Ƕᡤؤȥ (chaos_theory) ˤĤƾĴ٤Ƥ뤬ե饯֥ޥǥ֥ (Mandelbrot set) Τؼ Benoît Mandelbrot (1924--2010) ؤ˴ؤͤ路Ƥ뤳ȤΤäʡ֥ޥǥ֥פˤĤƤϡ#3123. ȥե饯 ([2017-11-14-1]) ȡˡ
Mandelbrot ϤͤǡŹ (cryptology) ȸؤȤˤƤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#2699. Źؤȸء ([2016-09-16-1]) εǡξʬ̩ܤʴطˤĤƹͤȤäΤǡǺƤӼ夲ε2ǽҤ٤Ȥ Mandelbrot (552) μ1ϡ褯礹롥
. . . let us grant for the moment that the encoding and decoding machines may be as complicated as the designer may wish, and that the memory of the human links---using the common sense of the word "memory"---is unbounded. Under those ideal circumstances, it is obvious that any improvement of our understanding of the structure of language and of discourse will bring a possibility of improvement of the performance of the cryptographer or stenographer. For example, a knowledge of the rules of grammar will show that a given phrase will never be encountered in grammatically correct discourse; thus, if his employer were to speak only grammatical English, a stenographer would not need any special set of signs to designate the incorrect sentences. Similarly, a knowledge of the statistics of discourse will suggest that the "cliché" be represented by special short signs; in this way, the stenogram will be shortened and---since deciphering is very much helped by cliché---the code will be strengthened. That is, the ideal cryptographer and stenographer should make the utmost use of any available linguistic information.
ŹԤϡΤäƤФۤɡŹʸǤ뤷դ˰ŹɼԤ⡤ΤäƤФۤɡΤ褦ǽ餹ȤǤ롥ΰ̣ǡŹؤѤؤȤ⤤ΤǤ롥
Mandelbrot, Benoît. "Information Theory and Psycholinguistics." Scientific Psychology: Principles and Approaches. Ed. Benjamin B. Wolman and Ernest Nagel. New York: Basic Books, 1965. 550--62.
17Υɤγ Samuel Pepys (1633--1703) ϡ1660--69ǯɥǤνϿ The Diary of Samuel Pepys Τ롥1665--66ǯ˥ɥäڥ (The Great Plague) ˤĤƤ⡤¤äƵϿƤ롥ϢսĤȴФ
Sunday 30 April 1665 . . . . Great fears of the sickenesse here in the City, it being said that two or three houses are already shut up. God preserve as all!
Sunday 7 June 1665 . . . . This day, much against my will, I did in Drury Lane see two or three houses marked with a red cross upon the doors, and "Lord have mercy upon us" writ there; which was a sad sight to me, being the first of the kind that, to my remembrance, I ever saw. It put me into an ill conception of myself and my smell, so that I was forced to buy some roll-tobacco to smell to and chaw, which took away the apprehension.
Sunday 10 June 1665 . . . . In the evening home to supper; and there, to my great trouble, hear that the plague is come into the City (though it hath these three or four weeks since its beginning been wholly out of the City) . . . .
Saturday 16 September 1665 . . . . At noon to dinner to my Lord Bruncker, where Sir W. Batten and his Lady come, by invitation, and very merry we were, only that the discourse of the likelihood of the increase of the plague this weeke makes us a little sad, but then again the thoughts of the late prizes make us glad.
3ĤΰѤˤȤꡤڥȤƥäƤΤ610Ǥ롥6ܤˤϡɥĹȻԻϢ̾ǥڥȾ㤬ۤƤ롥Υɥο25ͤۤɤȤ⤬뤬1/5ۤɤ鷺1ǯΤڥȤݤ줿Ȥ顤ޤ¢pp. 219--226ˡڥȤ1666ǯˤϲФˤʤäƤΤΡ֤äƤϤڥȤ줿Τϡˤ92ΥɥФˤäƤä Pepys (Sunday 2 September 1666) ⻲Ȥ줿
¢ Ի顡إڥȤʸ衼åѤ̱ʸȱ¡١īʹҡīӡ1995ǯ
ε#3040. űѸ줫ѸˤѤ줿ֵٻߡפɽ魯ɵ ([2017-08-23-1]) ˰³ɵ (punctuation) ꡥ<;> (semicolon) ϡ#2666. Ѹʶˡ ([2016-08-14-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ16ȾˤʤäƤ褦䤯Ѥ褦ˤʤäԤǤ롥θ塤ɵ¿Ѥ "heavy style" ߤ18ˤϤ˳ˤƿषƤƤ롥ḽˤۤ semicolon ˴ؤơCrystal (207) ʸϤ̣
It's often been reported that the semicolon is going out of fashion, and the evidence (from the study of large collections of written material) does support a steady drop in frequency during the twentieth century. (They're much more common in British English than American English.) A typical finding is to see that 90 per cent of all punctuation marks are either periods or commas, and semicolons are just a couple of percent. The figure was much higher once. The semicolon had its peak in the eighteenth century, when long sentences were thought to be a feature of an elegant style, heavy punctuation was in vogue, and punctuation was becoming increasingly grammatical. The rot set in during the nineteenth century, when the colon became popular, and took over some of the semicolon's functions. The economics of the telegraph (the shorter the message, the cheaper) fostered short sentences. And today it has virtually disappeared from styles where sentences tend to be short, such as on the Internet.
