hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     1 2 ڡ / page 1 (2)

interjection - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2026-02-04 Wed

#6127. God buy you --- goodbye θ츻˴ؤ [sobokunagimon][interjection][subjunctive][optative][etymology][abbreviation][folk_etymology]

ε#6126. goodbye κǸ e ϲ ([2026-02-03-1]) ˰³goodbye ˴ؤꡥgoodbye εϡGod be with you ȤʸɽȤƹ٤ǻȤ뤦ṳ̂ƤޤäΤȤ롥OED ˤȡ츻˼Τ褦˵Ҥ롥

Probably shortened partly < God be with you, and partly < God be with ye (see god n. & int. Phrases P.1c.i.ii, and the note below), with substitution of good adj. for god n. as the first element, probably by association with other greeting formulae, e.g. good day n., good day int., goodnight n., goodnight int.


Ҥɤ߿ʤƤȡ16Ⱦ2;̾줬 you ǤϤʤ ye Υ⤢ȡޤ˸Ťֻ줬 with ǤϤʤ mid ⤢äȤƤ롥
ˡOED ȤƤϺѤƤʤΤΡ⤦1ĤΰˤĤƤʤƤ롥

It has been suggested (W. Franz, 'Good-bye', in Engl. Studien (1898) vol. 24 344-6) that the phrase may have originated as a shortening of God buy you 'God redeem you' (compare buy v. I.3b, and also God save you! at save v. Phrases P.2b), and that association with God be with you is of later date. Although this suggestion would more readily explain the diphthong in the second syllable, it is not supported by the earliest forms (compare the α forms). Some of the β forms with buy do, however, appear to result from later secondary association with buy v.; this association may also have influenced the pronunciation.


OED ȤƤϡǯδ God buy you ָ̱츻츻ȤߤʤƤꡤѶŪˤϼƤʤȤˤʤ롥ߤ goodbye 22첻ŪΤȤơʬŪʴͿβǽϼƤ롥

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2024-08-15 Thu

#5589. űѸδ eala [oe][interjection][me][onomatopoeia][doe][latin]

Ѹ oh ˤ褽űѸδ (interjection) Ȥ ēalā ȤΤ롥θϽѸؤ ealā ȤưѤ줿ѸޤǤˤϻȤʤä褦Ū˴ϤΤȻפ뤬뤫ˡʹˡ˶ΤΤ˴ŤȤܤΥޥȥڤƥδ o ФűѸȤƤѤƤꡤűѸǤŪʴäȤäƤ褤
⤦٤СΥΥޥȥڤ2ĤʬʤäƤꡤºݤˤ줾줬ΩȤƤѤ롥ēa Ǥ롥Ȥ߹碌ʣΤ͡ˤä褦ǡThe Dictionary of Old English (DOE) ˤ eala ea, eala ... la, eala ... ea, eala eala, ealaeala ʤ˭ʥꥨ򼨤¾δȤ߹蘆ä eala nu "oh now" Τ褦ʻȤ⤢ä
ȤȤƤϡűѸʸį¤ꡤƤӤꡤꡤò䡤ʤɤ˹ѤƤꡤϤ긽Ѹ oh ȤäƤ褤ȤƤ⶯ˡˡޤǤꡤ嵭Τ褦˷֤Ѥд𤬶äΤ
űѸ꤯ɤʸǤߤ

Lit 4.6 1: æla þu dryhten æla ðu ælmihtiga God æla cing ealra cyninga & hlaford ealra waldendra.
Sat 161: . . . eala drihtenes þrym! eala duguða helm! eala meotodes miht! eala middaneard! eala dæg leohta! eala dream Godes! eala engla þreat! eala upheofen!
HomU 38 18: eala, eala, fela is nu ða fracodra getrywða wide mid mannum.

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2024-08-05 Mon

#5579. Ȥϲ [interjection][pos][category][exclamation][syntax][onomatopoeia][terminology][exclamation][pragmatics][syntax]

(interjection) Ȥޥʡʻϡ褽쵬§ʤͣθȤȤǡɤͳ̥Ϥ롥Ū˼椫졤夲Ƥ롥εȤƤϡ#3689. Ѹδ ([2019-06-03-1])#3712. Ѹδ (2) ([2019-06-26-1])#3688. ܸδưʬ ([2019-06-02-1]) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿
Crystal, McArthur, Bussmann γơѸ켭ŵ interjection Ƥߤ

interjection (n.) A term used in the TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION of PARTS OF SPEECH, referring to a CLASS of WORDs which are UNPRODUCTIVE, do not enter into SYNTACTIC relationships with other classes, and whose FUNCTION is purely EMOTIVE, e.g., Yuk!, Strewth!, Blast!, Tut tut! There is an unclear boundary between these ITEMS and other types of EXCLAMATION, where some REFERENTIAL MEANING may be involved, and where there may be more than one word, e.g. Excellent!, Lucky devil!, Cheers!, Well well! Several alternative ways of analysing these items have been suggested, using such notions as MINOR SENTENCE, FORMULAIC LANGUAGE, etc. (Crystal)


INTERJECTION [15c: through French from Latin interiectio/interiectionis something thrown in]. A part of speech and a term often used in dictionaries for marginal items functioning alone and not as conventional elements of sentence structure. They are sometimes emotive and situational: oops, expressing surprise, often at something mildly embarrassing, yuk/yuck, usually with a grimace and expressing disgust, ow, ouch, expressing pain, wow, expressing admiration and wonder, sometimes mixed with surprise. They sometimes use sounds outside the normal range of a language: for example, the sounds represented as ugh, whew, tut-tut/tsk-tsk. The spelling of ugh has produced a variant of the original, pronounced ugg. Such greetings as Hello, Hi, Goodbye and such exclamations as Cheers, Hurra, Well are also interjections. (McArthur)


interjection [Lat. intericere 'to throw between']
Group of words which express feelings, curse, and wishes or are used to initiate conversation (Ouch!, Darn!, Hi!). Their status as a grammatical category is debatable, as they behave strangely in respect to morphology, syntax, and semantics: they are formally indeclinable, stand outside the syntactic frame, and have no lexical meaning, strictly speaking. Interjections often have onomatopoeic characteristics: Brrrrr!, Whoops!, Pow! (Bussmann)


