첻 (gvs) Ѹ첻˾塤ȾΤΤϡϢŪʿܤǤȤꤵƤΤΡ첻շΤɤϤޤäˤĤưոʬƤ뤿Ǥ롥徺2첻βɤϤޤꡤˤɤΤʬʤСpush chain drag chain ˤǯǤϡ첻ܡפ1ĤϢŪʿܤȤߤʤȤϤǤʣѲνΤˤʤȤΩԤ⾯ʤʤ (58--59) ϡ첻ܤγȳϻˤĤơˤƧޤƼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
GVS ѲƱ˵ä櫓ǤϤʤʤѲ (eː iː, oː uː, iː əɪ, uː əʊ) ϲʤѲ٤ʤ1400ǯ˻Ϥޤ1550ǯޤǤˤϴλƤȹͤ롥ʤѲˤĤƤϡ줫ǯ٤ƳϤ졤1700ǯ溢ޤѲβ³ƤȤ롥ʤΤ첻첻ȶ첻ξ徺Τ줫˵äˤĤƤϡոʬ졤Jespersen (1909) ϡޤ첻첻ϤǤη٤ʲζ첻夲줿ȼĥ夲Ϣ (drag-chain theory) Ȥ¾ȥꥢ Karl Luick (1865--1935) Ϥ (1914--1940) ˤơJespersen Ȥϵդˡ첻ξ徺˵ꡤ/iː/, /uː/ ΰ֤ޤǹ줿ᡤ/iː/, /uː/ Ͽ첻Ȥͻ뤿ᡤФ˲夲첻Ȥ夲Ϣ (push-chain theory) ȾΤ롥夲Ϣ˴ؤơ첻֤κDzʡʤ첻ϢŪ夲ĥԤʤ餺뤬GVS ˴ؤ¤ϡҤξʤȲʤλŪ줫ߤơDzʤϢܤϤޤäȹͤΤ̵Ǥ롥ޤGVS γϻˤĤƤոʬƤꡤǯǤ13ˤޤ̤餻뤳ȤǤʤѲϤۤƱ˻ϤޤäȤԤ⤤ (Stenbrenden 2010, 2016 ʤɡˡ
GVS ϡʤȲʤ˴ؤ뾯ʤȤ2Ĥΰۤʤ벻ѲʤäƤȹͤ褵Ǥ롥˾ʤβ˲ʤβϤ졤֤äƤߤΤȤƲեȤ褦˸Ȥ櫓ʤˤĤư夲ʤΤ夲ʤΤȤˤ夬ĤƤʤ
εǡƶϤΤ Minkova and Stockwell ǯ GVS βƤߤ
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1909.
Luick, Karl. Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache. 2 vols. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1914--40.
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. The Chronology and Regional Spread of Long-Vowel Changes in English, c. 1150--1500. Diss. U of Oslo, Oslo, 2010.
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
ʪؤϼؤǤϡಽ (index fossil) ȸƤФΤ롥㤨лβФĤСޤؤǤ뤳Ȥ狼뤷ʥȤǤ塤ӮǤпʤɤȹͤƤ褤¸֤ûŪʬۤ͡ʼѴ䤫¿ФŪħ狼䤹ΤФ롥
#3162. Ű ([2017-12-23-1]) оݤȤʤΡŪʹͻоݤȤʤΤǤС伨Ȥͤ褽ѤΤǤϤʤȻפˤѤƤߤ뤳ȤˤޤפĤΤϡλ˻벻ѲؤǤ롥벻ħȿǤƤ뤫ݤˤꡤθ줬˸줿ΤǯʤΤʤΤȽ륱ʤʤ
㤨Сskill, skin, skirt ʤ첻֤ <sk> = /sk/ ѸñϡűѸʹߤ˸ťΥɸ줫Ѥ줿Ǥǽ礭ѸǤ첻֤Ǥϡ/sk/ ϸ /ʃ/ = <sh> ȤʤΤ§äǤ롥Ĥޤꡤshine, ship, shirt ϡ餯űѸǤŪ˿ꤵcf. #1511. űѸ sc θ ([2013-06-16-1])#2944. ship, skiff, skip(per) ([2017-05-19-1])ˡ
첻 (gvs) θ̵̤ͭ⡤Ʊ褦̤design, divine, polite ʤɤ2첻Ȥʤ餯15ˤ˼Ѥ줿ȹͤ뤬Ʊե줫μѸǤ machine, police, unique ʤɤĹ첻Ȥܸ˱ѸäƤŪ˿Ǥcf. #2523. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ (3) ([2016-03-24-1])ˡ
Фξۤɤ٤ϴԤǤʤΤΡ嵭θ췲ǯ˥ҥȤͿƤּáפȸƤ֤ȤǤΤǤϤʤ
2֤ε ([2018-07-07-1], [2018-07-08-1]) ˰³root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤѸ礭ĬήˤĤơ
űѸϤŪեȤˤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ؤȰܤѤȤǽʳȤ뤬ޤʤ stem-based morphology ǻ˻ĤäƤLass (191) ϸűѸθˡμब˭٤ʤȤˤĤơKastovsky ѤĤļΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
One of the most striking features of the OE lexicon is the extensive involvement in WF, not only of transparent affixation, compounding, and conversion, but of other devices of varying ages: ancient ones like ablaut, and newer ones like i-umlaut. This results in what Kastovsky (1992: 294) calls 'large morphologically related word-families'; considerable portions of the lexicon 'cohere' in a rather special way, characteristic of older IE and to some extent more archaic modern languages like German, but quite alien to Modern English.