ǶܤǤ⡤Twitter ʤɤαƶǡñʻͤûʸǽȤǤޤȤޤäͤĹʸǽȤǤʤͤƤȤȤʹ뤬ϢưʸϤѤɵμ٤ѲȤΤϳΤˤꤽǤ롥semicolon Ȥ̣ȾüʶɵɤȤˤäơषơλʸϥħ⤭ĦˤʤȤΤϤ⤷塤semicolon ϸꤵ줿ƥȥפǤܤˤʤ쥢ʶɵˤʤäƤǽ⤢ꤽ
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.
#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1]) Ƥ7ǯǯФäEthnologue (20th ed) κǿǤФΤǡSummary by language size ɽ3ˤꡤüԿˤȥå23κǿ
| Rank | Language | Primary Country | Countries | Speakers (20th ed, 2017) | Speakers (16th ed, 2009) | (13th ed, 1996) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chinese | China | 37 | 1,284 million | 1,213 | 1,123 |
| 2 | Spanish | Spain | 31 | 437 | 329 | 266 |
| 3 | English | United Kingdom | 106 | 372 | 328 | 322 |
| 4 | Arabic | Saudi Arabia | 57 | 295 | 221 | 202 |
| 5 | Hindi | India | 5 | 260 | 182 (242.6 with Urdu) | (236 with Urdu) |
| 6 | Bengali | Bangladesh | 4 | 242 | 181 | 189 |
| 7 | Portuguese | Portugal | 13 | 219 | 178 | 170 |
| 8 | Russian | Russian Federation | 19 | 154 | 144 | 288 |
| 9 | Japanese | Japan | 2 | 128 | 122 | 125 |
| 10 | Lahnda | Pakistan | 6 | 119 | 78.3 | |
| 11 | Javanese | Indonesia | 3 | 84.4 | 84.6 | |
| 12 | Korean | Korea | 7 | 77.2 | 66.3 | |
| 13 | German | Germany | 27 | 76.8 | 90.3 | 98 |
| 14 | French | France | 53 | 76.1 | 67.8 | 72 |
| 15 | Telugu | India | 2 | 74.2 | 69.8 | |
| 16 | Marathi | India | 1 | 71.8 | 68.1 | |
| 17 | Turkish | Turkey | 8 | 71.1 | 50.8 | |
| 18 | Urdu | Pakistan | 6 | 69.1 | 60.6 | |
| 19 | Vietnamese | Viet Nam | 3 | 68.1 | 68.6 | |
| 20 | Tamil | India | 7 | 68.0 | 65.7 | |
| 21 | Italian | Italy | 13 | 63.4 | 61.7 | 63 |
| 22 | Persian | Iran | 30 | 61.9 | ||
| 23 | Malay | Malaysia | 16 | 60.8 | 39.1 | 47 |
ѸäˤĤơ1ǯۤε ([2016-06-24-1]) ͡ʥĥäθ⤢ΤǡåץǡȤƤɤ߿ʤƤСѸûˤγפʬ롥
1ǤߤѸ
1.1äεϤ礭 (#898)
1.2äμ˭٤ (##756,309,202,429,845,1202,110,201,384)
1.3Ѹûˤγά (##37,1526,126,45)
2üѤȤϡ
2.1ʤäѤΤ (##46,1794)
2.2Ѥ5W1Hġɤǡï顤ɤΤ褦ˡʤڤꤿΤ (#37)
3ѸθüѤ (#1526)
3.1Φ (--449)
3.1.1ƥ (#1437)
3.2űѸ (449--1100)
3.2.1ȸ (##1216,2443)
3.2.2ƥ (#32)
3.2.3ťΥɸ (##2625,2693,340,818)
3.2.4űѸΤθ (##450,2556,648)
3.3Ѹ (1100--1500)
3.3.1ե (##117,1210)
3.3.2ƥ (##120,1211)
3.3.3Ѹθäεȳ (#985)
3.4Ѹ (1500--1700)
3.4.1ƥ (##478,114,1226)
3.4.2ꥷ (#516)
