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statistics - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2012-10-31 Wed

#1283. η׻ˡ [corpus][statistics][bnc][collocation][lltest]

[2010-03-04-1]ε#311. girl Ȥ褯 collocate ƻϲפǡȸζ (collocation) ¬׻ˡ (association measure) ˤϤĤμब뤳Ȥ򸫤ѥؤǤϡLog-Likelihood Test Ȥˤ׻ˡŪ褯ȤƤ뤬줾η׻ˡˤħΤǡʤ٤ʣˡΤ褤[2010-03-04-1]ƤȽʣʬ⤢뤬BNCweb ǼƤ7η׻ˡγơˤĤ Hoffmann et al. (149--58) 򻲾Ȥʤ顤ħѤΥҥȤ򼨤
Ƽη׻ˡϡ(a) (frequency of co-occurrence)(b) ͭ (significance of co-occurrence)(c) եȡ (effect-size) 1ġ뤤ʣȤ߹碌˴ŤƤ롥(b) ϡŪͭդǤȤγο٤ɽ魯ɸǤꡤζɽ魯ΤǤϤʤȤդɬפ롥(c) ϡѻ٤ȴ٤Ȥ׻δܤȤɸǤ롥

(1) Rank by frequency
ѻ붦٤ΤΤѤ롤ǤñľŪʼ١¾η׻ˡΤ褦ʣ׽ϤۤɤƤ餺ɸȤƤϺǤƤǽɵʤɤ̤뤳Ȥ¿̾ζʬϤˤѤʤ

(2) Log-likelihood
ͭѤ롥BNCweb ΥǥեȤη׻ˡǡѥǹѤƤ롥ǽɵʤɤζˤƹ٤θȤζ䡤դ˶ˤ٤θ1, 2ʤɡˤȤζϤ롥٤ι⤤Ȥ߹碌˹ͿȤħꡤˤդפ롥

(3) Mutual information (MI)
եȡѤ롥ˤ褯ѤƤ׻ˡѤäƤ¿դפ롥ǽɵʤɤȤΤդ줿ŪӽƤϤ褤ȿ̡٤ζɽؤФ꤬㤷Фαƶ򸺤뤿ˡBNCweb Ǥ "Freq(node, collocate) at least" 10ʾꤹ뤳Ȥ侩롥ˤꡤ"conspicuous and intuitively appealing collocations involving words of intermediate frequency" (Hoffmann et al. 154) ⤭ĦȤʤ롥

(4) T-score
٤ȶͭθ׻ˡ٤1ʲ٤εʶɽˤĤƤ Rank by frequency Ȼ褦ʿ񤤤򤷡٤ι⤤ɽˤĤƤ϶ͭȿǤ񤤤򤹤롥ޤѻ٤٤ɬ⤯ʤ롥Log-likelihood ̤Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿٤ؤΥХϰضʤ롥ΡɤΤΤ1000礭ˡ̤ȯ뤳Ȥ롥

(5) Z-score
ͭȥեȡθ׻ˡ٤ζɽˤϥեȡŻ뤹뤬٤ζɽˤϤޤǥեȡ˴꤫ʤLog-likelihood MI ξħ褦ʡХ󥹤μ줿ɸǤ롥MI Ʊͤˡ٤ζɽؤΥХߤΤǡ"Freq(node, collocate) at least" 5٤ꤹΤ褤Ȥ롥

(6) MI3
٤ȥեȡθ׻ˡMI ΤɽؤнŤ٤Ƥ롥ٶɽˤϥեȡٶɽˤ϶٤Ū褯ȿǤ롥POS ˤȤȤѤȸŪʣ줫ʤѸʤɤμФ˰Ϥȯ롥ΤȤƤϹٶɽؤΥХŪʶʬϤˤϸʤ

(7) Dice coefficient
MI3 Ʊͤˡ٤ȥեȡθ׻ˡMI3Ȱۤʤꡤٶɽˤ϶٤ٶɽˤϥեȡ褯ȿǤ졤ξԤڤؤޤʤΤħŪǤ롥ڤؤϡΡɤΤΤ٤ɽ٤10ܤۤɤǵȤ롥иŪˡZ-score Ȼ褦ʷ̤뤬Z-score ۤ٤˴ŤХʤ

ʾΤ褦¿ढäܰܤꤹ뤬Hoffmann et al. θˤСñη׻ˡȤƤ Log-likelihood MI ǡη׻ˡȤƤ Z-score Dice ȤΤȤǤ롥
͡ʷ׻ˡˤĤƤϡAssociation measures 򻲾ȡ

Hoffmann, Sebastian, Stefan Evert, Nicholas Smith, David Lee, and Ylva Berglund Prytz. Corpus Linguistics with BNCweb : A Practical Guide. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-07-10-1]

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2012-10-25 Thu

#1277. ʸ⤿ʤοϡ [world_languages][writing][statistics]

θοİΤʤȤϡ#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1]) #1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1]) εǼ夲ƤϡسεҤ Ethnologue פ˽äơߡǹԤʤƤ6000--7000ĤۤɤǧƤ뤬ޤDzοǤ롥οΤɤۤɤθ줬ʸäƤΤ˴ؿ뤬ޤʸdzθڤߤĤȤʤä
Crystal (17) ˡڤڤ򸫤ĤǤϡ4ۤɤθʷ2000ۤˤʸդ줿ȤʤǤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥οפκ򤬲Ǥ뤫ΤꤿȤǤ롥ޤջθο5000ĤȤʤ뤬 Crystal ¾Ǥοפ⾯ʤΤǤϤʤޤʸ⤿ʤǤʤʸɤ߽񤭤ǤʤüԿǹͤȡ͸β䤯餤ˤʤΤʸäƤȤȤȡüԤʸɤ߽񤭤Ǥ뤳ȤȤ̤ǤϤȵ䤬來Фƻߤޤʤοˤޤơºݾ塤夲Ϻˤ
ȤƤϡCrystal θڤ⤺ä¿θ줬̵ʸǤϤʤȻפäƤΤǡճǤϤä礷ΤʤΤȤΤ#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1]) פ鸫ĤơüԿͰʲθ̵ʸ줬¿ΤǤϤʤƧǤ
̻Ūʴϡʸĸ줬ɤΤ餤®٤ƤäΤο͡μΨɤΤ褦˿ܤƤΤȤⶽ̣ԤʸʸŤꡤԤϼǽϤˤɤ߽񤭶οʤȤäˤ롥ɤ1ĤȤäƤ⡤ˤϲʤ
ܳŪĴ٤СŬʳƤ˹ԤΤ⤷ʤ˿Ƥʸ¸ޤ顤ҶƤ
ϢơʸȯˤĤƤϡ#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1]) 񤭸դäդФŪˤĤƤϡ#748. ä񤭸 ([2011-05-15-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.

