1116ˤ YouTube ֤Τۤإͥˤ#387. ѸˤϤʤ줬Ρܸˤϴ줬ʤѸδȻƤΤܸΤޤơޤִ (article) ȤʪäǤ礦ޤǤ褯İƤޤīλǻİ1ĶƤꡤȯǤ
(the, a/an) ϱѸؽԤˤȤäƱʱβǤȤΤʤܸȤԤˤȤäơȤ櫓ܤǤ⡤ʤѸˤϤΤ褦ʤΤΤȤäȻפäƤޤפˡϺŪ䤤ʤΤǤ
ʤ줬Τ䤤ϡѸˤδɳƤߤȡޤä٤¤Ϥޤޤ괧 the ǤϡѸޤ¿Υ衼åѸˤơɬǽ餫¸ߤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤˤǡŪˤʤäƤѤ褦ˤʤäֿԡפʤΤǤ
űѸλˤ⡤the ϳΤ¸ߤޤϸŪʳΩˡʻȤƻȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤȤ٤¸ߤˤȤɤޤäƤޤȤȡ֤ס֤פȤạ̈ɽ魯ؼ (demonstrative) äΤˤλؼϤñ˴ΤΤΤǤ뤳ȤɸʸˡŪǤؤѲƤä̤Ȥޤ줿ΤǤΤ褦ʡȤȤΰ̣ޤꡤʸˡŪʵǽĤ褦ˤʤѲʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȸƤǤޤϱѸˤˤ˽פʥơޤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ١夲Ƥޤ
ŪʷаޤΤȡǽѤʵ֤ʤ줬Τפϡ֤ʤѸϡ虜虜ؼʸˡɬפäΤפȤ꿼䤤ؤȾڤޤʤʤ顤ΤʤܸüԤϡΤʤؤȤϴƤʤǤ
䤤Ф1ĤθȤʤΤܸν֤פȡ֤ϡפǤưǤϡΡ֤ס֤ϡפλȤʬѸδȻƤ¦̤뤳ȤŦ¤ (information_structure) δŸޤ
κǤŪϡäʹδ֤ǤǤ˶ͭƤʡˤǤʤʿˤ̤뤳ȤˤޤεǽϡܸΡ֤ס֤ϡפôȸ˥ѥʤΤǤܤäˤȤäƤߤޤ礦
ΡȤˡʡῷˤȤФʡῷˤޤʵˤϻؼǴˡФʡˤ˹Ԥޤ
Ѹˤȡ1ʸǤ괧줬2ʸǤ괧줬ѤϤǤ줾ܸν֤ס֤ϡפбޤ
ܸΡ֤ס֤ϡפλȤʬˤߤ뿷ζ̤Ȥˡϡ춦ƱΤˤȤäŪʤΤǤΥˡμʤϡ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤǽˤޤܸϤǤȯãƤȤӡѸϤޤˤäؼʸˡȤƻȤ櫓Ǥ
λ¤ϡѸδν˶ϫ䤿ˡƶͿƤޤѸδλȤʬˤϡطʤˤή졤ʤ¤ɬפ롤ȤȤǤѸδδФϡܸüԤ̵ռΤˡ֤ס֤ϡפȤʬƤ롤δФȷҤäƤΤǤ
ϡüԤΥߥ˥ΥˡȡλѲǽʸʣ߹äƷƤޤ̣Ǥϼ¤˿ʹ֤ʪʤΤǤҤεưǤ⤪餤
1β heldio ˤ#1413. ʤűѸθ絬§ϴˤäΤǯٽۿΥˡۿˤȤۿޤ (word_order) ȤˤưŪʤΤǡؿ⤿줿ΤǤ礦ޤǤβʿѤ¿İ褵Ƥޤ꤬Ȥޤ
ѸˤʬǡָפȤСѸǤϸ絬§ΤˡűѸǤϸ礬ŪˤäȤ椬ˤʤޤʤ֤ϤʤפȤѤʵ䤬ͯƤΤǤϤʤǤ礦ϡεľΤǤϤʤФᤫΥץǤϤޤȤϲȤŪˤϿ̤ȤǤȻפޤ
ʲʸϤݤޤ촶Τ륪ꥸʥβۿˤƤİФȻפޤ
1. ⤽ָפȤϲ --- (linearity)
䤿ϡؽä˱Ѹؽ̤ơνؤӤޤѸ SVO ܤǤꡤỌ̇̄ѤäꡤʸˡŪˤʤäꤹȶäƤޤ㤨 I eat a banana. ɸŪǤꡤ*Eat I a banana. *A banana I eat. ̾ƤޤʶĴʤɤüʸ̮Ͻޤˡ
ܸǤϡֻϥХʥʤ٤ (SOV) Ǥ֥ХʥʤϿ٤ (OSV) ֿ٤롤ϥХʥʤ (VSO) ʤɤ⡤ԼϤˤ衤ʸˡŪ˴ְ㤤Ȥϸڤޤ
ǤϡʤˤϸȤΤ¸ߤΤǤ礦ϡ줬ʤ뤤ʸˤּ˱äľŪ¤٤뤳ȤˤäΩƤ뤫ǤȸƤӤޤ䤿ȯﴱʤȤ櫓ӡˤϴŪ1ĤʤΤǡʣñƱȯ뤳ȤϤǤޤäơñ֤¤٤뤷ʤΤǤϸˤʤǤꡤʪؤˤϤΤª뤳ȤǤޤ
While the dog is running in the yard, the cat is sleeping on the hot carpet. ʸäƤ֡ǭϥۥåȥڥåȤξǿƤˤȤʸϡƱ˵äƤɽ路Ƥޤ顤ɤ餫˸虜ޤ⤷˿ʹ֤2ĤӤƱ2Ĥñȯ뤳ȤǤʤ顤ι¤ۤʤäƤȤǤ礦
2. 絬§2Ĥθ
ñ֤¤٤ʤФʤʤȤ¸ͳʬޤϡ֤ɤΤ褦¤٤뤫פȤ絬§ǤθϤȡθ絬§ظˤϡ礭ʬ2Ĥΰۤʤ븶¸ߤ褦˻פޤ
(1) ʸˡθ絬§
ʸʥƥǡʼ졤ư졤Ūʤɡˤ֤ꤹ븶
ǤʸˡŪʵǽʼʤΤŪʤΤˤˤäƼ
ŵ㡧Ѹ (SVO) (SVO) ʤ
ʸˡŪʴطˤäΤˤʤȿ̡μͳ٤㤤
(2) ʸ̮θ絬§
ʸʥƥˤʸ̮áˤˤήŻ뤹븶
¿ξ硤ꡦơޡ³ǽҡ졼ޡ֤뷹
ŵ㡧ܸ졤űѸ
ή줬ˤʤʸθŪͳǡִˤפȸʤ䤹
ܸΡΡȤˡȤФޤؼǴˡפȤФͤƤߤޤ礦ǽʸǤϡθ塤Ǥ֤ȤФפ֤פȼäƸޤʸǤϡΤȤʤä֤פ֤ϡסʼˤȼäʸƬơʻؼǴ˹Ԥäȡˤ³ޤΤ褦ˡܸʸ̮ξήʼꢪҡơޢ졼ޡˤˤäɽ뤳ȤʤΤǤ
3. űѸܸ췿ä
ơǸűѸܤƤߤޤ礦ʤűѸθ絬§ϴˤäΤϡűѸ줬ѸΤ褦ʡʸˡθ絬§פ1ȤǤϤʤषܸ˶ᤤʸ̮θ絬§פŻ뤹äǤ