3.4.3ޥ (##2385,2162,1411,1638)
3.5Ѹ (1700--1900) ȸѸ (1900--)
3.5.1äȯ (##203,616)
3.5.2ν (##874,2165,2164)
4αѸäˤߤˤΰ仺
4.1եȥƥ줫μѸ (#2162)
4.2ưʪɽ魯ñ (##331,754)
4.3ä3ع¤ (##334,1296,335,1960)
4.4Ѹθäζ (##1645,296,1630,1067)
5ߤ̤αѸ
5.1Ѱʳοθ (##873,874,875)
5.2äϻǤФ (##625,631,876,889)
ѸûˤŤߤǺǽפȤʤ3ŦƤ
(1) ѸûˤϡѸ¾θήˤϢưƤ
(2) üѤưŤϡɬפΤߤǤϤʤ
(3) üѤˤ줬Ѥ߾夲Ƥ̤Ȥ3ع¤
ε#2875. Ѹäʬۤγʺ˷ȥĶǤߤ ([2017-03-11-1]) ˰³Ѹ٤γʺˤĤƹͤƤߤä˷ľŪ˳ʺǧǤɸȤơʺ1%ΥȤΤ롥кѳؤǤСȥޥԥƥⰦѤƤ֥ȥå͵ؤνפǤ롥ɤΤ餤ȤɸФ褤ѸäˤĤƸС٤ǥȥå1%뤽ۤ¿ʤˤäơΤΤɤΤ餤ΥƤ뤫ɸȤʤ롥
Ʊ褦ˡٿ81.5ۤɤŪϤ GSL θɽȡ1850ۤɤε祳ѥ#1424. CELEX2 ([2013-03-21-1]) ˴ŤɽǷƤߤȥå1%ȥȥå0.1%Ǥͤϡʲ̤ꡥ
| GSL | CELEX2 | |
|---|---|---|
| 1% | 47.05% | 69.36% |
| 0.1% | 14.60% | 43.57% |
#1103. GSL ˤ Zipf's law θڡ ([2012-05-04-1]) ǡGeneral Service List (GSL) κ2000;θɽѤơzipfs_law ΩͻҤ±餷ٽ̤ι⤤θ줬ιٸǤϤʤĶٸǤ뤳ȡǤʳ¿θ줬ʤ٤ٸǤȤȤǧ줿ΤȤϡѸʤơ餯ˤθäʬۤʿԶѹդǤꡤ礭ʤФĤȳʺħŤƤ뤳ȤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ʬۤγʺɽŪʻɸˡꥢηкѳؼԥˤʬۤʿ¬ɸȤ1936ǯ˹ͰƤ˷ (Gini's coefficient) 롥ͤϼ̤X˱äƺ鱦غǤ٤㤤줫⤤ؤȽ¤١٤ΥY˼äƤĤʤȡ餫ηα夬ζȤʤ롥Ķ (Lorenz curve) Ȥ٤Ƥθ줬Ʊ٤ǸȤˤϥĶ45٤α夬ľȤʤִʿפդˡüȤơ1ĤθΤߤ٤Τ٤Ƥͭ¾Τ٤Ƥθ줬٥ξˡִʿפȤʤꡤĶϺLȤʤ롥̤ϡĶϡ45٤α夬βˡθ̤Ȥ롥˷ϡѤȡ45٤α夬ľѤդȤľջѷΨȤɽ롥äơ0ʿ1ʿȤȤˤʤ롥
ơGSL ǡեǷ̡˷0.812ȽФĶȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

餫ʿʬۤȤ롥ʤߤˡGSL ʥѥθɽȤȡ˥˷Ͼ夬㤨С1790줫ʤ륳ѥ#1424. CELEX2 ([2013-03-21-1]) ˴ŤǤϡ0.950 ȤޤͤФˡ
ͤޤǤˡ (122) ˵ä2010ǯννʺ˷Ĥȡܤ 0.336ꥫ 0.380꤬ 0.510ɤ 0.246 Ǥ롥äμҲˤʿʼҲǤ뤳Ȥʬ
Ρؿܷкѡ١ҡӡ2016ǯ
ߡˤ7ۤɤθ줬ԤʤƤȤ뤬ΤǤ "popular" ʸϲۤȤɤο͡ϡֱѸפ뤫⤷ʤºݤˤ "popular" ΤˤƤʤ¤ꡤμΤΤ餯¿ܿͤˤȤäơ"popular" ʸȤϡǹäƤפΤȤꤵ뤬ǤϡֹפȤϲΤȤѤƤο뤤ϡΤ褦ʹѤѤƤ͡ο̸ȤƺѤƤݵؤο2Ȥƶ餷ƤοδᤵС"popular" ޤꡤǤ "popular" ʸ줬Ȥ䤤ФȤǤɤδ "popular" ȤʤΤˤĤơפϤʤ褦˻פ롥"popular" "top" "significant" ֤Ȥǡϲ褷ʤ
㤨СüԤοȤȤǤСѸ졤ڥˤĤ3̤Ȥʤ롥2ȤääСѸ1̤Ф롥ǤϡֱѸפϰϤˤʤꡤ㤨СѸפȤԥ䥯쥪üԤϱѸüԤ˴ޤΤȤä䤬롥뤤ϡɤΥԥ䥯쥪ޤᡤɤޤʤΤ
ޤθȤηкϤ䵻Ϥʤɤ⡤θɬפΤǤϤʤιŪ˳ƤФۤɡθŪѤ䤹Ū "popular" Ȥʤꤦ뤫Τ褦ʡֹפϲˤäƷפФ褤ΤкѳưϤʸϤ̱γ礫餫νŤߤŤˤƤ⡤δ̵¤Ǥ롥
ͤ "popular" λɸ٤Ʒ˴ޤФȤˡϤȤʤͤŪʤ褦ʻɸ¿ɤΤȤüԤ2üԤοʤɡǽʴ¸Υǡ濴ˤʤ顤Ūʡְפ̣ơǤ "popular" ʸФȤȤˤʤʤ餶ʤְפˤϡԼǡĿŪʹޤޤ뤫⤷ʤŪǥŪʹޤ뤫⤷ʤ
ȤȤϡ츫ñǼ¤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡGooden (8--9) Ȥ줿ܥ֥Ǥϡ#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1])#2263. μüԿӡ ([2015-07-08-1])#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])#1592. ѸüԤοפ뤳Ȥͳ ([2013-09-05-1]) ʤɤϢ롥
Gooden, Philip. The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World. London: Quercus, 2009.
