺդȤȤʤäƤޤ󤫤顤βˤĤƤϢ򤤤ޤơ䤬ФäޤʾСˡ
εƤˤĤƤϡ󤬤ä꤫ߺդƤޤϢơ#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1]) ˤڤƤޤ̤ȤƤ pronounce/pronunciation ֻ㳰ŪʸݤʤΤȤݤβǤ
ޤǤϻåʤİƤ뤳ȤǤޤȤ20:36դ꤫2ͤΤȤʹˤޤ

- ٸ󡧤ʤ㳰ޤ줿Ǥ
- 󡧤ƤΤβϤˤϽ񤫤Ƥʤ
- ٸ󡧵ʤߤʡ

ޤˤʬʤ餳Ǥ̵ä櫓Ǥ֤إ饸פˤȤͤƤޤ
10ǯ֤ˡ˺ƤƬǺޤȤˤʤޤݰȹͤᤰ餻塤ɬ⼫ä櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ1ĤβΩƤƤߤޤ Voicy heldio ۿΤ#1370. ֤إ饸פǼ夲줿 pronounce vs. pronunciation ֻǤ26ʬۤɤۿǤ֤ΤϤҤʹʤȤѲʣʬΤǤϤʤȻפޤ



heldio ۿ塤󤫤顤İޤȤΥȤ򤤤ޤɤƤ񤷤äȤʤäƤޤˤϤʤ⤷ʤΤǤޤˤߺդƲ⤷ƤФȡʾСˡ

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2025-02-26 Wed

#5784. Ϣ뼭 -o- Ū롼פǤϤʤŪʣɽ魯 [morphology][compound][greek][latin][word_formation][combining_form][morpheme][vowel][stem][syntax][phrase][connective]

ε#5783. ꥷϢ뼭 (connective) -o- ȥƥϢ뼭 -i- ([2025-02-25-1]) Ǽ夲 -o- ˤĤơKruisinga (II. 3, p. 7) ʤ˱ԤȤŦƤ롥

1587. In literary English there is a formal way of distinguishing compounds from groups: the use of the Greek and Latin suffix -o to the first element:

Anglo-Indian, Anglo-Catholic, the Franco-German war, the Russo-Japanese war.


   Of course, this use, though quite common, is of a learned character, clearly contrary to the natural structure of English words.


Ƭ "a formal way of distinguishing compounds from groups" Ǥ롥ñǤ2¤٤硤ŪȤ߹碌ʣ (compound) ȤʤꡤŪȤ߹碌 (phrase) Ȥʤ롥̤θ򤹤ȡʣ12Ǥ롥ؾ¸ߤλۤʤΤŪ˲ۤʤΤȡΤ˾֤פ롥
ȯƤߤС֤ۤʤȤϤ褯Ǥ bláckbòard ʹġˤʣblack bóard ʹġˤ϶Ǥcf. #4855. ʣǧ --- blackboard ʣ black board ϶ ([2022-08-12-1])ˡֻǤ⥹ڡ뤫ݤȤ̤롥ϱΧˡˤ̤Ǥꡤζ̤Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤʣȶʬˡϡճȤʤΤ⤷ʤ
դˤΤȤ˵դƤ줿ΤΰѤäʤۤɡϢ뼭 -o- 2Ǵ֤ƤСΤ϶ǤϤʤʣǤȽǤǤ롥ޤŪʶȤˡ֤ĤʤפȤ -o- Ѥ¸ߤʤʾʤȤ⡤פ⤫٤ʤˡȡϢ뼭 -o- ϤƷŪǤǤɸǤ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥

Kruisinga, E A Handbook of Present-Day English. 4 vols. Groningen, Noordhoff, 1909--11.

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