1Ȥơĸθ캬 *bhVr- "carry, bear" űѸñˤɤΤ褦ȿǤƤ뤫ͤƤߤ褦 (Lass 191--92) ΰ캬ˤ ablaut Ȥơ*bher- (e-grade), *bhor- (o-grade), *bhe:r- (lengthened e-grade), *bhr̥- (zero-grade) 4Ĥβä
ޤe-grade *bher- ˴ؤƤϡ*bher- > *er- > ber- ȷФơűѸ ber-an , ber-ende ʸʬ, ber-end "bearer"ber-end-nes "fertility" ˻äƤ롥
ˡo-grade *bhor- ˤĤƤϡ*bhor > *¦r- > bær- ФƸűѸ bær 1ˤ˽夷ۤ bær- (breaking) βФ bear-we "barrow, basket", bear-m "lap, bosom" ˻äΤ⤢롥
³ lengthened e-grade *bhe:r- ˤĤƤϡ*bhe:r- > *e:r- > bǣr ФƸűѸ bǣr-on 2, bǣr "bier", bǣr-e "manner, behaviour" ʤɤ뤷
Ǹ zero-grade *bhr̥- ϡ*ur- ؤѲ塤a-umlaut ˤ bor- *bur- Ϥ줿ԤϸűѸ bor-en ʲʬ, bor-a "carrier" ԤϤ i-umlaut ФƸűѸ byrðenn "burden", byr-ele "cup-bearer" ʤg߽Ф줿
űѸǤ /bVr-/ ȤŪʸ촴 (root) 첻ʣθ촴 (stems) ȤʤꡤŪʶŸƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤؤ "stem-based morphology" 뤤 "variable-stem morphology" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ (Lass 192)
űѸˤ⡤ʻ衤ʤ word-based morphology 뤤 invariable-stem morphology ͽǤǤʬŪ˸ФƤȤˤդƤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
ޤοϱѸ˾Ѳ1Ĥư̾٤Сߤ˻ޤǶޤ¿¸Ƥ롥̾ζޡʤȸƤ٤ʤСˤˤʣȽͭʷۤɤʤưˤ3ñ -sʬ˷ -edʬ -ing ĤäƤۤԵ§ưǤϼȤ첻Ѱۤ˴ŤޤĤäƤ롥ޤŪäǤϤ뤬Τư̾ޤ褯ݤäƤȤ롥
ͳ1ĤȤơ̵ʤȤ櫓ޤôˤ첻μ岽üȤŪФơưΤۤ̾ƻ趯ϤͭƤȤ롥Wełna (415--16) üŪˤҤ٤Ƥ롥
Verbs proved more resistant because, unlike nouns and adjectives, their inflectional markers contained obstruent consonants, i.e. sounds not subject to vocalization, as in PRES SG 2P -st, 3P -eþ (-eth) or PAST -ed, while the nasal sonorants -m (> -n) and -n, frequently found in the nominal endings, vocalized and were ultimately dropped.
#291. ;̾ thou ξüưؤαƶ ([2010-02-12-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡѸˤϡ餯Ǥ趯ưǤä2;ñ -est ⡤ʷŪʲȤƤǤϤʤ˼ҲŪͳˤꡤб;̾ thou Ȥ˾äƤäˤꡤưޤΥꥨ褤ϼ岽ȤȤϻŦƤƤ褤
Wełna, Jerzy. "Middle English: Morphology." Chapter 27 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 415--34.
ߡꥫѸθǡʬȤɸŪ drunk ǤϤʤƱ drank Ѥ뤳Ȥ뤬ϸѤȤϡŪˡη³ȸ٤Ǥ롥
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1]) #492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ褦ˡ߷ʬ3ˤδ֤첻ѰۤŪʶѲưμѥѥϡġưˤäưۤʤꡤѸŪˤŪʵ§Ф뤳ȤºݤˡűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹ̤͡3Υѥ˴깭ƤCowie (608) ȡ˰ѤƤ Lass ΥȤƤߤ褦
Tense marking on strong verbs in Early Modern English often had a different pattern for the form of the preterit and the past participle to both Middle English and Modern English. Different verbs go through different patterns, taking some time to stabilize . . . As Lass says, "it seems as if each verb has its own history" (1999: 168--70), which can be illustrated by changes in the paradigm for DRINK:
late 15th drink, drank, drunk end of 16th to 19th drink, drunk, drunk 17th to 19th drink, drank, drank
3ĤΥѥΤɸѼǤϺǽΤΤ줿ɸѼǤϺǸΤΤ줿Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦ˡ츫ָѡפȻפΤϡĤ¸ߤʣ褫ΰۤʤ˴ŤΤ¿
Ϣơsing βɸŪ sang Τۤ sung Ѥ륱⤢뤬Ʊͤ˹ͤ٤Ǥ롥
Cowie, Claire. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 38 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 604--20.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
Ѹʹߡƥե줫μѸ줬Ѹä̤˼ޤ줿ȤˤꡤѸζѥ礭ƤȤˤĤơ#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1]) #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥϤ ([2009-11-13-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ
ƤϡGermanic Stress Rule (gsr) ξ˿ Romance Stress Rule (rsr) դääΤ뤳ȤǤ뤬˹ŪߤȡĸŪʶѥؤβȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĸǤϲѤäζ֤ޥĸǤϸƬ˸경ƥեȤܿˤꡤƤӲѤȤʤäƤȲǤ뤫ơβѤζϡΤδ֤첻μ̤Ѱۤ뤳ȤˤʤäǸθݤϡĸηħŤ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ˤۤʤʤ
Kastovsky (129--30) ǻ̩ʸϤǤθˤĤƾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
[T]here are . . . typological innovations like the vowel and/or consonant alternations in sane : sanity, serene : serenity, Japán : Jàpanése, hístory : históric : hìstorícity, eléctric : elètrícity, close : closure resulting from the integration of non-native (Romance, Latin and Net-Latin) word-formation patterns into English with a concomitant variable stress system, which reverses the original typological drift towards a non-alternating relation between bases and derivatives and is reminiscent of Indo-European, where variable stress/accent produced variable vowel quality/quantity (ablaut).