¾Ѹ켭ŵ٤ƤȤǤ롥ޤܤ뤳ȤΤʤ̥ϤäƤ

Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2022-12-24 Sat

#4989. Ѹ Merry Christmas! Ѹ Nowell! [interjection][chaucer][christmas][greetings][anglo-norman][shakespeare][chaucer][sggk]

2022ǯΥꥹޥǤλαѸǤΡֻΰפϡ鷺Ȥ줿 Merry Christmas! Ǥ͡ꥸʥη (I wish you a) merry Christmas! ۤɤǡ (greetings) ΤԤʬά줿ǤꥹѸǤϤФ Happy Christmas! Ȥ⤤졤򹵤Happy Holidays! ʤɤѤޤϢơ#4284. ʸϤۤȤ̵ ([2021-01-18-1])#4259. ꥹޥξͥ5ܡ ([2020-12-24-1]) ⤴ɤ
Merry Christmas ˤĤ OED Ĵ٤ƤߤȡΰνФϽѸ1534ǯΤȤǤ1534ǯȤСإ꡼8޶ȷ̤Ʊѹ񶵲 (Church of England) ΩǯǤ͡16κǽ3ʸ󤲤ޤ礦

1534 J. Fisher Let. 22 Dec. in T. Fuller Church Hist. Eng. (1837) v. iii. 47 And thus our Lord send yow a mery Christenmas, and a comfortable, to yowr heart desyer.
1565 J. Scudamore Let. 17 Dec. in Hereford Munic. MSS (transcript) (O.E.D. Archive) I. ii. 209 And thus I comytt you to god, who send you a mery Christmas & many.
1600 W. Shakespeare Henry IV, Pt. 2 v. iii. 36 Welcome mery shrouetide.


ǽϡư wish send ̤äΤǤ礦Lord ּפ£դä褦Ǥ͡
ѸޤǤϡ˥󥰥Υޥͳ Nowell ֥ꥹޥפΰ̣ӰΤѤƤޤ (cf. ե󥹸 (Je souhaite un) joyeux No&etrema;l!) OED Nowell, int. and n. 1ȽƤߤޤ礦ϥե꡼硼 (Geoffrey Chaucer) Ρإ󥿥٥ʪ (The Canterbury Tales) Ǥ

A. int.
 A word shouted or sung: expressing joy, originally to commemorate the birth of Christ. Now only as retained in Christmas carols (cf. NOEL n.).

   c1395 G. Chaucer Franklin's Tale 1255 Biforn hym stant brawen of tosked swyn, And Nowel crieth euery lusty man.


ʤߤˡNowell ϡ֥ꥹޥζ±פθ⤢ꡤϡإ󶪤ФεΡ (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) Ƭ˶ᤤεξ̤ǤλѤȤʤäƤޤ

c1400 (?c1390) Sir Gawain & Green Knight (1940) 65 (MED) Loude crye watz þer kest of clerkez & oþer, Nowel nayted o-newe, neuened ful ofte.


ꥹޥϢθäˤĤƤϡOED ֥ A Christmassy Lexicon ε򤪴ᤷޤ
ȤȤǡ Nowell!

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2022-08-28 Sun

#4871. but μ³Ū [conjunction][pragmatics][relevance_theory][discourse_marker][interjection][but]

̾ưʤ¿θϳǰŪͭƤ롥Τʤˤϼ³ŪĤΤ롥¼ (192) ˤСԤϼΤ褦̤

ȯäʹ꤬ɤΤ褦ʲλ򤹤ФΤؼɽ롥Τ褦ʻؼȯä˴ޤޤƤȡʹϡ;פϫϤȤ鷺ȯäΰ̣᤹뤳ȤǤ롥ϫϤ򾯤ʤ뤳ȤˤäȯäδϢã˹׸ΤǤ롥Τ褦ɽ򡤼³ŪɽȤ


Ȥ but μ³ŪˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦ʲ2ʸϿƱ̣ȤƤϲ餫ΰ㤤褦˴롥

(1) She is a linguist, but she is quite intelligent.
(2) She is a linguist, and she is quite intelligent.

(1) but ȤƤ뤿ˡȾȸȾΥȥ饹ȤտޤƤ뤬(2) ˤϤΤ褦ʰտޤϤʤ(1) ʹϡbut ˤ륳ȥ饹ȤΩĤ褦ˡä (assumption) "All linguists are unintelligent." Ǥ뤳ȤФ⤷꤬ she ˤĤƳ뵢 "she is unintelligent" ꤵϤºݤϤषդ she is quite intelligent ƤΤĤޤꡤ꤬ǤäƤ롥
ʹˤΤ褦ʲ򤹤褦˻ؼƤΤbut μ³Ūȹͤ롥¼ (194) ˤС֤Τ褦ʾʹͿȡ;ʬʽϫϤȤ鷺äΰտޤˤɤ夯ȤǤ롥³ŪɽϡʹνϫϤ򸺤餹ȤˤäơȯäδϢ˹׸ƤΤǤס
¾˼³ŪĸȤƤϡso, therefore, nevertheless, after all ʤɤɸ (discourse_marker) 䡤oh, well ʤɤδ (interjection) 󤲤롥˴ؤƤ⡤Ϣ (relevance_theory) Ω줫鶽̣ʬϤƤ롥

¼ ҡ4ϡǽŪʸסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס 򹯡 ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ

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2021-05-13 Thu

#4399. My word! [asseveration][swearing][interjection][taboo][euphemism][labiovelar][phonetics][khelf_hel_intro_2021]