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2012-09-04 Tue

#1226. Ѹˤäǯʬ [loan_word][lexicology][statistics][emode][renaissance][inkhorn_term][latin]

ѸˤˤѸκǤȤơѸˤե󥹸äή󤲤롥˴ؤƤϡפδǤ⡤#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ϤȤơfrench loan_word statistics ΤĤεǼ夲ƤפȤȤǤСѸΥƥѸˤȤäΤۤϿŪǤ롥
[2009-08-19-1]ε#114. ѸμѸεȳפǸڤGörlach ϽѸθä򼡤Τ褦ɾƤ롥

The EModE period (especially 1530--1660) exhibits the fastest growth of the vocabulary in the history of the English language, in absolute figures as well as in proportion to the total. (136)

. . . the general tendencies of development are quite obvious: an extremely rapid increase in new words especially between 1570 and 1630 was followed by a low during the Restoration and Augustan periods (in particular 1680--1780). The sixteenth-century increase was caused by two factors: the objective need to express new ideas in English (mainly in fields that had been reserved to, or dominated by, Latin) and, especially from 1570, the subjective desire to enrich the rhetorical potential of the vernacular. / Since there were no dictionaries or academics to curb the number of new words, an atmosphere favouring linguistic experiments led to redundant production, often on the basis of competing derivation patterns. This proliferation was not cut back until the late seventeenth/eighteenth centuries, as a consequence of natural selection or a s a result of grammarians' or lexicographers' prescriptivism. (137--38)


Görlach ϡA Chronological English Dictionary ˴ŤơΤ褦ʸפͿƤ (137) ޼Ƥߤ褦

The Growth of the EModE Vocabulary, 1500--1700
Decade15101520153015401550156015701580159016001610162016301640165016601670168016901700
New words4095081415140016091310154818761951330027102281168811221786197313701228974943


ѸΥƥѤˤĤƴϢϡ#203. 1500--1900ǯˤѸäá ([2009-11-16-1]) emode loan_word lexicology γƵ򻲾ȡ

Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
Finkenstaedt, T., E. Leisi, and D. Wolff, eds. A Chronological English Dictionary. Heidelberg: Winter, 1970.

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2012-09-03 Mon

#1225. ե󥹼Ѹʬۤð [lexicology][statistics][loan_word][french][lexical_stratification]

#845. Ѹθäεȳ ([2011-08-20-1]) #1202. Ѹθäεȳ (2) ([2012-08-11-1]) ǤӤӰäƤ⤦1Ļ褦פ Brinton and Arnovick (298) ˸ĤManfred Scheler ˴Ť Angelika Lutz פѤƤΤǤ롥General Service List (GSL; [2010-03-01-1]ε#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡפۤ##309,612,1103 򻲾ȡˡAdvanced Learners' Dictionary (ALD), Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (SOED) 3θåꥹȤ츻̤ʬष줾γФƤ롥ɽ饰դƤߤ

 SOED (80,096 words)ALD (27,241 words)GSL (3,984 words)
West Germanic22.20%27.43%47.08%
French28.37%35.89%38.00%
Latin28.29%22.05%9.59%
Greek5.32%1.59%0.25%
Other Romance1.86%1.60%0.20%
Celtic0.34%0.25%---
Etymological Breakdown of English Words in Three Word Lists

פΤ⤷ϡ󤫤鱦˸äоݸäʤ褦¤٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ̤θ򤹤Сä٤˸äƲäƤ롥äŪǤФۤɡγ礬⤤ȤϾ嵭βǤ⿨ƤճʤȤ˥ե󥹼ѸˤĤƤƱͤηȤΤˡ󤫤鱦˸äƳ礬ƤΤϡ (West Germanic) Ȳ (French) ΤߤǤ롥ʳθϡष礬äƤ롥
ΤȤ鼨Τϡե󥹼ѤϡƥѤΤ褦ʸŪŪǤФǤϤʤԤԤ˶פܿη̤Ȥơ٤ϴŪǤ⤢ȤȤºݡѸäع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) ˤƥե󥹸ؤôäƤ뤬ʤϰϤ3ؤΤʤǺǤ⹭ؤؤʤƾؤؤ礭Ϥ߽ФƤ롥ե󥹼Ѹʬۤðϡե󥹸ȤܿˤħȴϢƤȹͤ롥
פˤ⤢ꡤˤդפ롥 West Germanic ȤΤʤ˴ޤޤȻפ뤬٤οΤ̲ϼѸϤɤǼޤäƤΤޤεǤϡä˥ƥѸγФե󥹼Ѹγ礬򰮤äƤ뤬[2011-02-09-1][2011-08-23-1]Ǥߤ褦ˡե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̤񤷤츻ȽԳΤ򤳤ǤϤɤƤΤȽߥˤäƿͤϤɤΤ餤ưΤľ Lutz äƤߤɬפ롥

ʸ嵭2012/09/04(Tue) Lutz (147) 򻲾ȤȤ嵭̲ϼѸ˴ؤ뵿ˤĤơ"Other sources of lexical influence have been left out of account here." Ȥäܺ٤ Scheler 򻲾ȤȤΤȤǤ롥

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Lutz, Angelika. "When did English Begin?" Sounds, Words, Texts and Change. Ed. Teresa Fanego, Belén Méndez-Naya, and Elena Seoane. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2002. 145--71.