#2704. Ź ([2016-09-21-1]) ȴϢơʸͷӤΤˡ֥Ź浡פäƤߤޤϡǤñ n ʸեȤˤˤꡤʸ沽 (encipher) 뤤沽 (decipher) εǽХåɤ Perl Text::Cipher::KeywordAlphabet ⥸塼ѤƤ롥
ΡذŹɡ٤ɤŹ (cryptology) ϸؤ1ʬȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Ǥ⸶ŪžּŹ䡤ʸ֤봹ŹСʹߤΰŹȲɤϿء׳ءʪؤαѤΤΤǤꡤؤΰϰϤ礭æƤ褦˻פ롥ʹߤ˳ȯ줿ͥŹ桤˥ޤΰŹ桤̻ҰŹʤɤϡ٤ʿءʪؤѤŹǤꡤϤؤνФǤϤʤΤ褦
ĤǰŹؤϸؤ̩ܤϢݤäƤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥ذŹɡ٤ˤŹˤѤȤǡξʬθˤĤƹͤƤߤ1ܤϡȤŹ沽ƿȤκϤܾۤ˸ǤȤȤ䤽¾εƿȤ⤢Ūˤϲ餫θǽ줿ʸϤŹ沽оݤǤꡤ椨ˡʿʸפȸƤФ롥ŹԤϡʿʸ˲餫Υ֥ʰŹ沽뤿α黻ˤܤ̵̣ʸ櫓ǹԤʤäƤ뤳Ȥϡ̣ͭǸ餷ƥȤ̵̣Ǹ餷ʸѴȤȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤŹԤϤʤ٤ʿʸΤĸ餷Ϥͤˤۤʤ餺Źݤϡοͤ餷Ȥϲؤ餷̤ȤϲؤΤˤĤơ˿Ƥ뤫ˤäƤ롥ʤȤ櫓աˤˤʸνиΨʤɤŪʻ̤ƤФۤɡŹԤϸ餷̽Ϥ뤷դ˰ŹɼԤϤȤʿʸ᤹ȤǤ롥ΤΤƥȤǤʾ塤θ塤ʣʱ黻ä褦Ȥ⡤餫θŪ夤Ʋ餶ʤ
2ܤˡŹ沽沽Ѥ븰ޤŹˤʬˤơñ䤽¾ɽʤɸŪñ̤äȤ¤롥κǤʤŹˤƤϸǤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤȤ⸰꤬褵ΰŹˤƤϡϰ̣ʤɤ䥭ե졼ǤꡤθäϿ줿ñ䤽¾ɽǤ뤳Ȥ̤äϡŹԤԤ˶ͭƤʤФʤ餺ߤˤȤäƴΤǤñȤŵƤΤäȤä䵭ϰŵˤ˽αƤȤϥƥ꤬롥äơ2ͤǽ餫ΤäƤΡʤ̸β餫ñ̤ȤΤǤ롥դˤСŹɼԤˤȤäƤϡͤߤ뤿ˡθäɽΥꥹȤΤʤʤȤάȤʤ롥Τ褦ˡʿʸΤߤʤ餺ŹθΤΤ¿ξ硤Ǥ롥
3ܤˡϸȤƤͭĤĤߤ˰ۤʤŪʵηϤǤ뤫顤¾δ֤κȤϡŹ桦κȤ˶ᤤºݡ2Ǥϡꥫ轻̱ʥ²θѤʥ۰ŹʤΤ߽ФѸäʥ²ȤʤäơŹ沽Ѹʿʸʥ۸ѴΥʥ۸ƥȤãϤ롥ϡդΥʥ²οͤǤΥƥȤѸؤʤƤ餦ŨɥĤˤϡʥ۸˴ؤ븦ϰڤʤɥĿͤβɼԤʥ۸줫ѤϤʤä¸ΤޤΤƤʤϡ켫ΤŹΥ르ꥺˤʤꤦȤ
Ǹˡ̤ʸȤδϢ⤢롥#2427. ̤ʸ ([2015-12-19-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡޤɤƤʤʸηϤϾʤʤ#2486. ʸɤˡ ([2016-02-16-1]) ǿ줿ʸɤˤҤȤȡǻȤƤˡϡ˶ŤۤɡȤʸäȤ׳ؤؤȤʳŪʼˡؤȿʲƤƤꡤ̤ΰŹɤμˡȤƤ褯Ƥ롥ΤȤϡʿʸפ餫θǽ줿ƥȤǤȤȤȤƤΤ顤ԻĤǤϤʤŹؤ̤ϡʸβɤˤ˹뤳ȤǤ롥
ܼŪǶ̣䤤Ȥơʹ֤ϤġɤǡʤŹ沽ɬפΤ줬ߥ˥ΤȯãƤȤȤȡåƿȤưߵϰ̷Ȥ⤤롥ƿȤơޤϡŹؤůؤȤ⤤٤Τˤʤ
ˡ ˡذŹɡ岼١Ĭҡ2017ǯ
ε#2692. ťΥɸѸ˴ؤ Gersum Project ([2016-09-09-1]) Ҳ𤷤 Gersum Project Norse Terms in English: A (basic!) Introduction ˡե줫μѸ椷ʤťΥɸ줫μѸ˴ؤͤʤɤڤƤ
When it comes to numbers, French influence, mainly as a result of the Norman Conquest, is much more significant: approximately 10,000 words were borrowed from French during the Middle English period (of which around 7,000 are still used), whereas there are about 2,000 Norse-derived terms recorded in medieval English texts. Of them, about 700 are still in use in Standard English, although many more can be found in dialects from areas such as the East Midlands, Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire. The significance of the Norse impact on (Standard) English lies instead in the fact that most of the Norse-derived terms do not have a technical character (consider, for instance, skirt, leg, window, ugly, ill, happy, scare, bask, die) and even include a number of grammatical terms, the most notable being the third person plural pronouns they, them and their (because personal pronouns are not easily borrowed between languages). The presence of these terms was probably facilitated by the similarity between Old English and Old Norse, both of which were Germanic languages. In fact, it seems very likely that the speakers of the two languages were able to understand each other by speaking their own language, of course with some careful lexical choices and a good deal of pointing and, when appropriate, smiling.