ֱѸƳ2021˸ɽ줿ƥĤϡرˤOh My Word!?ʤ Word ʤΤήͻ?Ǥ롥
Oh my God! ϥ֡ (taboo) ȤۤɶʶŪˤϻѤ򤱤롥նɽ (euphemism) Ȥơ(Oh my) Gosh!, (Oh my) goodness!, Oh my! ʤɤ褯ΤƤ뤬פ˲Ū˻ˤִάʤɤʤƥꥸʥɽ碌ȤˡΤäƤΤǤ롥
ƥȯɽԤϡɸ My word! Ȥ Oh my God! նɽ1ĤǤϤʤȡּήͻפߤƤ롥οϡGod [g] word [w] ¤ϲŪ˶ᤤȤ¤Ǥ롥ΤĴŪˤСξԤ (labiovelar) ˤġϢܥ֥εȤơ#1151. ¿ ([2012-06-21-1])#3870. Ѹˤ wh- ʤ q- ֻ ([2019-12-01-1])#3871. åȥɱѸˤ wh- ǤϤʤ quh- ֻʸ Alexander Hume ([2019-12-02-1])#3409. ܸˤٹξü ([2018-08-27-1])#3410. Ѹˤֹٹס ([2018-08-28-1]) 󤲤Ƥ
Ūʴ God Word ӤĤƤߤߤϤ⤷
ŪˤϤɤOED word, n. and int. 򻲾ȤȼΤ褦ˤ롥

P3. e. my word (esp. as an exclamation) = upon my word at Phrases 1g(b)(ii).

1722 A. Philips Briton ii. iii. 14 He loves thee, Gwendolen:---My word, he does.
1821 London Mag. June 658/2 When the New Town Christeners had exhausted their Georges and Charlottes and Fredericks and Hanovers, (and, my word, they did extend the royalty).
1841 E. C. Gaskell Lett. (1966) 44 My word! authorship brings them in a pretty penny.
1857 F. Locker London Lyrics 72 Half London was there, and, my word, there were few..But envied Lord Nigel's felicity.
1874 A. Trollope Harry Heathcote ii. 49 'You dropped the match by accident?' 'My word, no. Did it o' purpose to see.'
1932 P. Hamilton Siege of Pleasure ii. 62 in Twenty Thousand Streets under Sky (1935) 'My word!' said Violet. 'You didn't half give me a turn.'
1960 C. Day Lewis Buried Day ii. 43 My word, how we did dress up in those days!
2004 G. Woodward I'll go to Bed at Noon xiii. 237 'That's an old Vincent,' said Janus Brian, 'my word. Haven't seen one of those for years'.


(asseveration) ȤƤֻ upon my word ƱǽδȤơ18Ⱦ˽Ф褦ֻ upon my word of my word ʤɤȤȤ1600ǯ夫ѤƤ롥餯ֻ礬ñȤǴȤѤ褦ˤʤꡤ䤬Ƥֻ줬æάǤѤ褦ˤʤäȤȤ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-22-1]

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2021-04-28 Wed

#4384. goodbye ȡ֤褦ʤ [interjection][euphemism][subjunctive][optative][etymology][personal_pronoun][abbreviation][khelf_hel_intro_2021]

ꥢåפ줿ֱѸƳ202120ܤΥƥĤϡgoodbye θ츻򰷤ägoodbye ΰ̣Ǥ
God be with ye ʿʤȤȤˤޤ褦ˡˤȤ³ˡ (subjunctive) Ѥ (optative) ɽͳ褹Ȥޤ̤ݤˤ褯Ѥ밧Ȥʤꡤûʤä goodbye ȤʤäȤǤ̣Ǥϡ֤ˤϤǤפ֤פˤʤ褦ʤΤǤ
ޤǤΤȤǤ⡤ȵ䤬ͯƤޤ͡㤨С

ʤ God good ˤʤäƤޤäΤ
ʤ be bye ˤʤäƤޤäΤ
ʤ with ye ʬæƤޤäΤ
you ǤϤʤ ye ȤΤϲʤΤ
ʤʡäơ֤褦ʤפ̤ΰˤʤΤ

ѸŪˤϤ⤷ơޤȤʤޤ嵭ƥǤϡΤ褦ʵΤ٤ƤƤ櫓ǤϤޤ󤬡God be with ye goodbye ؤѲƻڤˤĤƶ̣򤽤⤬ܤƤޤΤǡɤ
Ȥ櫓⤷Τϡ̤ΰȤܸ֤褦ʤʤСˤƼˡפ˴֤ߤʤޤǸʡʸȡѸ goodbye (< God be with ye) ˤߤֽʡʸκۤŦƤȤǤ
Τ˱ѸǤ (I wish you) good morning/afternoon/evening/night bless you ޤǡʡɽ¾θȤʤäƤ㤬¿褦˻פޤ٤ɽȤƷ־ν䤹ȤϤΤΡظˤȯۡפξ֤ǰۤʤäƤǤ

Referrer (Inside): [2026-02-03-1]

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2021-02-16 Tue

#4313. ƳʡʡгʤδطˤĤư [greetings][interjection][formula][syntax][exclamation][pragmatics][syncretism][latin][case]

ε#4312. ָƳʡפǧ뤫ݤ ([2021-02-15-1]) ˤ褦ˡƳ (vocative) ϡŪʰӸؤǤ1ĤΩʤȤǧƤƥʤɤθŵǤ顤2Ѥ -us ǽñˤΤΩƳʷǧˤʳǤϷŪ˼ʤͻ (syncretism) Ƥ롥ָƳʡפȤּʤθƤӤˡפȹͤۤåꤹȤΤ¤Ǥ롥
Τ褦˸ƳʤŪ˼ʤͻ礷ƤȤǧǡŪǽδָƤӤפȶᤤطˤȤܤִò (exclamation) ˤƤϡषгʤͳ褹֤Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥħ˴ؿƤ롥Poor me! Lucky you! Τ褦ɽǤ롥
ٹ (157--58) ꡤŪ˲餫ξάؤ7Ĥδòʸ󤲤ʸ̾ϷŪˤ̳ʤȤ٤ǽŪˤƤʤСʤгʤ³ơٹβѤ롥

How unlike their Belgic sires of old!---Goldsmith.
Wonderful civility this!---Charlotte Brontë.
A lively lad that!---Lord Lytton.
A theatrical people, the French?---Galsworthy.
Strange institution, the English club.---Albington.
This wish I have, then ten times happy me!---Shakespeare.