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2012-08-24 Fri

#1215. °̾ο of ȯã [word_order][syntax][genitive][lexical_diffusion][statistics][synthesis_to_analysis]

ε#1214. °̾ΰ֤θ경ˡ ([2012-08-23-1]) ǡѸˤ、̾Ф°̾ΰ֤θĤˤĤƸ֤Ǥ֤Ǥ졤°̾줽ΤΤƱ˿षƤäȤ¤˺ƤϤʤʤ°̾Ѥ A's B B of A Ȥof ˤ뱪ȯãԤ򶼤θطϡɤ鸫С礫ʬϤ (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤĬή˾äѲǤ롥
Fries (206) ͿƤɽϡűѸ줫Ѹˤ3°ʡ°ʡof °ʡˤ줾ɤ٤γѤ줿򼨤ͤǤ롥򥰥ղƤߤ

 Post-positive genitive'Periphrastic' genitivePre-positive genitive
c. 90047.5%0.5%52.0%
c. 100030.5%1.0%68.5%
c. 110022.2%1.2%76.6%
c. 120011.8%6.3%81.9%
c. 12500.6%31.4%68.9%
c. 13000.0%84.5%15.6%


Development of Three Types of Genitive

դϡ3°ʤθबǤ롥űѸνˤƸ°ʤहˤȤʤä°ʤĹθ13 of 쵤˳礷°ʤ֤Ƥ椯of γˤĤƤϡMustanoja (74--76) ܤ

Fries, Charles C. "On the Development of the Structural Use of Word-Order in Modern English." Language 16 (1940): 199--208.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-19-1]

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2012-08-23 Thu

#1214. °̾ΰ֤θ경 [word_order][syntax][genitive][lexical_diffusion][statistics]

#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1]) Ⱥε#1213. Ūΰ֤θ경ˡ ([2012-08-22-1]) ˰³Fries θξҲ𡥺ϡ°̾줬、̾Ф֤뤫֤뤫ȤˤĤơ
c900--c1250ǯȯŸˤĤơΤ褦ʷ̤줿 (Fries 205)

 c. 900c. 1000c. 1100c. 1200c. 1250
Genitive before its noun52.4%69.1%77.4%87.4%99.1%
Genitive after its noun47.6%30.9%22.6%12.6%0.9%


Development of Genitive Before Its Noun

᤯13ˤϡ°֤̾ĤƤȤ狼롥
Ϣơ17Ⱦ°̾ǤϤʤ̳̾ñǤʣǤˤ¾֤̾ƤΤޤ޽ȤѤ (ex. school teacher, examination paper) 뤬、ΰִطꤵƤʤԲǽʤǤ (206)
ޤǤưľŪȴŪΰִط°̾、̾ΰִطˤˤĤƸƤȤˤʤ뤬٤ȤѸνޤǤˤϸѸŪʸ˸ꤷƤȤ狼롥ѸϡθĤʤȷŤƤ褤

Fries, Charles C. "On the Development of the Structural Use of Word-Order in Modern English." Language 16 (1940): 199--208.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-19-1] [2012-08-24-1]

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2012-08-22 Wed

#1213. Ūΰ֤θ경 [word_order][syntax][lexical_diffusion][statistics]

[2009-09-06-1]ε#132. űѸ줫ѸؤθȯãפǼ夲 Fries ĴϡѸθȯã˴ؤפʸǤ롥εǤϡưФľŪŪʰ֤˴ؤ̻ŪܤΤߤ夲Fries ϤۤˤľŪưФŪŪʰ֤䡤、̾Фƻ°̾Ūʰ֤оݤȤƤ롥ԤˤĤƾҲ𤹤롥
űѸ줫ϡ900--1000ǯϰϤΥѥ2558򽸤᤿ F. C. Cassidy Ĵ̤򻲾ȤƤ롥ŪľŪΰִطˤĤơԤ̾줫̾줫ξԤޤफˤꡤͤ (202)

OE Corpus (900--1000)Dative-object before acc-obj.Dative-object after acc-obj.
Nouns249 (64.0%)140 (36.0%)
Pronouns674 (82.8%)141 (17.2%)
Both together923 (76.6%)281 (23.3%)


ΤȤƴŪ֤뷹ΩȤ櫓̾ξˤϡ줬ηϡc1200ǯνѸ쥳ѥˤƤΩäƤ8䤬֡ˡʤᤤΤʥѥäȤ狼롥
ŪưΰִطˤĤƤϡűѸ줪ӽѸΥѥ鼡η̤ (202)

OE Corpus (900--1000)Dative-object before the verbDative-object after the verb
Nouns95 (27.6%)249 (72.4%)
Pronouns495 (48.7%)518 (51.3%)
Both together587 (43.4%)767 (56.6%)
EME Corpus (c1200)Dative-object before the verbDative-object after the verb
Nouns26 (23.0%)88 (77.0%)
Pronouns218 (43.0%)288 (57.0%)
Both together244 (39.4%)376 (60.6%)


űѸǤɬΤʷ򼨤櫓ǤϤʤưθ֤ΤۤͥǤ롥ηϡѸdz礵Ƥ椯
˽Ҥ٤ŪŪ֤ηϸѸˤƶ졤Ѹ˸褦ʡưθ塤ľŪפȤ§15ȾޤǤ˳ΩƤä (203)

Fries, Charles C. "On the Development of the Structural Use of Word-Order in Modern English." Language 16 (1940): 199--208.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-08-23-1]

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2012-08-20 Mon

#1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ [latin][loan_word][lexicology][me][wycliffe][bible][statistics]