Ѹäפϡ츻ԳΤʤɤߡˤʤ餶ʤͿƤлͤˤʤ롥˵Ƥͤ⡤¾ΤΤ礭ۤʤäƤʤѸμѸ˸ꤷƿȡե줫Ϥ褽1ʤ7줬ߤޤǻĤˤꡤťΥɸ줫Ϥ褽2ʤ700줬ɸѸ˻ĤˤäȤƤ롥ťΥɸ줫μѸп⸽ߤޤǤλ¸ΨŪ㤤Ȥ뤬ѸäΥˤޤǿƩƤȤ̣ǡŪʿϤ롥ޤνθСȤƤťΥɸѸοȤȤõƤűѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤ̤礨ȤѶŪʻŦܤͤ롥
¾Ѹ˴ؤפ cat:loan_word statistics γƵȡ
n-gram ϡפ䥳ѥؤˤŪʳǰʤǤʡ#2324. n-gram ([2015-09-07-1]), #956. COCA N-Gram Search ([2011-12-09-1]) ȡˡƥȤꤷƤ n-gram ġϥͥåȤ¾ˤߤƤ뤬ƴʰץġCGIǼƤߤХåɤ Perl ⥸塼 Text::Ngrams ѤƤ롥
Algeo and Pyles (280--81) ˡChaucer The Canterbury Tales Ellesmere ܡˤ General Prologue Ƭ27ԤˤĤơեѸ˥åΤܤΤ롥ʲ˺Ƹ褦
Whan that Aprille with hise shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote
And bathed every veyne in swich licour
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
Inspired hath in every hold and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his half[e] cours yronne,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
That slepen al the nyght with open eye---
So priketh hem nature in hir corages---
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,
And Palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,
To ferne halwes kowthe in sondry londes
And specially fram every shires ende
Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende
The hooly blisful martir for to seke
That hem hath holpen when þt they were seeke.
Bifil that in that seson on a day,
In southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage
To Caunterbury with ful devout corage,
At nyght were come in to that hostelrye
Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye
Of soundry folk by aventure yfalle
In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle
That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde.
27Ԥǹ189줬ѤƤ뤬2ٸ pilgrimage corage 1ȿۤʤǷȡ24 (12.70%) ޤǤեѸǤ롥οϡե˴ǽä Chaucer ʤǤϤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ餯14ȾζܤɥαѸŵŪͤȤäƤ褤Serjeantson (151) ˤСChaucer Ѥ10--15%ϥեѸäȤȤGeneral Prologue Ƭ27Ԥ Chaucer ȤƤŵŪʿŪͤƤȤ롥
ѸǤϥեѸΨϤɤ줯餤ʤΤʤѰˤäưۤʤɸŪʸϸоݤĴѸξ٤Ȥ⤷
General Prologue ƬˤĤƤϡ#534. The General Prologue Ƭθ߷ȴλ ([2010-10-13-1])#2275. ѸβηϤ The General Prologue ([2015-07-20-1]) ȡ
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Serjeantson, Mary S. A History of Foreign Words in English. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1935.
ִܸá (basic vocabulary) ȤѸϡĴˤ͡ʵ˽Ф魯ε#2660. glottochronology ȴܸá ([2016-08-08-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡ̸ˤƤ⡤̤ˤƤ⡤ܸäȤϲʤΤɤޤǤϰϤޤΤҴŪ뤳Ȥ
glottochronology ˷ȤؼԤϡȼ̸Ū̻Ūʴ顤ܸåꥹȤΤԽƤ㤨СʬʬǤ Swadesh (456--57) ϡʥꥹȤϺʤȤȤǧĤġ200줫ʤƤ롥ΰHymes ("Lexicostatistics" 6) ͳǷǤ褦
all, and, animal, ashes, at, back, bad, bark, because, belly, big, bird, bite, black, blood, blow, bone, breathe, burn, child, cloud, cold, come take, count, cut, day, die, dig, dirty, dog, drink, dry, dull, dust, ear, earth, eat, egg, eye, fall, far, fat-grease, father, fear, feather, few, fight, fire, fish, five, float, flow, flower, fly, fog, foot, four, freeze, fruit, give, good, grass, green, guts, hair, hand, he, head, hear, heart, heavy, here, hit, hold-take, how, hunt, husband, I, ice, if, in, kill, know, lake, laugh, leaf, leftside, leg, lie, live, liver, long, louse, man-male, many, meat-flesh, mother, mountain, mouth, name, narrow, near, neck, new, night, nose, not, old, one, other, person, play, pull, push, rain, red, right-correct, rightside, river, road, root, rope, rotten, rub, salt, sand, say, scratch, sea, see, seed, sew, sharp, short, sing, sit, skin, sky, sleep, small, smell, smoke, smooth, snake, snow, some, spit, split, squeeze, stab-pierce, stand, star, stick, stone, straight, suck, sun, swell, swim, tail, that, there, they, thick, thin, think, this, thou, three, throw, tie, tongue, tooth, tree, turn, two, vomit, walk, warm, wash, water, we, wet, what, when, where, white, who, wide, wife, wind, wing, wipe, with, woman, woods, worm, ye, year, yellow
ΰȼȤ߹碌ΤǤꡤθβФ뤳ȤˤʤäȤ괰ʴܸåꥹȤϺʤΤ顤餫θĴԤʤˡΰˤȤΤϡ1ĤˡǤϤ롥ʤSwadesh ǯ¬οǤΤѤΤϡӸ줿100ΥꥹȤǤꡤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ǷǺܤ̤Ǥ100ꥹȤΤۤǯŪͭ⤤Ȥո⤢ (Hymes, "More" 341)ˡ
ܸäˤĤƤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1961. ܥ٥ơ ([2014-09-09-1])#1965. Ūʸǡ ([2014-09-13-1])#2625. ťΥɸ줫μѸ ([2016-07-04-1]) ʤɤεȡ
Swadesh, Morris. "Lexico-Statistic Dating of Prehistoric Ethnic Contacts: With Special Reference to North American Indians and Eskimos." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96 (1952): 452--63.