Kastovsky ϡѸηˤŪª٤ȤĥƤ뤬ñʤ붦ŪˤȤɤޤ餺Ȥ⤤٤ʻƤǤ⤢褦˻פ롥
ǿ줿2Ĥζ§ˤĤƤϡ#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1]) ȡ#1474. Romance Stress Rule ([2013-05-10-1]) ȡ
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.
ѸԵ§ư (irregular verb) οϡʣưޤС褷ƾʤȤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ춵δŪư˸¤С60٤Ǥ롥㤨СعؽƳΡ٤dzؽ٤Ȥ139ĤưΤ§ư82졤Ե§ư57Ǥ롥 (44--45ˤƷǤƤ57ΥꥹȤʲ˵Ƥ
| *become | *begin | *break | bring | build | buy |
| catch | *come | cut | do | *draw | *drink |
| *drive | *eat | *fall | feel | *find | *fly |
| *forget | *get | *give | go | *grow | have |
| hear | keep | *know | leave | lend | *let |
| lose | make | mean | meet | put | read |
| *ride | *rise | *run | say | *see | sell |
| send | *sing | sit | *sleep | *speak | spend |
| *spring | *stand | *swim | take | teach | tell |
| think | *wind | *write |
ε#3294. occupy ϡ֥ԡפȯʤ ([2018-05-04-1]) ǡstudy ֻȯδطˤĤƾ줿<u> ֻϡ˻Ҳʸ <d> 1Ĥ첻 <y> ³Τǡ§˾Ȥ餻 /juː/ бϤǤ롥ºݡƱ student studious Ǥ /juː/ 롥study Ǥϡषû첻 /ʌ/ 롥 *studdy ֻǤСΤ褦ȯȤǤΤʤ study /ˈstʌdi/ ȤʤΤ
Upward and Davidson (161--62) ˤм̤Ǥ롥̾ƥեͳ褹ˤû첻ȤƤ <u> ϤۤȤ /ʌ/ б롥ξ硤2İʾλҲ뤤 <x> ³ΤŵǤ롥㤨Сultimate, usher, abundance, discuss, button, public, muscle, luxury, product, adult, result, judge; subject, success, suggest, supplement ǡñǤϡdrug, sum ʤɤϤˡ
ޤ <u> θ1ĤλҲΤߡʤˤθ첻ˤ³Τ⤢롥Τ褦㳰1Ĥ study Ȥ櫓ۤˡbunion, pumice, punish ⤢ꡤǤֻͽ¬줽 /juː/ ʤΤդפ롥 Ǹ˵ punish ȴϢơvanish, finish, abolish ʤɤΥեͳ -ish ưcf. ե -ir ưˤǤ⡤ľβ첻û첻ɤळȤˤʤäƤ롥ե -ir ưαѸؤμƤΤˤĤƤϡ#346. ե -ir ư ([2010-04-08-1]) ȡ
첻ʻˤĹûˤĤƤΰϡ#2075. 첻첻Ĺû ([2015-01-01-1]) ɤ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Ѹ첻ˤǤϴȤơűѸ West-Saxon ˤ <æ> ֤Ĺ첻ϡε˱2˶̤롥줾Ū ǣ1 ǣ2 ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤʤȤ˸ԤˤäƤ 1 2 źžڤߤˡ2ϡѸʹߤˤˤƤˤäƤФж̤뤳Ȥ顤ƱѤʤɡѸ˸塤פôäƤ롥
(75--76) ˤСޥӸؾ塤ǣ1 ǣ2 εϰۤʤäƤ롥ǣ1 ޥʳǤ *[aː]- ɡ֤ West-Saxon ˤ岽Τǡnon-West-Saxon ǤϤ˾夲Ф [eː] Ȥʤä (ex. dǣd "deed", lǣtan "let", þǣr "there") ǣ2 ޥ *[aɪ] űѸޤǤ [ɑː] ѲΤ i-mutation ФϤǤ (ex. lǣran "teach", dǣlan "deal") ϡWest-Saxon Τߤʤ餺 Anglian Ǥݤ줿Kentish ǤϾ夲ˤ [eː] Ȥʤääơǣ1 ǣ2 βδطϡWest-Saxon Ǥ [æː] : [æː]Anglian Ǥ [eː] : [æː]Kentish Ǥ [eː] : [eː] Ȥʤ롥ޤȤСʲ̤ꡥ
PGmc aː > OE WS æː NWS æː > eː WGmc aɪ > OE ɑː > (i-mutation) WS, Angl æː K æː > eː
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ŪˡGod ȯϸޤǤޤû첻ƤѸǤϡꥹȯ [gɒd] ФơꥫȯǤ [gɑːd] ԤŪǶĹ첻η̤ǤꡤŪû첻ǤäȤ¤ĤΤǤϤʤ¤ΤȤ God Ĺ첻 [goːd] Τ褦ȯ⡤ŪˤϹԤʤƤ褦űѸѸǤϡֿɤΡפȤȯۤ顤̾ God ȡŪĹ첻ķƻ good Ȥʤ館ꡤˤäƤƱ뤹ϸ (pun) ФйԤʤ줿ȤͷӤΰĶȵۤɤˡξ줬Ĺ첻ȯʸ̤ͻ礷Ƥޤä㤬롥
OED ˤϡGod Ĺ첻ֻʦ·ˤȤơʲƤ롥