ε#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1]) ³ơѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥΰǤ#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]) Ǥ57줫ʤñʰ򼨤Baugh and Cable (185) 򻲾Ȥơ⤦Ĺ123ΰȤŪǤϤʤץˤʤ
Ѹˤϡƥ14--15濴ɴۤɤѤ줿Ȥ롥طԤؼԤ̤ơäդäΤ⤢뤬ȤʸäΤǤ롥ƥ줫Ѹؤ˺ݤƸѤȤطʤꡤWycliffe ȤμդˤŵBartholomew Anglicus ˤ De Proprietatibus Rerum Trevisa ݤˤɴΥƥ줬äȤ㤬 (Baugh and Cable 184)

abject, actor, adjacent, adoption, allegory, ambitious, ceremony, client, comet, conflict, conspiracy, contempt, conviction, custody, depression, desk, dial, diaphragm, digit, distract, equal, equator, equivalent, exclude, executor, explanation, formal, frustrate, genius, gesture, gloria, hepatic, history, homicide, immune, impediment, implement, implication, incarnate, include, incredible, incubus, incumbent, index, individual, infancy, inferior, infinite, innate, innumerable, intellect, intercept, interrupt, item, juniper, lapidary, lector, legal, legitimate, library, limbo, lucrative, lunatic, magnify, malefactor, mechanical, mediator, minor, missal, moderate, necessary, nervous, notary, ornate, picture, polite, popular, prevent, private, project, promote, prosecute, prosody, pulpit, quiet, rational, recipe, reject, remit, reprehend, requiem, rosary, saliva, scribe, script, scripture, scrutiny, secular, solar, solitary, spacious, stupor, subdivide, subjugate, submit, subordinate, subscribe, substitute, summary, superabundance, supplicate, suppress, temperate, temporal, testify, testimony, tincture, tract, tradition, tributary, ulcer, zenith, zephyr


ʤֻǼϡѸٽ̤1000̰ٸǤFrequency Sorter ˡƥѸ˰ճȿȶ¦̤뤳Ȥ狼

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2012-08-18 Sat

#1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ [french][loan_word][me][norman_french][lexicology][statistics][bilingualism]

Ѹˤե󥹼Ѹϡfrench loan_word ʤɤ¿εǰäƤäѸ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬̤˼Ѥ줿аޤȤμѤ®٤ˤĤơ#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ڤӡ#1205. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1]) ǵҤѤ®٤Ǥߤȡ13Ӥե󥹸ѻˤ1ĤžȤʤäƤ뤬Ǥϥե󥹸ѤˤĤƲɤۤʤäƤΤBaugh and Cable (168--69) ˤꡤ줾λħ⤷褦
Υޥ󡦥󥯥Ȥ1250ǯޤǤΥե󥹼Ѹϡ(1) 褽900ȿʤ(2) Anglo-Norman βħ򼨤(3) ήο͡²Ȥ̤ܿΤ褦ˤʤäáȤ櫓̳ʸء˴Ϣä¿ȤƤϡbaron, noble, dame, servant, messenger, feast, minstrel, juggler, largess; story, rime, lay, douzepers ʤɡ
1250ǯʹߤΥե󥹼Ѹħϼ̤ꡥ(1) 1250--1400ǯȯޤ1ȾΤ˱Ѹˤˤե󥹼Ѹ4䤬ήʤѸ˸¤1Ķ줬ѸήߡΤ75%ߤˤޤǻĤ (Baugh and Cable 178) (2) ե󥹸¿ʤȤⴷƤή餬Ѹڤؤ (language shift) ݤ˻Ȥܤθä¿ϡѸθäǤ­ɽǤʤǰФƥե󥹸ѤȤ⤢äѸν٤㤤˥ե󥹸ѤȤȤ⤢äƤե󥹸ˤѸȤ³ȤȤ⤢ä(3) ŪˤˡΧήԡʪҲ衤ݽѡ䡤ؤʬθä¿Τ褦ʶʬޤʤۤɤ˰Ūܶʸä¿ѤƤ롥
󤹤С1250ǯ򶭤ȤλϡïɤΤ褦ưǥե󥹸ѤȤˤоŪǤȤȤBaugh and Cable (169) ϡ䤫󤷤Ƥ롥

In general we may say that in the earlier Middle English period the French words introduced into English were such as people speaking one language often learn from those speaking another; in the century and a half following 1250, when all classes were speaking or learning to speak English, they were also such words as people who had been accustomed to speak French would carry over with them into the language of their adoption. Only in this way can we understand the nature and extent of the French importations in this period.


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2012-08-11 Sat

#1202. Ѹθäεȳ (2) [lexicology][loan_word][statistics][old_norse]

[2011-08-20-1]ε#845. ѸθäεȳפǡѸκѸѸ̤ʬ̤ͤҲ𤷤Τ褦ʸפϡ˻ȤäɤΤ褦ˡĴʤɤˤäƷ̤ưǤ뤿ᡤʣĴ̤Ȥ餷碌ɾΤ褤Schmitt and Marsden (82) ϡBird ˤĴ̤ͤͿƤ롥򥰥ղƤߤʿͥǡϡHTML򻲾ȡ

Sources of the most frequent 7,476 words of English

³ Schmitt and Marsden (83) ϡѸΤߤǹ줿ݿ1Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥

But with all its manifold new words from other tongues, English could never have become anything but English. And as such it has sent out to the world, among many other things, some of the best books the world has ever known. It is not unlikely, in the light of writings by Englishmen in earlier times, that this would have been so even if we had never taken any words from outside the word hoard that has come down to us from those times. It is true that what we have borrowed has brought greater wealth to our word stock, but the true Englishness of our mother tongue has in no way been lessened by such loans, as those who speak and write it lovingly will always keep in mind.


[2010-04-20-1]ε#358. ɸȱѸδطפΤʤǡ"Though they are both weak fellows, she gives them gifts." Ȥ̲ñΤߤǹ줿ʸʤ츻ˤĤ̲Ϥɤ路ޤޤƤˤ󼨤ϤԼǡʸѸǹ줿ʸϤϽʬ˼
ե󥹼ѸΤߤǹ줿ʸϤϲǽǽȤƤ⡤ɤΤ餤

Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.