Hymes, D. H. "Lexicostatistics So Far." Current Anthropology 1 (1960): 3--44.
Hymes, D. H. "More on Lexicostatistics." Current Anthropology 1 (1960): 338--45.
glottochronology ˡɾ Hymes (11) ϡ⤦1ͤοؼ Gleason ˤ1950ǯȤʤ顤ѲΨ˴ؤ3ĤˤĤƲ⤷Ƥ롥
(1) Every lexical item at every given time has a certain probability of change.
(2) This probability of change is variable, and is influenced by both linguistic and non-linguistic factors.
(3) There exist certain sets of largely independent vocabulary items in which the probability of change within the group is large relative to the variability of that probability of change.
glottochronology Ǥϡ(1) (2) 餫ȤƤHymes ä˽פȻŦΤ (3) βǤ롥ˤСäˤϤĤ췲Ĥꡤ췲Ūꤷΰٹ礤ɤṲ̄θ췲ŪǤꡤٹ礤ɤŪ礭ȤŪˤϤ "basic vocabulary" "non-basic vocabulary" ʤɤζ̤ǰƬˤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤɬ餫Ǥʤ "(non-)basic" ȤѸȤ鷺ˡŪ׳ŪʼˡǡäʬФǽƤ롥ºݤθڤˤϡ¿θθäˤĤĴ줾ˤĤĹ֤ˤ錄̻ŪʸѲΨᡤӤȤƻʺȤɬפǤꡤ˷ФȤΤǤϤʤڲǽϳݤƤȤפǤ롥
̡뤤ϸ̸ˤơܸ (basic vocabulary) ȤϲȤϡҴŪΤƳüԤˤȤäƤľŪʬΤǤϤ뤬ϰϤҴŪΤε#2659. glottochronology lexicostatistics ([2016-08-07-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡܸäƱ˴Ϳ°Ȥ (1) Ū commonness (or frequency), (2) ̸Ū universality (of semantic reference), (3) ̻Ū (historical) persistence 3郎ƤƤꡤ餬ߤˤ褽شطˤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥3Ĥ°γơˤɤ٤νŤߤĤǽŪ˴ܸäꤹ٤ˤĤơä˹դϤʤ
glottochronology ˤȤäƤϡܸäȤϤޤǸǯ¬ꤹ뤿κǤϤ뤬षκõβǡܸäȤϲȤοˡξ¦̤뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤϤʤȤפ롥glottochronology Ȥʬ̤ˤĤƤ¿ȽʤƤβǷ깭ƤϤФܼŪǤꡤʿ˸ػŪʹ礭Ȥ
glottochronology ȴܸäˤĤƤϡHymes (32--33) ܤƤΤǡȡ
Hymes, D. H. "Lexicostatistics So Far." Current Anthropology 1 (1960): 3--44.
ؤʬȤƤθǯ (glottochronology) ȸ׳ (lexicostatistics) ϡФƱѤƤglottochronology ϻϼԤǤ Swadesh ϡξѸȤʬƤ롥伫Ȥ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) εǡξԤϰۤʤȤΩglottochronology ʸǯءˤϡꥫθؼ Morris Swadesh (1909--67) Robert Lees (1922--65) ˤä1940ǯ˳줿̻ؤ1ʬǤ롥μˡ lexicostatistics ʸ׳ءˤȸƤФ롥פȽҤ٤ϡѸˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ؼԡҲؼԤ Hymes (4) Swadesh ˰͵ʤ顤ξѸζ̤Τ褦Ƥ롥
The terms "glottochronology" and "lexicostatistics" have often been used interchangeably. Recently several writers have proposed some sort of distinction between them . . . . I shall now distinguish them according to a suggestion by Swadesh.
Glottochronology is the study of rate of change in language, and the use of the rate for historical inference, especially for the estimation of time depths and the use of such time depths to provide a pattern of internal relationships within a language family. Lexicostatistics is the study of vocabulary statistically for historical inference. The contribution that has given rise to both terms is a glottochronologic method which is also lexicostatistic. Glottochronology based on rate of change in sectors of language other than vocabulary is conceivable, and lexicostatistic methods that do not involve rates of change or time exist . . . .
Lexicostatistics and glottochronology are thus best conceived as intersecting fields.