űѸǤϡʸ̮˱ơȸʤǤʸƬ֤³Ȥ礬ޤޤΤᡤʸ¤ȡSVO SOV VSO ǽǤꡤѸüԤλ鸫ȡ礬ꤵƤ餺ˤȴ櫓Ǥϡֵ§ʤפ櫓ǤϤʤۤʤθ˴ŤƤΤ٤ΤʤΤǤ
4. 縶žȱѸ˾Ѳ
ѸˤϡΡʸ̮θ絬§פŻ뤹륿פʸˡθ絬§פŻ뤹륿פؤȡδŪʤ礭žˤǤª뤳ȤǤޤžϡѸ˸ˤʤꡤѸˤƸ경Ƥޤ礭ʸžϡñ˸ǤʤѸ¾͡ʸˡܤˤϢŪʱƶڤܤޤ
(article) ȯãűѸˤⴧ˨ϤޤѸۤηŪʥƥǤϤޤǤ괧 the 䡤괧 a/an ȯãƤΤϡޤ˾¤ (information_structure) ʳˡǼɬޤäȤȴϢƤȹͤޤ
Ĵʸ (cleft_sentence) ȯãűѸǤϡĴǤŪͳʸƬ˰ư뤳ȤǽǤ礬경ȡΤ褦ʰư¤ޤȤơIt is ... that ... Τ褦ʶĴʸȯãǤΩ뵡ǽĤ褦ˤʤޤ
ư (passive) ¿ѡűѸˤư֤¸ߤޤ٤ϸѸۤɹ⤯ޤǤ礬경ǡŪȤʤǡʿˤʤ䤹ǡˤȤʸƬ֤ˡư֤֤ȤˤѤ褦ˤʤäƤΤȹͤޤ㤨СŪʸƬ֤ OSV θ礬ȤˤʤäˡŪˤʸƬ֤ư֤ޤ褦ˤʤäȤǤ
5. ޤȤ
űѸθ礬Ѹ줫鸫ơִˤפΤϡ絬§ʤäǤϤʤѸȤϰۤʤʸ̮θ絬§פȤŻ뤷ƤǤθϡܸȶ̤ʬ¿ޤѸˤϡδܸ礭žʥߥåʲǤꡤαƶϱʸˡ͡¦̤˵ڤǤΤǤ
űѸؤֺݤˤϡѸθŪʸѤöΥ졤־ήפȤĤȤäνˤʤ뤫⤷ޤܸüԤˤȤäƤϡषߤ䤹¦̤⤢ȤǤ礦Ȥڤ顤ѸαˤõᤷƤߤΤ⡤⤷ΤǤϤʤǤ礦
Voicy heldio ˤ#873. ߹ɼϿ (7) --- ¤ۿޤkhelf ʷѸ˥եˤΥС3̾ˤϿǡɾƤޤʤ꤬ȤޤˡϺפˡ¤ (information_structure) ȤѸ졦ǰδܤǫ˲⤵Ƥޤ
¤˴ؤŪ1Ĥˡֵ (given information) ȡֿ (new information) Ωޤäϸ§ȤơäʹˤȤäƴΤε˻Ϥޤꡤξ̤Τοä뤳ȤǡʳŪ˶ͭμѤƤޤĤޤꡤȿʤߡˤΤȤʤäơξ˿Ѥ߾夲졤ˤޤǤΤȤʤäƼοä롤ȤȤǤ
Cruse Ѹ켭ŵ "given vs new information" (74--75) ιܤѤޤ
given vs new information These notions are concerned with what is called the 'information structure' of utterances. In virtually all utterances, some items are assumed by the speaker to be already present in the consciousness of the hearer, mostly as a result of previous discourse, and these constitute a platform for the presentation of new information. As the discourse proceeds, the new information of one utterance can become the given information for subsequent utterances, and so on. The distinction between given and new information can be marked linguistically in various ways. The indefinite article typically marks new information, and the definite article, given information: A man and a woman entered the room. The man was smoking a pipe. A pronoun used anaphorically indicates given information: A man entered the room. He looked around for a vacant seat. The stress pattern of an utterance can indicate new and given information (in the following example capitals indicate stress):
PETE washed the dishes. (in answer to Who washed the dishes?)
Pete washed the DISHES. (in answer to What did Pete do?)