β. OE (rare) ME-15 good, eME ȝode, ME goed, ME goid, ME gooddes (plural), ME guodes (genitive, perhaps transmission error), ME-16 gode, lME goodyse (genitive), lME goyd; U.S. regional 18- gord; Sc. pre-17 goid, pre-17 19- gode, 18- goad.
OED Ǥϡ˸츻˼Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥פˡGod Ĺ첻ȯϡгʷˤƤѸ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) η̤ȤƵ§Ū줿ΤǤȤ
In Old English the word is often collocated with the formally identical but etymologically unrelated word gōd GOOD adj., GOOD n., and the two words are not always easy to distinguish (compare discussion at GOOD adj., n., adv., and int.). Rare occurrences of the form good in Old English (see β. forms) may result from confusion of this kind. The association of the two words continues in later English, sometimes leading to the deliberate euphemistic substitution of forms of GOOD n. for GOD n. (frequently in oaths); such substitution is found in several modern regional varieties, especially in Scots (compare GOOD n. 3).
It is nevertheless likely that the majority of Middle English (and later) β. forms show a genuine lengthening of the stem vowel, probably arising originally from open syllable lengthening in oblique (disyllabic) forms; pronunciations reflecting the lengthened form gode are attested in modern English regional and nonstandard use, e.g. J. Wright Eng. Dial. Gram. (1905) 464/1 records the pronunciation /ɡo:d/ from east Devon. (The suggestion made in N.E.D. (1900) that the motivation for lengthening may perhaps have been expressive, i.e. 'from a desire to utter the name of God more deliberately than the short vowel naturally allows', is unlikely.) A later (early modern English) lengthening is shown by GAWD n. The modern Scots forms goad, gode at β. forms probably represent the half-close realization of short ŏ typical of many varieties of Scots.
MED God, god ˤ⡤"in ME , inflected forms with long vowel are attested in rime." Ȥ롥Ĺ첻 God μгʷ˸ꤵ줿Ϥ줬̵ God ˤȵڤȻפ㤬ѸǸ롥
Dobson (Vol. 2, 53 n3) ⡤ѸΥ䥹åȥɤǡGod Ĺ첻μ¸äȤˤĤƿƤ롥
The long close [o:] and the diphthong [uə] which occur in Scottish and Northern dialects in blot, cot, God, cock, cog, frost, sop, &c. (and in Devon in God) may develop by ModE lengthening of ME ŏ, but in many cases are probably due to a ME variant in ǭ developed by lengthening in the open syllable of the oblique forms.
God Ĺ첻ȯϡޥʡꥢȤȤƤŪ˳μ¤¸ߤΤǤ롥
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957.