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2012-07-17 Tue

#1177. EU ʩĬ [french][global_language][elf][statistics]

715ˤ俷ʹī6̤Ρ֥ɥӥ塼פɸεäEU ϱʩȤ3ȸ˻ꤷƤ뤬Ϥޤǽ˱ѸǽǤΤ֤ȤʤäƤ롥
2粤ˤ򿶤֤СϡѸȴ߻Ϥ᤿ˡʩλŪϰ̤ФäѸε®ȼʩŪϰ̤ϡȾ˸Ƥää2004ǯEUǤϡʩѸդ첤ʤ10񤬰쵤˲ȤˤꡤʩĬ֤äѰˤȡ1997ǯ˵𤵤줿ʸΤʸʩäΤ40.5%ǤꡤѸ45%äȤ2010ǯˤϡ7%77%ȤʤꡤѸΰŪͥ줿
ǶβͻƻǤ⡤ѸǥͥΩäƤ롥ԾؤαƶϤ礭θEUνѸǥ˾ήƤȤΤͳΤ褦
줬ФۤɡϤδĶ岡뤿ˡѥʹԤ롥ǸǤС2004ǯEU丽ߤEUƻʬŪ˱Ѹ岡ҲŪװȤʤäƤ롥
ۤ ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) פ˴ؤƤϡstatistics elf γƵ򻲾ȡ

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2012-07-01 Sun

#1161. Ѹܸˤäβ̳ [lexicology][statistics][syllable][corpus][japanese]

ε#1160. MRC Psychological Database Ƽפв ([2012-06-30-1]) (3) ǡѸäˤʬ̤ơ줾٤ФˤȡоݤȤʤä92767θΤˤ1졤2졤3졤4ϡ줾13.46%35.40%29.91%15.26%Ǥꡤ碌94.03%ã롥Ȥ櫓23碌65.31%Ǥ롥9;Ȥ絬ϤʸäĴ¤ꡤѸä3ʬ2᤯2--3ǤȤȤˤʤ롥
##348,349,355 εǤϡBNC COLT ΥѥѤơǤ٤ι⤤ɴ줫оݤ˲ĴԤʤäĴоݤȤʤäεϤϳʤ˾˽äƲ̤γѤ롥12줬ͥǤꡤ6000쵬ϤĴǤ⤳268.7%ʡ#349. BNC Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ (2) ([2010-04-11-1]) Υդ򻲾ȡˡоݤȤõϤˤꡤͥͭΨ򼨤ư뤳Ȥ狼뤬ŪˡѸäˤƤ1--3줬פǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ǤϡܸθäˤĤơ̤γϤɤƣۤ (80) Ǥϡˤܸ쥢ȼŵ٤θФ˴ŤʬۤĴ̤󤵤Ƥ롥ŵθФǤ뤫оθäϿεϤȻפ롥ʲΤ褦ʷ̤Ф

12345678910
0.34.822.738.817.711.03.31.20.20.1100


Υԡ4ˤꡤ35碌79.2%6ä90.2%ˤʤ롥Ѹθäμ礿빽Ǥ1--3ȤСܸθäμ礿빽Ǥ3--5Ȥʤ롥Ǥߤ¤ꡤñŪûܸñŪĹȤ褯狼롥
ξ֤κݤäۤϡκȲṽ¤κ˵ȤäƤ褤ˤĤƤϡ[2012-02-12-1]ε#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿפǸȤꡤ롥ޤṽ¤ˤĤƤϡܸβ᤬ۤܡֻҲ첻פ1ǤΤФơѸβϡ[2012-02-14-1]ε#1023. ܸμȿפǼȤꡤ롥
ܸθäϡ2ܤȤƤȹͤ롥¸ǤǤ21줬¿äĥ˽äơη礬̤Ȥ41줬ήȤʤäƤаޤ롥θˤĤƤ⡤ͥ4˹碌ơ֥ޥߥ˥ע֥ޥߡס֥ϥ󥬡ȥ饤ע֥ϥ󥹥ȡס֥󥸥󥹥ȥåסע֥󥹥ȡפȾά뤳Ȥ¿2ܤȤܸäΩȡθȯŸˤĤƤϡ (48--62) ܤ

ƣ ɧ ɹ ԡܸ쳵١դ1989ǯ
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١޴ֽ񱡡2001ǯ

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2012-06-30 Sat

#1160. MRC Psychological Database Ƽפв [lexicology][statistics][syllable][corpus]

[2012-06-28-1], [2012-06-29-1]ϢҲ𤷤Ƥ MRC Psycholinguistic Database ˴Ťơ4ĤαѸפ޼ǡեλ˼ƤɽȤ˥դ̤Υѥ˴ŤĴԤʤäƤΤ⤢ΤǡӤͤͥǡϡHTML򻲾ȡ

(1) ʸˤ
Word Frequency by Number of Letters in MRC Psychological Database

(2) ǿˤ
Word Frequency by Number of Phonemes in MRC Psychological Database

ʻ͡
[2012-02-13-1]: #1022. ѸγƲǤ١

(3) ˤ
Word Frequency by Number of Syllables in MRC Psychological Database

ʻ͡
[2010-04-09-1]: #347. ñʿѲϤɤΤ餤
[2010-04-10-1]: #348. BNC Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ
[2010-04-11-1]: #349. BNC Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ (2)
[2010-04-17-1]: #355. COLT Word Frequency List ˤ벻ʬĴ

(4) ʻˤ
Word Frequency by Syntactic Category in MRC Psychological Database

ʻ͡
[2012-06-02-1]: #1132. ñʻ̤γ
[2011-02-23-1]: #667. COCA 50ʻ̤γϡ
[2011-02-22-1]: #666. COCA 5000ʻ̤γϡ
[2011-02-16-1]: #660. ѸΥե󥹼ѸηƻΨ

¾ä٤䡤̤γˤĤƤϰʲε⻲ȡ

[2010-03-01-1]: #308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ
[2011-08-20-1]: #845. Ѹθäεȳ
[2012-01-07-1]: #985. Ѹθäεȳ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-08-21-1] [2012-07-01-1]