Givenness is a matter of degree. Sometimes the degree of givenness is so great that the given item(s) can be omitted altogether (ellipsis):
A: What did you get for Christmas?
B: A computer. (The full form would be I got a computer for Christmas.)
äϵξ˿դä뤳ȤήƤȤ¤δܻƳޤ
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
(inversion) ȼưֲ (passivisation) Ȥ2ĤŪˤ϶̤䤬롥ŪʼʳǤŵŪ (topic) ôƬΰ֤ưȤǤȤȤС2ĤŪϤȤ경 (topicalisation) Ȥ˱ƤʤʤΤǤ롥
֤ȼưֲˤϡ̣롥䡤ȤȤäۤŬڤξԤϥåȤǡޤ褷Ƥ褦ʤΤǤ롥Seoane (379) εѤ褦
. . . inversion and passivization operate in different syntactic environments: passivization applies to transitive verbs whereas inversion applies to intransitive and copular clauses. Empirical studies . . . have made manifest that the tendency of inversion to apply to intransitive clauses was already observed in OE, ME, and EModE, when intransitive verbs dominate in the inverted (XVS) order, while there is a predominance of transitive verbs in the non-inverted order (XSV, probably determined by the need to maintain the cohesion between V and O . . .). As argument-reversing constructions, therefore, passivization and inversion were in a nearly complementary distribution and passives were almost the only order-rearranging pattern available for transitive clauses.
ʤۤɡ֤ȼưֲϡ줾켫ưʸ¾ưʸˤȤ㤤Ϥʤ⡤ܻؤƤȤǤƱߤƤȤ롥2ĤβˤϷŪ˰ۤʤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥ롥ϡ֤ͭɸФưֲФϤޤ̵ɸǤ뤳ȤΰѤˤ³1ʸѤ褦 (Seoane 379)
However, the most significant difference between the two argument-reversing devices is that, even if they satisfy the same discourse constraints, inversion produces marked topics, while passivization is the only strategy reversing the order of clausal constituents and creating unmarked topics/subjects.
ޤ֤ȼưֲӤĤƹͤȤʤäΤǡȤƤ⿷ʸä
Seoane, Elenna. "Information Structure and Word Order Change: The Passive as an Information-Rearranging Strategy in the History of English." Chapter 15 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 360--91.