Ѹֻ feet, greet, meet, see, weed ʤ <ee> ѽФ뤷foot, look, mood, stood, took Τ褦 <oo> ̤˸롥٤ơaardvark, bazaar, naan Τ褦 <aa> ϵä <ii>, <uu> ۤȤɸʤȤäƤ褤Ĺ첻ɽ魯Τ첻ŤͤȤΤϡƼŪȯۤȻפ뤬ʤΤ褦ФäʬۤˤʤäƤΤ
űѸǤϡû첻ȤФĹ첻̤ɸΤ̤ˡϤʤä"God" "good" бϤȤ god ֤줿witan û i ȯ "to know" ΰ̣θ졤Ĺ i ȯ "to look" ΰ̣θȤʤäѸˤʤȡΤ褦첻Ĺûζ̤Ĥ褦ȡĤˡԤ߽Ф줿ˡϤ褽Ѹ˻ĤäƤꡤ<ae>, <ei>, <eo>, <ie>, <oe> Τ褦˰ۤʤʣ첻Ȥ߹碌Τ⤢С<a .. e>, <i .. e>, <u .. e> ʤɱŪȤ߹碌ˡ⤢äľŪˡƱ첻Ťͤ <aa>, <ee>, <ii>, <oo>, <uu> ʤɤ⤢äñˤꡤ뤤ϤñΤäƤȯˤ˹ä𤬤ʤǡŵŪ֤ʤƤäƱ첻Ťͤ˴ؤƤϡ<ee>, <oo> Ĥääʤ
<ee> <oo> ݻ䤹üʻ𤬤äȤϡष <aa>, <ii>, <uu> ѤˤͳäȹͤۤǤ롥ȤΤϾ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡ첻ŤͤȤϤȹͤ졤줬Ѥʤͳõۤưפ˻פ뤫
<ii> <uu> 줿Τ䤹ˤƤϡֻϤդʤ (minim) ΤߤǹƤꡤ줾 <ıı>, <ıııı> ֤줿Τ褦ʣνȡտޤƤΤɤʸʤȤ߹碌ˤʤΤɤˤȤäʬˤʤ뤫㤨С<ıııı> ȤֻƤ⡤տޤƤΤ <iiii>, <ini>, <im>, <mi>, <nn>, <nu>, <un>, <wi> Τɽ魯ʸ̮ȤʤФ狼ʤϢơ#91. ʤ;ñ̾ I ʸǽ ([2009-07-27-1])#223. woman ȯֻ ([2009-12-06-1])#870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])#1094. <o> ֻ /u/ 첻ɽ魯 ([2012-04-25-1])#2227. ʤ <u> ǽñ줬ʤΤ ([2015-06-02-1])#2450. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤѡ ([2016-01-11-1]) Ȥ줿
<aa> ˤĤƤϡʤ줬ѤʤäΤѸˤϡ<aa> ֤ñ⤤ĤäʤäCrystal (46) ϡ"aa never survived, probably because the 'silent' e spelling had more quickly established itself as the norm, as in name, tale, etc." ȹͤƤ뤬⤦ȤƤäϤΤߤȤ
ɡä˺꤬ʤʤޤĤäΤ <ee>, <oo> ȤȤϢơ#2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1]) ӡ#2887. Ϣ3֤ʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤס ([2017-03-23-1])
Crystal, David. Spell It Out: The Singular Story of English Spelling. London: Profile Books, 2012.
#2942. ޥβѲ ([2017-05-17-1]) ˰³Hamer (15) ꡤɸλ˴ط2ĤβѲҲ𤹤롥
| Sound change | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| D | The diphthongs all developed as follows: ai > ā, au > ēa (ēa = ǣa), eu > ēo, iu > īo. (This development of eu and iu was in fact very much later, but it is placed here in the interests of simplification.) | |
| E | a > æ unless it came before a nasal consonant. | dæg, glæd, but land/lond. |
The effects can be seen in comparing say OE dæg, OFr deg with Go dags, OIc dagr, OHG tag. (The original [æ] was later raised in Frisian.)
In outline, AFB turns low back */α/ to [æ], except before nasals (hence OE, OHG mann but dæg vs. tag. It is usually accepted that at some point before AFB (which probably dates from around the early fifth century), */α/ > [α̃] before nasals, and the nasalized vowel blocked AFB.
AFB ϸűѸ̾ޤʤɤˤʰ۷֤벻ѲȤƽפʤΤǡűѸؽԤϵαƤ
Hamer, R. F. S. Old English Sound Changes for Beginners. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ѸβˤؤܤȤȡűѸ鸽Ѹˤơޤ¿βѲäƤΤܤ饯餹ۤɤܥ֥Ǥ⡤ޤǸġˤ¿βѲäƤηŪ˼פʤΤǤ⾯ƤѤƤФȻפäƤ롥
ϡHamer (14--15) θűѸ첻ѲꡤűѸΩĥޥ3ܤ٤첻ѲҲ𤹤롥