Ĥޤꡤglottochronology lexicostatistics ʪξԤνŤʤʬʤפˤǯ¬ꤹ礬ʬˤȤäƤǤ褯Τ줿ʬǤ뤫顤ξԤ¾ƱȤʤäƤȤȤSwadesh 80ǯФäߤǤϡlexicostatistics ϡŻҥѥȯŸˤǯ¬Ȥ̵طνⰷʬȤʤäƤꡤμϰϤϹäƤȤ
ǰѤ Hymes ʸϡˤ "basic vocabulary" ȤϲȤŪʪĤˤĤƿƤäƤꡤɤβͤ롥"basic vocabulary" ϡcommonness (or frequency), universality (of semantic reference), (historical) persistence Τ줫°뤤ϤȤ߹碌˴ŤΤȳͼƤ뤬ƱʸϤդεˤĤƤܤܸäˤĤƤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) #1965. Ūʸǡ ([2014-09-13-1]) εľܤ˰äۤ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1])#1089. ȸ; ([2012-04-20-1])#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1497. taboo ŪȤʤͳ (2) ([2013-06-02-1])#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])#1961. ܥ٥ơ ([2014-09-09-1])#1970. ¿٤شط ([2014-09-18-1]) ʤεǴͿ˿ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿
Hymes, D. H. "Lexicostatistics So Far." Current Anthropology 1 (1960): 3--44.
ε#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1]) ڤӡ#148. եޥȥ ([2009-09-22-1])#149. եޥȱѸˡ ([2009-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ褦ˡȴϢѼʥեޥ졤ϥɥĸ졤եꥫʤɤޤߡȤȤˤ٤ƹ碌 "Low Dutch" ȸƤФˤѸäѸϰƳ¿Durkin ˤ OED3 ˤʬŪĴˤСθ줫μѸˤޤĤȾȤˤޤȤȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Durkin, p. 355 "Loanwords from Dutch, Low German, and Afrikaans, as reflected by OED3 (A--ALZ and M-RZZ)" ꤹɽƸ)

Ѹˤ̤ƤŪʿǤСLow Dutch μѸϡ¤˸ťΥɸ줫μѸ¿ȤΤϰճ⤷ʤ#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1]) ɽǤϡDutch/Flemish θŪƶ "minimal" ɽƤ뤬ºݤˤϤ⤦ɾɽǤäƤ褵ťΥɸۤɱѸδܸä˾Ϳ櫓ǤϤʤξӤ뤳ȤˤդʤФʤʤLow Dutch θüѤ˴ؤƸħȤơ鸽ޤڤ뤳Ȥʤä뤷ƤϻŦƤ
̤ˤߤȡѸпǤιפ϶ḽιפ뤬ȤƤä˸Ѹ˼ѤäȤ褯狼롥Ѹ Low Dutch μѸȤϸ츻ŪŪ˶̤ΤĤʤȤ¿ºݤˤϸűѸǤ⾯ʤ̼ѤäǽȡLow Dutch ѸΤıѸ˾ŪʰյϾʤ褦˻פ롥
Low Dutch ѸפˤĤơDurkin (356--57) ϼΤ褦˵Ƥ롥
The fullest study of words of Dutch or Low German origin in English remains that of Bense (1939), who drew his data chiefly from the first edition of the the (sic) OED. Bense's study groups loanwords from Dutch and Low German together under the collective heading 'Low Dutch', although at the level of individual word histories he frequently distinguishes between input from each language. His companion work, Bense (1925), provides a summary of the main historical contexts of contact. Bense discusses over 5,000 words, for most of which he considers Low Dutch origin at least plausible; this is thus much higher than the OED's etymologies suggest. His total includes some words ultimately of Dutch origin that have definitely entered English via other languages, e.g. plaque (from a French word that ultimately has a Dutch origin), and also many semantic loans; OED3 has over 150 of these in parts so far revised, e.g. household (a. 1399) or field-cornet (1800, after South African Dutch veldkornet). Nonetheless, Bense does make a case for direct borrowing from Dutch for many words for which the OED does not posit a Dutch etymon; even if one agrees with the OED's (generally more conservative) approach in all cases, Bense's suggestions are by no means absurd, and his work highlights very well the difficulty of being certain about the extent of the Dutch contribution to the lexis of English.
5000ĶȤ Bense λϤ緶ǤäƤ⡤ȤƤϼƤʤΤǤϤʤȤ Durkin ɾ⡤ʤʤŪǤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
Bense, J. F. Anglo-Dutch Relations from the Earliest Times to the Death of William the Third. Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff, 1925.
#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡɥĸαѸؤθŪƶϰƳʤ°桦 (20) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ɥĸ줬1824ǯ˻ޤǡѹͤˡۤȤɤޤäȤäƤ褤餤ܤߤʤäΤ⡤ä٤ȤǤ롥ɥĸ줫μѸ16餢ˤϤ뤬ե졤졤ʥʤɤμѸ٤ȡĤ˾ʤΤǤ롥20äƤǤ⡤ѹͤΥɥĸ˴ؤμ٤ʳãƤʤ
ʤ1824ǯȤϡThomas Carlyle (1795--1881) Göthe Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship ǤǯǤ롥
OED3 ˤѸ椷 Durkin (362) ˤȡ19ˤϥɥļѸΩäƤʤä19Ⱦ˰쵤˿ĥȤ19ȾˤϤԡã20ȾȾ塤20ȾˤƲФȤʤ˻롥 *
ɥļѸΤȤѸ줬¿줬̤ΩʤͳDurkin (361) Pfeffer and Cannon ԸȤʤ顤ɥĸѤȻˤĤƼΤ褦Ƥ롥
Pfeffer and Cannon provide a broad analysis of their data into subject areas; those with the highest numbers of items are (in descending order) mineralogy, chemistry, biology, geology, botany; only after these do we find two areas not belonging to the natural sciences: politics and music. The remaining areas that have more than a hundred items each (including semantic borrowings) are medicine, biochemistry, philosophy, psychology, the military, zoology, food, physics, and linguistics. Nearly all of these semantic areas reflect the importance of German as a language of culture and knowledge, especially in the latter part of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century.