κǸ me ϸʸμǤ٤Τɽ魯ΤǤ뤬;ñ̾ϴưʸǤϼʤгʤѤ뤳ȤΤǡˤϼͳ餷ʡ130ȡˤƥθˡޤͤȤ츶Ǥäȸ롥ȤС

Me miserable!---Milton, Paradise Lost, IV. 73.

ƥ Me miserum! (Ovid, Heroides, V. 149) Ȱפ롥


ѺǸΥƥ me miserum ȴϢơBlake γʤ˴ؤ "ungoverned case" ꤹ1ѤƤ (9)

In case languages one sometimes encounters phrases in an oblique case used as interjections, i.e. apart from sentence constructions. Mel'cuk (1986: 46) gives a Russian example Aristokratov na fonar! 'Aristocrats on the street-lamps!' where Aristokratov is accusative. One would guess that some expressions of this type have developed from governed expressions, but that the governor has been lost. A standard Latin example is mē miserum (1SG.ACC miserable.ACC) 'Oh, unhappy me!' As the translation illustrates, English uses the oblique form of pronouns in exclamations, and outside constructions generally.


˵򰧻Τ褦ʷʸˤäƤ#4284. ʸϤۤȤ̵ ([2021-01-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ¿ϡŪˤϼư줬ά졤гʤ̾礫ʤäƤΤ
ŪǽδǴϢȤܤƤӤòȤ롼פǤꡤ˷Ū˶̤ƳʡʡгʤȤФ륰롼פ¾Ǥ롥դδطʣˤơ⤷

ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-21-1]

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2021-01-18 Mon

#4284. ʸϤۤȤ̵ [greetings][interjection][formula][syntax][article][exclamation][pragmatics][christmas]

I wish you a merry Christmas! Ȥά Merry Christmas! ȤʤꡤI wish you a good morning. ά Good morning! Ȥʤ롥ȶ᤹Ƶα뤳Ȥʤ⤷ʤΤ褦ʷʸ (formula) ̾ؾάˤϡڤȤȤ¿ֻʤɤȼ A merry Christmas to you! Τ褦˴줬Ĥ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤϳ餵̥롼ǤϤʤΤΡʸ⤱й⤤ۤɴޤǴޤƾά褦òŪ Charming couple!, Dirty place!, Excellent meal!, Poor thing!, Good idea!, Lovely evening! Ȥ̤礦¾ Cigarette?, Good flight?, Next slide? ʤɤεˤ̤봧ξάȤ롥ɽŪʷʸQuirk et al (11.54) 褦

GREETINGS: Good morning, Good afternoon, Good evening <all formal>; Hello; Hi <familiar>
FAREWELLS: Goodbye, Good night, All the best <informal>, Cheers, Cheerio <BrE, familiar>, See you <familiar>, Bye(-bye) <familiar>, So long <familiar>
INTRODUCTIONS: How do you do? <formal>, How are you?, Glad to meet you, Hi <familiar>
REACTION SIGNALS:
   (a) assent, agreement: Yes, Yeah /je/; All right, OK <informal>, Certainly, Absolutely, Right, Exactly, Quite <BrE>, Sure <esp AmE>
   (b) denial, disagreement: No, Certainly not, Definitely not, Not at all, Not likely
THANKS: Thank you (very much), Thanks (very much), Many thanks, Ta <BrE slang>, Thanks a lot, Cheers <familiar BrE>
TOASTS: Good health <formal>, Your good health <formal>, Cheers <familiar>, Here's to you, Here's to the future, Here's to your new job
SEASONAL GREETINGS: Merry Christmas, Happy New Year, Happy Birthday, Many happy returns (of your birthday), Happy Anniversary
ALARM CALLS: Help! Fire!
WARNINGS: Mind, (Be) careful!, Watch out!, Watch it! <familiar>
APOLOGIES: (I'm) sorry, (I beg your) pardon <formal>, My mistake
RESPONSES TO APOLOGIES: That's OK <informal>, Don't mention it, Not matter <formal>, Never mind, No hard feelings <informal>
CONGRATULATIONS: Congratulations, Well done, Right on <AmE slang>
EXPRESSIONS OF ANGER OR DISMISSAL (familiar; graded in order from expressions of dismissal to taboo curses): Beat it <esp AmE>, Get lost, Blast you <BrE>, Damn you, Go to hell, Bugger off <BrE>, Fuck off, Fuck you
EXPLETIVES (familiar; likewise graded in order of increasing strength): My Gosh, (By) Golly, (Good) Heavens, Doggone (it) <AmE>, Darn (it), Heck, Blast (it) <BrE>, Good Lord, (Good) God, Christ Almighty, Oh hell, Damn (it), Bugger (it) <esp BrE>, Shit, Fuck (it)
MISCELLANEOUS EXCLAMATIONS: Shame <familiar>, Encore, Hear, hear, Over my dead body <familiar>, Nothing doing <informal>, Big deal <familiar, ironic>, Oh dear, Goal, Checkmate


ʸ¿ϲ餫ŪάФΤǤꡤǤԵ§ȸ뤬ä͡Ū󤬲ݤȤħ⤢롥㤨Сˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̤ο;ΤѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤܵळȤǤʤĤΤ¿ʸȤΤǡ(A) happy new year! Τ褦ˡ괧̵ͭʤɤ˴ؤ variation ĤΤ⤢ȹͤƤ롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-24-1] [2021-02-16-1]

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2020-10-27 Tue

#4201. ν񤭽Ф Dear my friend [vocative][pragmatics][adjective][interjection][syntax][word_order][pragmatic_marker][coca]

ǶᡤرλŦ˥ϥäȤ뤳Ȥ¿ؤ󴶼դƤ롥ɸ귿ʸȤߤʤƤꡤȤꤿƤʬŪ˹ͤȤʤäŦơֳΤˡפȴdear ϡֿưʤפ̣̤ηƻǤ뤫顤my dear friend ʤ褯ʬ롥Ƭΰ (salutation) ʤɤǤϡŪ˳ʤȤ⤤ Dear my friendDear Mr. Smith ʤɤȤƤɤʤΤ
ŪʴФȤƤϡƬΰ Dear ϽƻȤϡΤδ (interjection) ˶ᤤΤǤꡤɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤäƤ褤Τ⤷ʤĤޤꡤ my dear friend ȡ˳ʤ Dear my friend ٤ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤȤ⤷ʤCGEL (775) Ǥ⡤ʲΤ褦˰ƳޡȤߤʤƺѤޤƤ롥