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2012-06-29 Fri

#1159. MRC Psycholinguistic Database Search [cgi][web_service][lexicology][frequency][statistics]

ε[2012-06-28-1]ǾҲ𤷤Ѹåǡ١ MRC Psycholinguistic Database ܥ֥夫ʰ׸ġºݤˤϸġȤϡMRC Psycholinguistic Database ѤȡʤȤǤȤȤ򼨤ǥǤˤϷ̤10ԤΤߤ˸ꤷƤ롥ܳŪʻѤˤϡڡǡ١ȸץɤ뤫־Υ󥿡ե (Online search (answers limited to 5000 entries) or Online search (limited search capabilities)) ɤ

    


ʲˡSQLбǡơ֥̾ "mrc2" ȤƸꡥեɤϰʲ27ܡID, NLET, NPHON, NSYL, K_F_FREQ, K_F_NCATS, K_F_NSAMP, T_L_FREQ, BROWN_FREQ, FAM, CONC, IMAG, MEANC, MEANP, AOA, TQ2, WTYPE, PDWTYPE, ALPHSYL, STATUS, VAR, CAP, IRREG, WORD, PHON, DPHON, STRESSƥѥ᡼ͤξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡǡեλ򻲾ȤΤȡʻ˼ƤƼͤϤ켫Ȥͭѡˡselect ʸΤͭʲˡŵŪʸȤƺܤƤ

# ʸǸäʬ
select NLET, count(NLET) from mrc2 group by NLET;

# ǿǸäʬ
select NPHON, count(NPHON) from mrc2 group by NPHON;

# Ǹäʬ
select NSYL, count(NSYL) from mrc2 group by NSYL;

# -ed ǽƻٽ
select WORD, K_F_FREQ from mrc2 where WTYPE = 'J' and WORD like '%ed' order by K_F_FREQ desc;

# 2̾졤ƻ졤ưѥ󤴤Ȥʬ (#814. ̾ưʤ̷ư ([2011-07-20-1]) ڤӡ#801. ̾ưε (3) ([2011-07-07-1]) 򻲾ȡ
select WTYPE, STRESS, count(*) from mrc2 where NSYL = 2 and WTYPE in ('N', 'J', 'V') group by WTYPE, STRESS;

# <gh> ֻǽꡤ/f/ ȯǽ
select distinct WORD, DPHON from mrc2 where WORD like '%gh' and DPHON like '%f';

# Ե§ʣٽ
select WORD, K_F_FREQ from mrc2 where IRREG = 'Z' and TQ2 != 'Q' order by K_F_FREQ desc;

# ߿Ūʰ̣ĸ
select distinct WORD, FAM from mrc2 where FAM > 600 and CONC > 600;

# ᡼䤹
select distinct WORD, IMAG from mrc2 order by IMAG desc limit 30;

# ̣ͭפʸ
select distinct WORD, MEANC, MEANP from mrc2 order by MEANC + MEANP desc limit 30;

# ̾ưʤʻˤäƶѥΰۤʤ
select WORD, WTYPE, DPHON from mrc2 where VAR = 'O';

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2012-06-28 Thu

#1158. MRC Psycholinguistic Database [web_service][lexicology][frequency][statistics]

ؤʬǤϤ褯Τ줿Ѹθåǡ١Τ褦#1131. 2̾ưŵŪʶѥ ([2012-06-01-1]) ȡ#1132. ñʻ̤γ ([2012-06-02-1]) ǻȤ Amano ʸˤơ¸ߤΤäMRC Psycholinguistic Database ϡ150837줫ʤʸåǡ١Ǥ롥Ƹ˸ŪӿŪ26°ꤵƤꡤʣʾŬ礹ΥꥹȤñ˺ФȤǤΤħŪäؤμ¸ѤåꥹȤʤɤӤä˻Ȥ뤬ѥ᡼Ȥ߹碌Ǥϡưפ˸׳ؤθѤǤ
ѥ᡼ϼ¤¿ˤ錄롥ʸǿλ˻ϤޤꡤΥѥ˴Ť٤ϰϤˤʤߤǽŪʻɸȤơ familiarity, concreteness, imageability, meaningfulness ʤɤꤵƤ롥ʻʤɤ쥫ƥ꡼ϤƬά졤ϥեʤɤη֥ƥ꡼λǤ롥ȯ䶯ѥλˤбƤ롥Ȥ߹碌ˤäơ褽ΤȤǤΤǤϤʤȻפ碌̤Ǥ롥
ǡ١ȸץɤǤ뤬ץ򥳥ѥ뤹ʤݤ¿Τǡ־Υ󥿡եѤΤǤ롥2ĤΥ󥿡եѰդƤꡤ줾쵡ǽϸꤵƤ뤬̾ӤˤϽʬ

Online search (answers limited to 5000 entries): ѥ᡼κ٤꤬ǽϷ̤5000ޤǤ˸¤롥
Online search (limited search capabilities): Ϸ̤ο¤ϤʤŪʥѥ᡼κ٤ֻȯΥѥľܻʤɡˤϤǤʤ

Amano, Shuichi. "Rhythmic Alternation and the Noun-Verb Stress Difference in English Disyllabic Words." ̾Ų¤̾Ų¤ݽûס 15 (2009): 83--90.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-06-30-1] [2012-06-29-1]

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2012-06-02 Sat

#1132. ñʻ̤γ [lexicology][corpus][statistics]

εǡMRC Psycholinguistic Database 150837ޤˤѤ Amano θ򻲾ȤAmano Ǥϡ̾ư stress typicality ĴʪȤơƱǡ١˴Ťʻ̳ɽƤΤǡϤ⤷Ƥ
Amano (86) ϡǡ١10894Ĥ2ȴФʣʻεǽ򤢤碌ĸˤĤƤϡ줾ʻΤȤ1ĤȤƲäʤ¾ܤȼ p. 86 Ƥˡ̤Ȥ줿ʻ̤θĿȳϰʲ̤Ǥ롥