Ѹϥޥ (Germanic) θǤꡤɥĸ (German) ȡַ״طˤȤϸ뤬˸褦ξŪˡʶḽ˻äƤܿεճ˳äˡֱƶ״ط϶ϾǤ롥ޤˡֱѸϥɥĸαƶƤפȸͤ뤬Ϸطȱƶط㤨Ƥ뤫뤤 Germanic German Ʊ뤷Ƥ뤫ˤ˴ŤƤ롥θˤĤƤϡ#369. ˤƶ ([2010-05-01-1])#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1])#1930. ȱƶθ줿ɥ衼åѸ²δطޡ ([2014-08-09-1]) ȡ
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ ([2012-10-25-1]) ǡμפ뤳Ȥ˿줿ϡ̱²ɴʻŵ٤ˡ̵ʸפȤĤΤǡƤ
̵ʸ (unwritten language) Ȥϡ֤ʸ˽뤳ȤʤȤȤǤϤʤԤʤɤˤäƽ뤳ȤȤƤҲ夷Ƥ餺줬̿䵭ϿΤȤƵǽƤʤפǤ롥̵ʸοˤĤƤϡܹƤ (186) ΤʤȤϸʤ褦ǡEthnologue ˤθοפȤʤ顤ȡʸ줿ϡˤ餯%ʤΤǤϤʤºŪΤۤȤɤʸ̵ʸʤΤǤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
εǤ줿̵ʸüԤʸΤʤȤɬ⤤ʤȤդǶʸƤǽϤ뤫ºݤˡ¿ο͡Τ褦ʾˤƤ롥դ˸Сǡʤ뤤ǡ˶ȤΤϡʤΤǤ롥
ȥꥢ̵ʸä̱²ʸ̵ʸȤݸ褦Ȥ뱿ưʤɡΤĤϰǾݻλߤʤƤϤ롥Τ褦ʸ (language_planning) ϤޤŪȤϤ¿θ줬ϰζʸ줫ΰϤ亹̤ˤ餵ƤΤ֤
(187) ϡ̵ʸ˴ؤο (language_myth) ˸ڤĤġ̵ʸҲˤߤƬ礭ŦƤ롥
ʸʤɽ̡ˤʤΤǤϤʤȹͤ⤢뤬ϤषդǤ뤳Ȥ¿ʸʤ餳ɽ˰ηͿߥ˥ΤʤΤˤ褦ȤռƯʤ䥢եꥫθ̱äȤꡤޤ2,0003,000⤢ΤͤƤߤ褦㤨иȤΤϡҲαΤѥȤɽΤǤ뤬ˤϱƧжѤȤޤޤʷƳƤ롥
άʸϡޤޤʤΤʸѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨С̾̾ϽεϿΤȤƵǽ뤳Ȥ¿ϰǤߤ롥㤨СեꥫʤɤǤϡפȤ̾ϡ²ӤƤȤޤ줿Ҷפ襤äȤλҶƻפƤʤ˵ޤΤ֤˹鷺ƻǻҶȤäǤ롥̾ϸĿͤ¾θĿͤȶ̤ǤʤƱ̿̾ԡʤϼȤƻҶοơˤˤȤäƽפʽҶ̾˵ϿƤΤǤ롥ޤٿͤФơ褦˥åҶ̾Τ¿
Τ褦ˡ̵ʸ줽̵ʸҲˤƤϡʸʤ餳˭ʸʸݤȯãƤΤǤ롥ʸ䤬礭ʤФʤۤɡʸݤषƤȤϺ桹ܤˤƤȤǤ롥
Ϣơ#1685. ƬΤĵϤȰҿ ([2013-12-07-1]) ȡ
м̵ʸס̱²ɴʻŵ١Ω̱²ʪۡԡˡǡ2014ǯ186--87ǡ
ѸäŪ (cosmopolitan) Ǥ롥350ʾθ줫äѤƤˤߤʤѤ³Ƥ롥ѸäȤˤˤĤơʲܥ֥ (http://user.keio.ac.jp/~rhotta/hellog/) δϢ뵭˥ĥäѸûˤ˴ϢȤƤɤ
1ǤߤѸ
1.1äεϤ礭 (#45)
1.2äμ˭٤ (##756,309,202,429,845,1202,110,201,384)
2üѤȤϡ
2.1ʤäѤΤ (##46,1794)
2.2Ѥ5W1Hġɤǡï顤ɤΤ褦ˡʤڤꤿΤ (#37)
3ѸθüѤ (#1526)
3.1Φ (--449)
3.1.1ƥ (#1437)
3.2űѸ (449--1100)
3.2.1ȸ (##1216,2443)
3.2.2ƥ (#32)
3.2.3ťΥɸ (##340,818)
3.3Ѹ (1100--1500)
3.3.1ե (##117,1210)
3.3.2ƥ (#120)
3.4Ѹ (1500--1700)
3.4.1ƥ (##114,478)
3.4.2ꥷ (#516)
3.4.3ޥ (#2385)
3.5Ѹ (1700--1900) ȸѸ (1900--)
3.5.1ν (##874,2165)
4αѸäˤߤˤΰ仺
4.1եȥƥ줫μѸ (#2162)
4.2ưʪɽ魯ñ (##331,754)
4.3ä3ع¤ (##334,1296,335)
4.4Ѹθäζ (##1526,296,1630,1067)
5ߤ̤αѸ
5.1Ѱʳοθ (##873,875)
5.2äϻǤФ (##625,631,876,889)
[ ʸ ]
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
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