It is conventional to place a salutation above the body of the letter. The salutation, which is on a line of its own, is generally introduced by Dear;
   Dear RuthDear Dr BrownDear MadamDear Sir


̻Ūˤߤе䤬ͯƤ롥Dear my friend Τ褦ʸ礬Ƹ줿ΤϤĤʤΤθɸβϤʤΤäΤѸǤ Dear my lord Dear my lady 㤬¿褦 milord, milady θòȤؤ꤬˰㤤ʤ
ѸξˤĤưҤ٤ƤСCOCA ǸƤߤ¤ꡤ¤ϡdear my ̾פϷ褷¿ʤŪˤ⤤ʴ롤⤷ơޤǤʢK󡤤꤬Ȥˡ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2020-02-03 Mon

#3934. ꥹ er ȥꥫ uh [interjection][spelling][pronunciation][ame_bre][rhotic][onomatopoeia]

դˤĤݤʤɤθɤߤŵŪ filler Ȥơɸθ줬롥er uh ȯ纹ʤ /ə, əː, ʌ/ ǰפƤȤäƤ褤ڥ󥰤礭ۤʤꡤǤ̡δ (interjection) ȤưƤ롥ŪˤСer ꥹѸ졤uh ꥫѸŵŪ filler Ǥ롥
ʬۤϡƤߤФʤۤɤǼǤ롥ɸŪˤ non-rhotic Ǥ륤ꥹȯʶŪˤ RP ʤɡˤǰƬˤСer Ȥڥ󥰤첻ΤߤȯбƤΤ̤ΤȤǤ롥rhotic ʰ̥ꥫѸʶŪˤ General American ʤɡˤǰƬˤȡer Υڥ󥰤첻ΤߤȯбΤˤ񹳤Τ⤷ʤꥫѸǤϡer Υڥ󥰤ȯδ֤Ե§ȤȤǡuh Ȥ̤֤ȯפ줿ΤǤϤʤCook (183) դλ˿Ƥ롥

. . . characters who hesitate in British novels say 'er', whereas those in American novels say 'uh', though the sound is doubtless the same. The American correspondence of <er> would have to be /ər/, whereas <uh> can correspond to /ə/ in a more straightforward way.


ʤer uh ɤߤ˺ݤ뿴ŪŪʺѤη̤Ȥȯ줿򥹥ڥ󥰤˽񤭵ηΤϤʤ꿷OED ˤȡer Ͻ㤬1862ǯuh 1962ǯǤ롥
Ѽ֤Υڥ󥰤κۤϤޤȵ󤲤뤳ȤǤ뤬cf. #244. ֻαƺΥꥹȡ ([2009-12-27-1])ˡȯ non-rhotic/rhotic ΰ㤤ڥ󥰤κ̩ۤܤ˴ϢƤ뺣Τ褦ϤۤȤɸȤʤäȤ er uh ϥڥ󥰤κۤǤϤʤܼŪˤϸκۤǤȵ뤳Ȥϲǽ⤷ʤ

Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.

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2019-10-08 Tue

#3816. quotha [etymology][interjection][verb][comment_clause][subjectification][discourse_marker]

ε#3815. quoth 첻 ([2019-10-07-1]) ǡ̯ʿ򼨤ư quoth Ҳ𤷤quoth he Ȥ礬ޤäƴȤƵǽ褦ˤʤä quotha /ˈkwoʊθə/ ʤ롤äѤʸ¸ߤ롥ϤŤᤫɽѤθǷΤ򤳤Ѥ졤֤줿ޤäۤȤˡեե󡪡פۤɤ̣롥
OED quotha, int. ˤȡФϼΤ褦?1520ȤʤäƤ롥

?1520 J. Rastell Nature .iiii. Element sig. Bvjv Thre course dysshes qd a.


Τ褦ˡѸǤ qd a qda ʤɤȾάɽƤ褦Ūʸ̤ḽ夫򡤤⤦󤲤Ƥ

1698 Unnatural Mother iv. 33 Hei, hei! handsom, kether! sure somebody has been rouling him in the rice.
1720 W. Congreve Love for Love v. i. 115 Sleep quotha! No, why you would not sleep o'your wedding night!
1884 R. Browning Mihrab Shah in Ferishtah's Fancies 99 Attributes, quotha? Here's poor flesh and blood.
1997 T. Pynchon Mason & Dixon 507 It's Emerson and that lot. Ragged children. Swarms, quotha.


quoth he Ȥ礬ɸ (discourse_marker) ؤȼѲ (subjectification) Ȥơ˸Ūˤ⤷ȥԥåǤ롥

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2019-06-26 Wed

#3712. Ѹδ (2) [interjection][exclamation]

#3689. Ѹδ ([2019-06-03-1]) ˰³ƤꡥThe Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories p. 554 ˡ"Natural exclamations" ꤹܥӥ󤬤롥פʱѸδ (interjection) л䵯εҤȤȤ󤵤ƤΤޤƻ˼ȿ줬ޤƤΤʤΤʤȯǤʤʤ⤷

InterjectionFirst AttestationUsage
awmid 19th century in American Englishexpressing mild protest
faughmid 16th centuryexpressing disgust
heyMiddle Englishsaid in attracting attention
hilate Middle Englishsaid in greeting
hoMiddle Englishexpressing surprise or derision
hootsearly 19th century, but mid 16th century as hootexpressing impatience
hoylate Middle Englishsaid to attract attention
loOld English as said to indicate an amazing event.
ohMiddle Englishexpressing entreaty or mild surprise
oofmid 19th centuryexpressing alarm or annoyance
oohearly 20th centuryexpressing delight or pain
oops1930ssaid on making an error
ouchmid 17th centuryexpressing pain
owmid 19th centuryexpressing pain
poohlate 16th centuryexpressing disgust
pshawlate 17th centuryexpressing impatience or contempt
shoolate Middle Englishsaid to frighten off the hearer
whee1920sexpressing delight
whishtmid 16th centurysaid to hush the hearer
whooearly 17th centuryexpressing surprise or delight
wowearly 16th centuryexpressing admiration
yahearly 17th centuryexpressing derision
yahoo1970sexpressing excitement
yeehaw1970s in American Englishexpressing exuberance
yeow1920s in American Englishexpressing shock
yippee1920s in American Englishexpressing wild excitement
yolate Middle Englishsaid in greeting
yoo-hoo1920ssaid to attract attention
zowieearly 20th century in American Englishexpressing astonishment


oops, ouch, pooh, wow ʤɡ褯ΤƤΤǤ⡤ѸʹߤνФȡճ٤Ȥ˵Ť줬줿Ǥ뤳ȤǧǤ

Chantrell, Glynnis, ed. The Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories. Oxford: OUP, 2002.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-08-05-1]