POSFREQ%
noun732657.04%
verb250119.47%
adjective242018.84%
adverb2912.27%
preposition680.53%
conjunction210.16%
pronoun150.12%
interjection370.29%
past participle570.44%
others1080.84%


ʻ̤γλФϡѤǡ١䥳ѥ䵬ϡword form ǿ뤫 lemma ǿ뤫ʤɤΡָפ˺뤬ʣĴ̤ӤС٤ϿǤͤܥ֥ǤޤǤ˾Ҳ𤷤ʻ̤γˤĤƤϡʲ򻲾ȡ

[2011-02-23-1]: #667. COCA 50ʻ̤γϡ
[2011-02-22-1]: #666. COCA 5000ʻ̤γϡ
[2011-02-16-1]: #660. ѸΥե󥹼ѸηƻΨ

Amano, Shuichi. "Rhythmic Alternation and the Noun-Verb Stress Difference in English Disyllabic Words." ̾Ų¤̾Ų¤ݽûס 15 (2009): 83--90.

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2012-06-01 Fri

#1131. 2̾ưŵŪʶѥ [stress][diatone][statistics]

̾ưפθݤˤĤơdiatone γƵǿƤKelly and Bock θˤС2ˤ̾ưζѥϡŪʶ֤ηȿǤƤȤʤ2̾Ǥ1˶Τ붯巿 (trochaic) 2ưǤ2˶嶯 (iambic) ̤Ȥ롥η stress typicality ȸƤФ뤬ΨǤФɤ٤η򼨤Τ
Amano ϡKelly and Bock Sereno Ĵ̤򻲾Ȥʤ顤MRC Psycholinguistic Database ѤȼĴ򤪤ʤäĴ֤ӤǽȤʤ褦ˡ̾¾ʻ쵡ǽ⤿ʤΡˤȽư˸ꤷƤο夲Τ褦ʷ̤Ȥʤä¾Ĵȹ碌ơAmano (86) Ĵפ󤲤褦

researchercategoryresult
Sereno (1986)nounout of 1425 nouns, 93% are trochaic
verbout of 523 verbs, 76% are iambic
Kelly & Bock (1988)nounout of 3202 nouns, 94% are trochaic
verbout of 1021 verbs, 69% are iambic
Amano (2009)nounout of 5766 nouns, 92.92% are trochaic
verbout of 1184 verbs, 72.65% are iambic

Sereno ͤ Brown Corpus ˤΤǤꡤAmano (86) ¹ΤǤ롥ľ Sereno θŵäȤ̾줬92%ư줬85%ȰۤʤͤƤ

Ĵ֤礭ʺۤϤʤ̾93% trochaicư73% iambic Ȥ¤ǧ줿ŪɾСʻ줴Ȥ stress typicality 뤳ȤϡʤʤΤ褦ʷΤȤˤĤƤϡKelly and Bock Amano Ƥ롥󤹤С2̾򶯼巿ˡ2ư嶯ˤ줾ϤळȤˤꡤϤθȤȤˡ̵θؤΥꥺ䤹ʤ뤫Ǥ롥̵̾δ줬֤뤳Ȥ¿Τǡ碌ơּ嶯פȤʤ䤹ư1ζ޸-ing Ӹ촴ΰβĶΤȤǤ ed -esˤȼ٤̾⤤Τǡ碌ơּ嶯פȤʤ䤹
̾ưͤݤˤ⡤2̾졦ư˴ؤ뤳ΰŪʷǰƬ֤Ƥɬפ

Kelly, Michael H. and J. Kathryn Bock. "Stress in Time." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 14 (1988): 389--403.
Sereno, J. A. "Stress Pattern Differentiation of Form Class in English." The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 79 (1986): S36.
Amano, Shuichi. "Rhythmic Alternation and the Noun-Verb Stress Difference in English Disyllabic Words." ̾Ų¤̾Ų¤ݽûס 15 (2009): 83--90.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-06-28-1]

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2012-05-04 Fri

#1103. GSL ˤ Zipf's law θ [lexicology][statistics][frequency][zipfs_law][corpus]

[2012-05-02-1], [2012-05-03-1]εǼ夲Ƥ Zipf's law 򸡾ڡʤȤθˤ뤿ˡGeneral Service List (GSL) κ2000;ΥǡѤƷ׻Ƥߤʥǡեˡ

Zipf's Law by GSL (Rank and Frequency)
Zipf's Law by GSL (Rank * Frequency = Constant?)
ǽΥդٽ̤٤ݤ碌դǡٽ100̤ۤɤޤǤθоݤȤʲϤҤƤ椯ΤߤʤΤǾά٤ΥդޤǤʤѤοۤɤDZٸΤۤȤɤʤäƤޤͻҤ褯狼롥
ΥդϡZipf's law ˤˤʤȤٽ̤٤ѤļˤȤäΤǤ롥̿ޤǤϡפϾ岼礭ɤưꤷʤʸ1000줰餤ޤǤϡˤ䤫ϤΤΡ夯θΥճǤϤҤ³롥äơפ򱾡ǤΤܤ˸Ƥ1000줰餤ޤǤ
ˡ§ȸƤ֤ΤϤޤ˳Ƥȹͤ뤫Ū褯ФƤȤȤ館뤫ϡѻԤθҤȤĤǤ롥Zipf's law ˤפϡ֤褽פȲ᤹Τۤλ֤褽פɤ٤ǤΤƤʤޤZipf's law ĥƤΤȰۤʤꡤդ٤Ȥ륳ѥΥˤ¸褦

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2012-05-03 Thu

#1102. Zipf's law ȸο [information_theory][frequency][statistics][zipfs_law][shortening][language_change]