| Sound change | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| A | u > o unless followed by a nasal consonant, or by u or i/j in the following syllable. (By this is meant if the vowel element of the following syllable consisted of any u sound, or of any i sound or of any combination beginning with j.) | bunden, holpen are both OE p.p. of Class III Strong Verbs, the u of bunden having been retained, because of the following n. god, gyden = 'god', goddess. gyden had earlier had i instead of e in its ending, and this i first caused the u to survive, then later caused it to change to y by i-mutation (see I below). Thus both the o and y in these forms derive from Gmc. u. |
| B | e > i if followed by a nasal consonant, or by i/j in the following syllable. | bindan, helpan are both OE infin. of Class III Strong Verbs. helpan has 3 sg. pres indic. hilpþ < Gmc. *hilpiþi. |
| C | eu > iu before i/j in the following syllable. |
317դηǼĤǡե bleu ȤֻФơѸǤ blue ȤʤäƤΤϤʤȤ䤬줿e u žɤΤ褦˵äȤǤ롥
ˤϾ䤳Ūаޤ롥ťե bleu ѸˤֻDZѸ˼Ѥ졤2ΰ֤ؤ blue ȤʤäȤľŪǺѤΤǤϤʤ褦ʲȯֻʬˤɤäƤߤ褦
ޤȯ顥첻ѸǤȯ [iʊ] ˶ᤫäꤵ뤬줬Ѹˤƶܤˤ徺2첻 [juː] Ȥʤꡤ˸ˤ yod-dropping [uː] Ȥʤäʡ#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1])#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]) ȡˡ
ˡ䤳ֻλˤĤơޤθѸǤϡʤѸΥեǤֻˤʤä bleu ֤ƤºݤΤȤ<blew>, <blewe> ʤɤΰֻȤƸƤ뤳Ȥ¿äMED bleu (adj.) ȡϢơ#2227. ʤ <u> ǽñ줬ʤΤ ([2015-06-02-1]) ⻲ȡˡˡŪ blue ȤֻȤƸ뤳ȤϡѸϤȤ17ޤǵäJespersen (101) ˾Ƥ롥
In blue /iu/ is from F eu; in ME generally spelt bleu or blew; the spelling blue is "hardly known in 16th--17th c.; it became common under French influence (?) only after 1700" (NED)
Ѥˤ⤢̤ꡤѸǤ bleu ¤ blew ֻ⤴Ūäºݡ[iʊ] ȯФƤϡեѸΤߤʤ餺ǤäƤ⡤<ew> ֤뤳Ȥ¿ä㤨 vertew (< OF vertu), clew (< OE cleowen), trew (< OE trēowe), Tewisday (< OE Tīwesdæȝ) ΤȤǤ롥
ѸˤơƱ [iʊ] ȯФ <ue> Ȥ饤ХֻƤֻΤϥեƥͳ褹ΤääϤФȡ츻ˤ餺¿ñŬѤ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤƱ [iʊ] ФơŤƱѸ餷 <ew> ȡ꿷ƥե̣ <ue> 礹褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥η̡ѸǤ argue/argew, dew/due, screw/skrue, sue/sew, virtue/virtew ʤɤɤ줬¿줿ʳƥڥˤԤɸŪֻˡơblue/blew ⤽Τ褦ɤڥ1ĤäΤǤ롥
Τ褦ɤ줬ˤDzäΤñˤäưۤʤäƤꡤ褽ŪǤȤ褦ʤѸ <ew> Mulcaster Τ褦Ԥ⤤줬̤ŬѤ뵬§ȤȯŸ뤳ȤϤʤäΤǤ롥ˡˤ blew ǤϤʤ blue Ǥ뤳ȡeschue ǤϤʤ eschew Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ줤뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ơȤȤεäƤߤ褦ռȤƤϡΥեȱѸ٤¤ꡤ<eu> <ue> ʸž褦˸Ūˤϡ<eu> ʸҤä֤ä <ue> Ȥʤä櫓ǤϤʤ<eu> ȴϢƤȤϻפ뤬ѸȼȯãȤߤʤ٤ѸŪ <ew> ȡѸˤϤФƤ <ue> ȤΩblue Ȥñ˴ؤ¤ꡤޤԤDzäɸಽƸ˻롤ȤȤǤ롥
ʾ塤Upward and Davidson (61--62, 113, 161, 163, 166) Ȥ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
321դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ3ε֤ʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤޤϡرѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ2ϡȯֻ˴ؤѤʵפǼ夲ȴϢơäˡ첻ɽλפܤ겼ƹͤƤޤѸ첻ʲˤ첻ֻˤδطʣǤ뤳Ȥ˴ؤơʸˤδƤޤطʤˤϡ¤3ǯͥĶʪ줬Ȥسλ¤̣äƤ館ФȻפޤ
ʲˡ3εȴϢܥ֥ؤΥĥäƤޤ碌ƤȤ
#503. Ѹֻϵ§ŪԵ§Ū ([2010-09-12-1])
#1024. ѸֻԵ§줳 ([2012-02-15-1])
#2405. ֻȯЪΥ --- ѸֻԵ§μŪװ ([2015-11-27-1])
#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1])