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2019-06-03 Mon

#3689. Ѹδ [interjection][spelling_pronunciation]

εǴʴư; interjectionˤ夲ͤƤߤ̯ʸǤ롥̾ʸ¾ǤŪʴطʤʤΤǡ⤽⳰ԤǤ롥ޤĤȤ櫓ǤϤʤŪѤΤŪθ˸¤ƤꡤϤԤȤäƤ褤ˡθηŪʲηϤ鳰줿ǤѤΤȤǤ⡤ŪǤ롥ήɤθؤˤơŪʻȤߤƤΤưפˤʤ롥
ºݡѸδˤĤƤϡQuirk et al. ʸˡǤ鰷Interjections ꤵ줿11.55 (p. 853) ޤޤѤƤ⡤ʲ٤Ǥ롥

Interjections are purely emotive words which do not enter into syntactic relations. Some of them have phonological features which lie outside the regular system of the language. Whew, for instance, contains a bilabial fricative [ɸɪu], [ɸː]; tut-tut consists of a series of alveolar clicks, []. What we produce below are the spelling conventions for a wide range of sounds. Secondary pronunciations are derived from the spelling conventions (cf Note [c] below). In addition, many interjections may be associated with nonsystematic features such as extra lengthening and wide pitch range.

Ah (satisfaction, recognition, etc); Aha (jubilant satisfaction, recognition); Ahem, [əʔəm] (mild call for attention); Boo (disapproval, usually for a speaker at gathering; also surprise noise); Eh? [eɪ] (impolite request for repetition . . .); Hey (call for attention); Mm (casual 'yes'); Oh (surprise); Oho (jubilant surprise); Ooh (pleasure or pain); Oops (mild apology, shock, or dismay), Ouch [aʊʧ], Ow [aʊ] (pain); Pooh (mild disapproval or impatience); Sh [ʃ] (request for silence or moderation of noise); Tut-tut [] (mild regret, disapproval); Ugh [ʌx] (disgust); Uh-huh, also Uh-uh (agreement or disagreement); Wow (great surprise)


Note [a] The above is not intended as a complete list. Some interjections are less frequent, eg: Yippee (excitement, delight), Psst [ps] (call for attention, with request for silence). The archaic interjection Alas (sorrow) may be encountered in literature.
       [b] Interjections are sometimes used to initiate utterances: Oh, what a nuisance; Ah, that's perfect.
       [c] There are also some spelling pronunciations: [ʌɡ] for ugh; [tʌt tʌt] for tut-tut, often with an ironic tone; [həʊ həʊ] and [hɑː hɑː], both representing laughter, are always ironic.


Dzɵ椷褦Ȥ顤ɤʥơޤǽ켫ΡȤƤ⤷

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-08-05-1] [2019-06-26-1]

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2019-06-02 Sun

#3688. ܸδưʬ [interjection][speech_act][pragmatics]

ؿ޲ܸ (107) ˡܸδưʤ뤤ϴˤʬ㤬ƤǽܤʬǤ롥

                               ҤġӨ֤ˤס֤ʤ
 I ̹԰ͨ
                             ҼʸޤʤӨ֥ס֤פפ

 II̹԰źáͨҤϤ䤷Ө֤ɤäס֥ϥ㥳

IIIȯϵͨҸƤӤӨ֤䤢ס֤ס֤
                             
                             ҵưӨ֤ס֤ۤ
                             
                             軰һӨ֤ͤס֤ʤ
                             
                             ͼұӨ֤Ϥס֤ס֤ס֤
                             
                             ޼ȿӨ֤áס֤ۤס֤äȡ

 IVͷӤȤС֤ͨȡס֤ס֤Ρ

ۤܤΤޤޱѸˤѤǤȻפΤǡͤˤʤ롥ѸδˤĤƤϡ#2041. ɸ졤 ([2014-11-28-1]) ⻲ȡǯϸȯù԰٤ȤȥԥåؤδؿޤäƤƤꡤȼäƴư٤夬äƤƤ褦˻פ롥

顤¼ Ƿ ϱҡ 㡡ؿ޲ܸ١Ʋ2006ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-08-05-1]

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2016-04-07 Thu

#2537. Jesus ??????????? [historical_pragmatics][pragmatics][taboo][interjection][swearword][invited_inference][subjectification][grammaticalisation]

äϵɽ֤礦áʤäƤäפۤɤȤƤ JesusGod goddamn ʤɤƱͤͤդǤꡤ餫˽Ū̾˵Ĥ줬ȤȤ˸ɸ (pragmatic marker) ؤȯŸΤǤ롥ޤǤʤ Jesus ϿλҥꥹȤؤ"Jesus, please help me." Τ褦󽡶Ūòʸ̮Ǥ⤷ФѤ줿Ȥ顤ꡤͤξ̤̩ܤ˴طŤ褦ˤʤäη̡ñȤǴȤѤ˻ꡤˡȤƤϡϤ䥤ꥹȤؼ뵡ǽϤƴǤ롥ʸ̮Ƿ֤Ѥ뤳ȤˤꡤθθŪʴްդߤĤѲ (pragmaticalisation) Ǥ롥ʲJucker and Taavitsainen (134--38) ˵äơθݤƤߤ褦
λؼòˤƤӤƴȤƤ Jesus ˡΥǡϡʲʸˤ궦Ūˤⴶ뤳ȤǤ (qtd. in Jucker and Taavitsainen 134)