ε[2012-05-02-1] Zipf's law ˤĤƳ⤷Zipf's law ˤˡ§פ¿ꡤ1Ĥˡ[2012-04-22-1]ε#1091. ;١ѡפǤŦָǤϡ٤⤱вûפȤΤ롥򡤤ưŪˡ̻ŪɽȡָǤϡ٤⤯ʤвûʤפȤʤ롥٤⤯ʤäƤ椯ȡ٤ٱϤΤΡβûƤ椯Τ뤳Ȥϡ䤿иŪˤ褯ΤäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1]) #879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ǸȤꡤѸο쥽Ȥû (shortening) ˤäƤꡤˤϻ礫ʤ
Zipf's law ˡ§ΤĶŪյ̻Ūյ碌ƹͤȡ٤Ĺˤäơ줬Ϸ椯 (senescent word) ʤΤޤĤĤ (nascent word) ʤΤ̤ǤȤǽ롥Zipf Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology νɾ路 Chao (399) ꡤϢսѤ褦

A very interesting application of the tool analogy is that of senescent and nascent tools in connection with the Principle of Economical Specialization. Reasoning from tool efficiency yields the result that 'whenever we find a tool (or word) whose magnitude is smaller than that of its neighbors in the frequency range, we may conclude that the tool (or word) of below-average size is an older tool (or word) whose usage is on the decrease (hereinafter we shall call this a senescent tool)', and 'whenever we find a tool (or word) whose magnitude is above average for its frequency, we may conclude not only that it is a newer tool (or word), but that its usage may well be directed toward an increase (hereinafter we shall call this a nascent tool)' (72). The application to words is verified to a fair degree for English of various periods (111). By regarding all behavior as work and words as tools, the analogy becomes a case and the qualifier 'or word' can be omitted.


Ūûñ A ͤ롥Zipf's law ˤСA Ū٤ι⤤ͽۤ뤬ºݤˤƱ٤٤򼨤¾¿θ٤ȲûȤ롥ξ硤餯 A Ϥ᤮٤ޤäƤ senescent word ȹͤƤ褤ȿФˡŪĹñ B ͤ롥Zipf's law ˤСB Ū٤㤤ͽۤ뤬ºݤˤƱ٤٤򼨤¾¿θ٤ȲĹȤ롥ξ硤餯 B Ϥ줫٤ޤޤƤ椭ṳ̂򵯤Ƥ椯ͽۤ nascent word ȹͤƤ褤ϡZipf's law ˡƬ˽Ҥ٤ŪٱȤݤ碌ˡ§ȤäƤ褤
̾ Zipf's law ŪǶŪŪˡ§ȤȤ館Ƥ뤬ưŪ̻Ūʴ顤οդˡ§ȤƺƲᤷƤߤȤ⤷

Chao, Y. R. "Review of Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology by George Kingsley Zipf." Language 26 (1950): 394--401.

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2012-05-02 Wed

#1101. Zipf's law [information_theory][frequency][statistics][language_change][zipfs_law][shortening][pragmatics][zipfs_law]

##1089,1090,1091,1098 εǡ (information theory) ؤͿƤθˤĤơĤƤι׸ȤơǤ褯ΤƤΤ1Ĥˡꥫθؼ George Kingsley Zipf (1902--50) 1949ǯ Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology ˤ󾧤 Zipf's law åפˡ§ˤ롥٤ˤĤƤηиŪˡ§Ǥꡤ٤ f Ȥ٤ν̤ r Ȥȡ C ϤۤȤʤȤ

r f = C


ˡ§ϡ졤ƥȤμꡤԡ¾θŪѿˤ餺ΩĤȤ뤬ºݤˤ٤ǹ⤪Ӻθ췲ˤĤƤϸ礭Ȥ狼äƤꡤϹ⤯ʤȤȽ¿ޤr ٽ̡ˤʤ f ١ˤ˰¸Ƥꡤf r ΤϼǤ뤫顤ѤͤȤȤȤ϶ä٤ǤϤʤΥȡȥǤȤȽ롥иŪ¤˾Ȥ餷ˡ§ȤޤǤϤ鷺Ȥⷹ褯ɽ路ƤȤȤϤǤŪ˻Ŧյ礭
Zipf's law ȵڸ̤¿ˤ錄롥㤨Сˡ§ˤС٤ι⤤줫餽λ٤߷פƹԤŪθDZٸʬ뤳Ȥ顤ؽܸä˺ͿΤȤʤ롥ޤˡ§Ŭ礷ʤʬۤ򼨤äȤС¾üװͿƤǽȤʾθ٤ޤ˹⤹иäϼ岽ƤȿǤ뤷٤㤤Ϥθ줬٤ѤƤˤȯŪʿ¤äʬɤꤵˡ
Zipf's law ϡʹ֤ιưʤȤ礭ʸ§the Principle of Least Effort ʺǾϤθ§ˤΰǤꡤθؤαѤϡ嵭κǤ褯Τ줿٤ٽδطθΤߤʤ餺¾θƤˤڤǤ롥㤨С٤ȸĹȿδطˤ롤ȤΤ⤢롥ѸñǤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¡ʲʬĴˤĤƤ ##348,349,355 򻲾ȡˤ䡤٤⤯ʤƬʤɤΤ褦û̡ά뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¤⡤θ롥ۤˤϡϰϤȤ°οδطɽ魯Ĵ񤷤Ǥ٤㤤Ȥ븶§ʤɡˡ§Ͽ¿ cooperative principle ʶĴθ§ˤˤ̤γΧ֡ʤξˤơɬפȤƤʤΡ˾ͿפȤͿ"effort" ʤɤ񤷤꤬ĤäƤꡤޤǾϤʹ֤ιưʤͣθ§ǤȤϹͤ뤳ȤǤʤΰ̤ĤΤȤƽפʳǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ʤʸǤϡ嵭Τθ§ Zipf's law ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥꡤޤ Zipf's laws ʣǤޤȤ줿ꡤthe Principle of Least Effort 礵줿ꤹ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤդɬפǤ롥Zipf νɾȤƤ Chao 򻲾ȡŪˡ§ˤĤƤϡCrystal (86--87) 򻲾ȡ

Chao, Y. R. "Review of Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology by George Kingsley Zipf." Language 26 (1950): 394--401.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.

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