#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1])
#1826. 첻ĹûľܼȤǤʤ ([2014-04-27-1])
#2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1])
#1837. ȥꥷʸλκۡ ([2014-05-08-1])
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
Ѹϰ̤첻Ϣ³ (hiatus) Ȥ롥첻Ϣ³ꤽʾ硤٤餫ΡȾ˻Ҳ뤳Ȥ¿㤨С첻ͿȤˤ [j] 첻ͿȤˤ [w] Ϥ겻 (glide) Ȥ졤seeing [ˈsiːɪŋ] [ˈsiːjɪŋ] Ȥȯ줿ꡤdoor [dɔə] [ˈdɔwə] Ȥʤäꤹ롥the apple Τ褦ʾǤ⡤[ði ˈæpl] Ϥ겻 [j] [ðiˈjæpl] ȯ뤳Ȥ¿ʡ#906. the ΰۤʤȯ ([2011-10-20-1])#2236. 첻 the ȯˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2015-06-11-1]) ȡˡϡĴ弫˸Ϥ겻Ǥʡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ȡˡ
ʳˤ⡤ĴŪͳˤΤȤϹͤ줺¿ʤȤֲŪװͿƤΤȤơan apple Τ褦첻֤괧ˤߤ n Ūˤ n ݻȤ٤ˤ䡤the idea(r) is . . . Τ褦 r ⡤Ѹ첻Ϣ³ΰĤȤߤ뤳ȤǤʡ#831. Why "an apple"? ([2011-08-06-1])#500. intrusive r ([2010-09-09-1]) ȡˡ
⤦1Ĥ⤷ϡĺ (glottal_stop) [ʔ] Ǥ롥ĺϤȤ⤹̵դƤޤȤҲǤ롥̵Ȥʹ䤹ȤȤϡ첻֤ơڤܤɸΤΩȤȤǤ⤢롥Ϥ겻ή礦ȯˤ첻Ϣ³٤ΤФơĺϤषǫȯˤ2Ĥ첻Τ˶뤳Ȥ¿ʲθϡǫȯˤĺǤƣp. 35ˡ
co-operate [cəʊˈʔɒpəreɪt]
geometry [ðɪˈʔɒmətrɪ]
reaction [rɪˈʔækʃn]
day after day [ˈdeɪ ʔɑːftə ˈdeɪ]
law and order [ˈlɔː ʔənd ˈɔːdə]
better off [ˌbetə ˈʔɒf]
츫첻Τˡִ֡פ֤άΤ褦˻פ뤬 [j], [w], [n], [r] ƱΩɤʡֻҲפǤ롥
첻Ϣ³ȴϢơ#830. sandhi ([2011-08-05-1]) ⻲ȡ
ƣ ظդΤܤ롡ˤĤ줿Ѹܸ١ҡ2010ǯ
ҥȤȯﴱŪʪǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ#544. ҥȤȯﴱοʲŬ ([2010-10-23-1]) Ǥߤη̤ȤƥҥȤθ͡ħ뤤¤Ĥ˻äȻפ뤬Ѳ䡤ˤϸѲ⡤ҥȤȯﴱŪüȴϢƤȤ롥 (15) ϡޥƥͤθΤ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
Ͼ˶ΤȤ줿ηϤؤѲ롥ʹ֤ȯﴱϡȯ켡ǽȤƤĤΤǤϤʤ塤Ͽʪݼ褷𤷡߹िˤǤƤꡤȯﴱϡòǽξˡСŪǽȤƤˤʤäơδﴱϡʪξòˤԹ褯ǤƤƤ⡤ȯɬԹ褯ǤƤʤȯﴱȤƤߤԶѹդˤǤƤꡤѹդΤȤ줿ηϤܻؤηϡä첻ҲηϤȤ¸˰ܤȯﴱȤ礷ƤʤΤȤŪʸѲװǤꡤºݤˤФȯѲѲθȤʤ롥
ĴؤؤλΩƤС㤨첻ߤʬ褦ˡȸоŪԶѹդǤ롥#19. 첻շ ([2009-05-17-1]) #118. 첻շʤ첻ϻΡ ([2009-08-23-1]) οޤߤСФߤȤˡĹǤϤʤʤ줹ŪʿˤǤ롥ȤŪˤС㤨ܸΤ褦5첻ηϤˤơ/i, e, a, o, u/ γƲǤϺоΤͥʻѷʤ뤤Vˤդξ֤Τ̤Ǥ롥ۤоŪ¤оŪȤޤˤ롥
ΰѤǼĥƤ뤳Ȥϡۤȸ¤Υ줳¤Ѳ븶ưϤǤ롤ȤΡۡפˤϡΩηϤǤȤ륽塼ι¤ŪʸѤǻȿǤƤ롥
աإ塼ȥԥθۡؤ뤿ˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
[2016-10-01-1], [2016-10-11-1], [2016-10-31-1]³4ơޤǤεǡ15ޤǤˡChaucer ʤɤɽ볬λ¹äƤȹͤ첻η (System I)ɤǹԤʤƤη (System II)East Anglia ʤɤˤߤη (System III) 3बɥˤƺäƤSystem II System III üԤϡAlexander Gil ˤơ "Mopsae" "Easterners" ȸƤФƤ롥
ηϤ1650ǯޤǤȼȯŸ뤲ɤǤϤȤ櫓Ťΰҿ System I ȡΤ System II 2郎Ԥʤ褦ˤʤäƤ
System I:
ME /eː/ > EModE /iː/, e.g. meed
ME /ɛː/ > EModE /eː/, e.g. mead
ME /aː/, /ai/ > EModE /ɛː/, e.g. made, maid
System II:
ME /eː/ > EModE /i:/, e.g. meed
ME /ɛː/, /aː/, /ai/ > EModE /eː/, e.g. mead, made, maid
Ȥ18ˤʤȡޤ̤2ηϤ礹褦ˤʤäƤ1ĤϡSystem I ɤȴưҿΤ褦ʰ֤ŤȤ¸³Ƥ System II Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤϤŤǹԤʤƤ System III Ǥ롥System III ϡ[2016-10-31-1]εǽҤ٤褦ˡɥǤ System I Ȥ̤ܿưʲΤ褦Ѳ뤲Ƥ
System III:
ME /eː/, /ɛː/ > ModE /iː/, e.g. meed, mead
ME /aː, aɪ/ > ModE /eː/, e.g. made, maid
System III ϸŤηϤǤϤ뤬18ޤǤưҿϤƤꡤ̣ǿηϤǤ⤢äơθ塤 System III ޤޤͥȤʤꡤˤޤ³Ū RP δפȤʤäƤäSystem III ͥȤʤäΤϡSystem II ٤Ʊ۵ (homonymic_clash) εʤޤȤŪʥåȤˤϤäSmith (110) ϡSystem III II ǻܿϥɥƤۤˤʤˤ⡤װȤƤ롥