I went through the motions, but I still prayed to Jesus at night, still went to church. (COCA, ABC_20/20, 2010)
Oh, Jesus please bless her. Here goes another one, little lady. (COCA, CNN_King, 1997)
He flicks on the TV. Nothing. Goddamn box. Not even plugged in. Jesus. He can't be prowling around looking for a socket. Shit. (COCA, Gologorsky, Beverly. The things we do to make it home, 1999)


űѸǤ⥤ؼꡤòꤹΤ Iesus θ줬ѤƤŪʸ̮˸¤ƤѸǤϤǤ󽡶Ūʸ̮ѤƤ롥㤨С1377ǯˤ "Bi iesus, with here ieweles, howre iustices she shendeth." ȤꡤѲƻؤƻ򤹤ǤǤ뤳Ȥ롥ѲǶ̤ƤΤüԤα̿򺸱벿ԤؤʤǤꡤμԤȤϿäꡤ̤μԤäꡤ̿äꤹ櫓
ѸǤϡͤդȤƤ Jesus ˡΤˤʤäƤ뤬Ǥ⸵ˡȤζܤۣϿ¿Jucker and Taavitsainen (136) ϡۣΰޤθѲƻڤͶƳ (invited_inference) δƤ롥

The expression is regularly used with both the original meaning of religious invocation and the invited inference that the speaker also wants to communicate a certain amount of surprise and annoyance, and, therefore, the invited inference becomes part of the coded meaning of the expression, while the original meaning is increasingly backgrounded.


Ѳβϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ѳ (subjectification) Ȥ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤꡤº Jesus ηФѲϡüԤδ褦ˤʤäǼѲȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤòθƤӤȤʸƬ˸䤹Ȥʸ¾ǤΩ¥첽䤷ʤ᤿ȤȤ館뤳ȤǤǤ롥

Jucker, Andreas H. and Irma Taavitsainen. English Historical Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.

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2016-02-10 Wed

#2480. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ (2) [imperative][exclamation][inflection][speech_act][verb][interjection][sobokunagimon]

[2016-02-05-1]ε˰³̿ưθѤˤĤơεΰˤäMustanoja (473--74) ̿ȴ (interjection) ζ˸ڤƤ롥βսѤ褦

There is a striking functional resemblance between the imperative and the interjections. Both are functionally self-contained exclamatory expressions, both are little articulate (the singular imperative has no ending or has only -e, and the subject-pronoun is seldom expressed), and both are greatly dependent on intonation. In fact many interjections, primary and secondary, are used to express exhortations and commands (a-ha, hay, hi, harrow, out, etc. . . .), and many imperatives are used as interjections (abide, come, go bet, help, look . . . cf. present-day interjections like come on, go away, hear hear, say, say there, etc.)


ˡMustanoja (630--31) Ǥϡư̿¾δȤʤäƤ㤬¿󤲤Ƥ롥

Brief commands, exhortations, and entreaties are comparable to interjections. Thus in certain circumstances the imperative mood of verbs may serve as a kind of interjection: --- abyd, Robyn, my leeve brother (Ch. CT A Mil. 3129); --- come, þou art mysbilevyd (Cursor App. ii 823); --- go bet, peny, go bet, go! (Sec. Lyr. lvii refrain); --- quad Moyses, 'loc, her nu [is] bread' (Gen. & Ex. 3331); --- help, hooly croys of Bromeholm! (Ch. CT A Rv. 4286; in this and many other cases help might equally well be interpreted as a noun). Somewhat similar stereotyped uses of the imperative are herken and listen, which occur as conventional opening exclamations in numerous ME poems (herkneþ, boþe yonge and olde; --- lystenyþ, lordynges . . . .


ưˤ̿򤢤δȯϪȤƤȤ館СưȤʻ°Ȥü𤬤ǡϳΤ˴ȵǽŪ˻Ƥ롥ѲǤ뤫Τ褦ưθѤȤΤϡԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-01-1]

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2016-02-05 Fri

#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ [imperative][exclamation][inflection][speech_act][verb][interjection][sobokunagimon]

ɸϡѸ̿ʸ˴ؤơ#2289. ̿ʸ˼줬ʤ ([2015-08-03-1]) ¤ǡĹ餯˴Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ūˤϡ̸̿ĤΤΤǤ롥㤨СűѸΡֹԤפɽ魯ưˤĤơ2;ñؤ̿ 2;ʣؤ̿ gāþ gān Ǥꡤ줾֤ϰۤʤäƤѸʹߡζ޸ʿŪ˸¤ go ؤȼ̤
Τ褦ŪطʤϤˤ衤Ѹ򶦻ŪʴįСŵŪ̿Ѥưη֤ϡ븶ˤη֤ȴ˰פƤ롥äơ̻Ūʴȴ˵ҤΤǤСʤƤüԤʸˡȿǤƤȻפ뤬ˡ̿ȸȤѸ̤ɬפϤʤ̿ˤưθѤפȸäƺ٤ʤ⤷줬üԤζŪФȤСɽ魯̿εǽƱη֤Τʤ˶¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ˴ؤơǧξɤΤ褦ˤȤ館ƤΤ
ˤĤơ (83) ǻȤƤ Fischer (249) ΥȤäƤߤ

The imperative has a tendency to become invariant in form (this happened also in other Germanic languages), because it functions like a self-contained, exclamatory expression. Mustanoja (1960: 473) compares its function to that of (invariable) interjections. In an example like,

   (109) Help! Water! Water! Help, for Goddes herte! (CT I.3815 [1:3807])

help is as much an interjection as an imperative.