. . . System III's success in London is not solely due to intralinguistic functional reasons but also to extralinguistic social factors peculiar to the capital. System II and System III could only come into contact in a major urban centre, such as London; in more rural areas, the opportunity for the two systems to compete would have been much rarer and thus it would have been (and is) possible for the older System II to have been retained longer. The coexistence of System II and System III in one place, London, meant that it was possible for Londoners to choose between them.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
#2714. 첻ܤμҲŪͻ ([2016-10-01-1])#2724. 첻ܤμҲŪͻ (2) ([2016-10-11-1]) ³3ơ2Ƥε ([2016-10-11-1]) ǡSystem II 첻ηϤäƤȤ¿üԤҤ System I ΤۤزŬ (hyperadaptation) Ȥ첻 (gvs) ΰȤʤäȤҲ𤷤Smith (106--07) ˤȡ⤦1 GVS ΰȤʤä첻ηϤäüԽĤȤϡ"Easterners" ȸƤФ롤餯 East Anglia пȤο͡Ǥ롥
East Anglia Ǥϡ14Ⱦ15ˤƥɥǿʹԤϤ첻ܤܤäƤطʤȤơűѸ Saxon ǣ Ф Anglia Ǥ ē äƤȡ/d, t, n, s, l, r/ ֤Ǿ夲 (raising) ФƤȤʤɤäοܤη̤ȤơEast Anglia 첻ηϤϡ3ʳι⤵5ĤĹ첻 /iː, uː, eː, oː, aː/ ȤʤäƤ
ơ Easterners 15ȾȾФˤԻԲοʤɥذܽɥѸ졤ä˸Ҥ System I üԤܿȤˡ⤦1ĤβŬ줿3ʳ East Anglia ηϤ˺٤ʳʬ줿 System I ܿȤԤϸԤΰҿĴ˰ơΤȤĴ֤Ĵ뤳ȤˤʤäŪˤϡEasterners System I [æː] ʬ /eː/ γФƸԤȤȯƱͤ [eː̝] /iː/ γФơΤ褦ȯ3ʳ⤿ʤ Easterners ˤȤäơѸ /eː/ ĸ /ɛː/ ĸζ̤ϤĤʤäΤǡɤ /iː/ ȤγФ졤ȯ뤳Ȥˤʤä褽ƱȤ첻ˤⵯä
System III Ȥ٤ Easterners Τ첻ηϤϡ¤ϡ18ޤǤϤư̲ɸѸ meed, mead, maid, made ʤɤ˸Ϣ첻Ρԡ˶̤߽ФΤȤʤäǤ⡤Ѹ첻˾塤礭ôä첻ηϤäȤ
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
#2180. ѸμɤƤޤűѸʸ ([2015-04-16-1]) ǵ褦ˡѸ word ϡűѸǤ⤽Τޤ <word> ֤Ƥꡤ츫ȲѤäƤʤ褦˻פ뤬Ȥ櫓ȯ˴ؤƤʣѲФƤ롥رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤȡOE word o -rd ō Ĺ/woːrd wuːrd wurd wʌrd wəːd/ ȯãΤդĤξ /wurd/ ûʤäΤϡ -d ̵첻ĹεʤäαƶפȤ롥
ѲˤĤ¾⤢ꤦ褦㤨С (163) ˤСűѸ줫 [p, b, f, m, w] Τ褦ʿθ֤ [ɔ] > [ʊ] ξ夲βȤ롥ϡʲΤ褦ñ췲˴ѻ롥
borgian > burgian (to borrow)
fol > full (full)
forþor > furþer (further)
fugol (fowl)
morþor > murþer (murder)
spora > spura (spur)
worc > wurc (work)
word > wurd (word)
worold > wurold (world)
wulf (wolf)
ơѸ줫Ѹˤ [ʊ] > [ʌ] 岽߿ꡤ̤ȤƤ /ʌr/ Ѹˤʤ /ɪr, ɛr/ ȹήߤ /ər/ ؤϢʤäȤϢñ췲ȤƤϡʲΤΤp. 306ˡburn, burst, burden, burr, cur, curd, curse, curtain, curl, church, demur, disturb, fur, furnish, further, furze, hurl, hurt, hurdle, journey, murder, nurse, occur, purse, purchase, prefer, purple, purpose, spur, spurn, surge, scurf, turf, turn, Thursday, work, worm, worse, worst, worship, worth, worthy, world, word岽ˤĤƤϡ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1])#1094. <o> ֻ /u/ 첻ɽ魯 ([2012-04-25-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
ʤ˵췲Ǥ <ur> ֻ¿<w> ǻϤޤˤĤƤ <or> ¿Ȥաϡ"minim avoidance" (Carney 188) Τ⤦1ĤǤꡤ<wu>, <wi> ä̤Ǥ"minim avoidance" ˤĤƤϡ#2450. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤѡ ([2016-01-11-1]) ⻲ȡˡŪˤѸʤɤ <wurd> ޤ <wur-> ֻ⤢äȤˤդƤѸΰֻˤĤƤϡMED wōrd (n.) ȡ
word ΤɤäѲä˲ѲϡꤹȤʤʤѤǤ롥
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
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