̿ȴòϤδȯϪȤƵǽŪ˻̤äƤꡤ椨θ캬ΤΡʱѸξˤϡʤˤѤȲǤٹ (157) òʸȤδϢǽҤ٤ƤդڤСΤ褦ʸ캬ϡָ줬ʸˡŪˤȤ줺ξεޤʤޤޤ˸ŪθԸ줿פΤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥

ʡ"May the Force Be with You!"Ѹ may ʸˤĤơסطضס642015ǯ77--84ǡ
Fischer, O. Syntax. In The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. N. Blake. Cambridge, CUP, 1992. 207--398.
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

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2015-07-11 Sat

#2266. eh? Canadianism [interjection][canadian_english][language_myth][french]

ꥫѸȤ⥤ꥹѸȤۤʤѼȤơʥѸȼθħȤޤäƻŦब롥ʸ֤ eh? Ǥ롥ϡԤ eh? λѤˤäƥʥͤݤȽ̤ǤȤä⤢ۤɡ褯ΤƤħǤ롥¿ΥʥͤϤη򶯤ǧƤꡤδǤɽŪʥʥˡ (Canadianism) ȤưռƤ롥
Avis ϥꥹꥫʥαѸѼˤ eh? λѤˤȸĴ̡̩ʰ̣Ǥ Canadianism ȤϸʤȷŤƤ롥

. . . it should seem quite obvious that eh? is no Canadianism---for it did not originate in Canada and is not peculiar to the English spoken in Canada. Indeed, eh? appears to be in general use wherever English speakers hang their hats; and in one form or another it has been in general use for centuries. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that eh? has a remarkably high incidence in the conversation of many Canadians these days. Moreover, it seems certain that in Canada eh? has been pressed into service in contexts where it would be unfamiliar elsewhere. Finally, it would appear that eh? has gained such recognition among Canadians that it is used consciously and frequently by newspapermen and others in informal articles and reports . . . and attributed freely in reported conversations with all manner of men, including athletes, professors, and politicians. (Avis 95)


Although eh? is no Canadianism, there can be little doubt that the interjection is well entrenched. . . . [M]any Canadians are aware of its current high frequency (especially in its narrative function), a fact which leads some to claim it as a Canadianism, others to use it intentionally in print, and, it must be added, some to treat it as a pernicious carbuncle. (Avis 103)


Avis η⡤ɤΤȤ Canadianism ɤΤ褦뤫˰¸Ƥȸ虜򤨤ʤʥѸޤ줿ĥʥѸǤΤѤȤĤʤСeh? Canadianism ȤϤʤΤˤơʥѸˤä˸ѤȤ¤뤫ʤȤ餹Сeh? Ͻʬ Canadianism ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤϤȤơŪʻ¤Ż뤹ʤСeh? ʥѸκΩäħ1ĤǤ뤳ȤϳΤΤ褦
⤦1ĽפϡʥѸüԤħΤ˰ռƤꡤռŪѤʤ뤤ϵդ˴򤹤˷ȤȤĤޤꡤʥѸüԤˤռŪʥƥ쥪פȤ¦̤롥ʥͤ뤳ȤɸΤȤ eh? տŪ˻ѤƤΤǤСϸŪʹ԰٤ǤƱˡ¿ʬ˼ҲŪʹ԰٤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ǸˡʥѸˤ eh? Ѥطʤ˴ϢơAvis (102fn--03fn) ζ̣ŦҲ𤷤Ƥ

Eh? is a common contour-carrier among French Canadians (along with eh bien and hein?), as it has been in the French language for centuries. This circumstance may have contributed to the high popularity of the interjection in Canada generally. (Avis 102--03fn)


Avis, Walter Spencer. "So eh? is Canadian, eh?" Canadian Journal of Linguistics 17 (1972): 89--104.

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2014-11-28 Fri

#2041. ɸ졤 [pragmatics][discourse_marker][interjection][terminology][prototype]

˸ǤϡμήɸؤϼŪȤߤʤ褦꤬ɽΩġɸ (discourse marker) (interjection) (insert) ȸƤФ⡤ǯˤ狼˵ӸӤ褦ˤʤäѸ˸Ǥ⡤well please um 褦䤯ޤȤ˰褦ˤʤä
θˤ͡ʬλꡤ줷ƾΤʤᤷ˻ͽǻȤƤѸ󤷤Ƥߤȡ"discourse marker" "interjection" Τۤˤ "discourse particle", "mystery particle", "implicit anchoring device" ʤ͡Ǥ (Jucker and Taavitsainen 55) θηϲ褦ȤߤΰĤ Jucker and Taavitsainen (56) ˤ "Inserts and pragmatic noise" οޤ롥ԹǾѤΤʲ˼

Inserts and Pragmatic Noise

οޤˤ "Inserts", "Pragmatic noise", "Discourse markers", "Primary interjections", "Secondary interjections", "Words", "Vocalisations" ʤɤѸ줬ФƤꡤ줾ζܤۣ˼Ƥ뤬 Jucker and Taavitsainen θŪʽǽץȥŪˤߤƤ뤫Ǥ롥
ޤޤ礭ʬ롥ޤΤ褽¦ Inserts ϡ¾ʻεǽͭƤΤ¿¼Ūʰ̣ƤͭƤ롥Ф뱦¦ Pragmatic noise ϡ¾ʻεǽ⤿¼Ūʰ̣ǡäѤŪпŪòȤ롥ơ¦ Inserts ǤץȥŪ Inserts Ǥ뺸ü Discourse markers ȡŪʱ Interjections ʬ롥 Interjections ⡤ƱȤ¾ʻˤⶡ뤫ݤˤä Secondary interjections Primary interjections ʬ롥ΤȤƺؤΥǡνΤɽƤΤ狼ʤüˤ Ha ha he he ʤɤ Vocalisations Ȥ褦Τʤθꤵ줿ɽߤ롥
interjections 3ʬ򸫤ƤYuk! ouch! ʤɤδŪ (emotive) ʤΡaha!, Oh!, Well! ʤɤǧŪ (cognitive) ʤΤϹ碌ɽŪ (expressive) ʴȸƤФ롥ˡʹ˶Ưؼꡤդ¥ꡤưǽŪ (conative) ʴȤ shh!, eh?, hey!, ho!, Look! 롥Ǹ˸Ū (phatic) ʴȤơŤǤĤ mhm!, uh-huh! ʤɤ̤ (Jucker and Taavitsainen 57--58)
ϸѸˤʬǤϤ뤬Ѹ˸ˤ⤪褽ΤޤƤϤޤŪʶʬ

Jucker, Andreas H. and Irma Taavitsainen. English Historical Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.

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