ˤϡ¾¿μҲݤˤߤֲݡפȤΤѻ롥 (98) Ѥ롥
ηϰǸСֲݡסĤޤñ줬ǤޤäƸ뤳ȡñ줬öȤФ餯δ֤ˤ˽иǡȤۤȤɽиʤʤ뷹뤳ȤȤľŪª뤳ȤǤ롥ݤǤϡûֳ֤³ˤûֳ֤졤ޤդĹֳ֤³ˤĹֳ֤ǽ⤤Τ褦ʸβݤװΰĤϡΤȤʤʸ̮Ѳˤ롥
ݤϡͻʤɡޤޤʣϤˤƤϤ褯Τά͡ȤС籫Ͽ̤ǤޤäƸ뤳ȤϷи̤ïΤäƤҲŪоݤˤƤ⡤ȤСˤϡȤʤäơϢԤ뤿ᡤϤݤ뤳ȤΤ롥Ʊͤˡñ⤢ñ줬ȤʤꡤñʤӤ˴Ϣñβи롥
ƤߤСäȤȤݤǤϤ롥βݤΰŪʸˤˤ뤬˱ѤϾʤ褦ˡȤƤϡ礭ʬơĹءפȡ֤餮פܤ2बȤǤԤƤ
ĹءפˤϤϡ֤ΡĤʬؤʬεΥ s ˰¸ƤɤΤ褦Ѳ뤫Ĵ٤ϡפǤ桤p. 99ˡߤΥ줿2Ĥʬ¤ƤĹؤȤȤˤʤcf. #4675. ʣϡ ([2022-02-13-1]) ǸڤĹסˡ
ѸˤѸǤ괧 the ˤĤơĹʸϤĹزϤߤȡɤ夤Ĺؤ褦桤p. 105ˡޤǼ夤ĹؤˤȤɤޤꡤ٤ߤ the ˤ餢٤βݤߤ뤳ȤȽ롥äȤˡthe ⸽ȤϸǤޤäƸ졤ʤȤˤϤФ餯ʤȤȤٴѻΤǤ롥 (109ˤϡԸ˽λ¤Τ褦˲ᤷƤ롥
k Ĥûֳ֤ȡ³ k + 1ܤδֳ֤ûk ĤĹֳ֤ȡ³ k + 1ܤδֳ֤Ĺˤ롥ûֳ֤³ȤϡоݤȤʤñ줬ǤޤäƸ뤳ȤƤ롥άͤΤ褦ʲݤطʤˤʸ̮Ѳ롥the ˤĤƤϡޤ괧濴ȤưŪʳǰƳθ塤Ƴ줿ǰˤĤƵԤ졤κݤ the ¿Ѥ롥
ϡäˤ¤ (information_structure) ܤthe ˤĤƤβݤɤ߲ȤäƤ褤
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
ε#4641. ΥǥեȤν --- ֡֡տ ([2022-01-10-1]) ǡѸ¤ӽˤĤƼ夲Ȥ櫓褯Ȼפֶ֡פȡֻ֡פ¤ӽϡǥեȤǤϤνĤޤ֤ɤǤġפǤ롥ܸǤϡ֤Ĥɤǡפ̤ʤΤǡȿФνȤȤˤʤ롥
ǤϡŤѸǤϤɤäΤѸȰۤʤꡤűѸǤϡ˸¤ʤ˸礬ŪͳäȤ𤬤äΤȤΥǥեȤθˤƶƤΤ˴ؤơűѸʬۤˤĤ York-Toronto-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old English Prose ѤĴ Chrambach ʸɤǤߤ͡ʥѥꤷ¿ҲϤߤƤ롥
ȤƤϡѸΡ֤ɤǤġפȤȿФΡʤĤޤܸΡˡ֤ĤɤǡפȤȤΤ褦ηϡűѸγƻ˴ؤƻٻ졤ƥȤǤƥȤǤƱͤ˳ǧ졤ˤطʤȤΤȤ (Chrambach 52)
ǤϡʤűѸǤϡ֤ĤɤǡפäΤʸǤϡ֤ʤפޤǤƧ߹ǤʤʬۤˤĤ餫ˤʤäȤϤ褦ʬۤˤ REALIZATION FORM OBLIGATORINESS 2ĤװѤƤȤŪˤСֻפ뤤ϡղûʸפȤĤʤ꤬뤳Ȥȡ줬֤ĤɤǡפνȤƸ뤳ȤȤŦƤ (Chrambach 52--53)
űѸΥѥΥǡ˴ŤפȤʸǡưפ˲᤹뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ⤷ηȤȡѸϸűѸŪʡ֤Ĥɤǡץפ顤ѸŪʡ֤ɤǤġץפ˥եȤƤȤˤʤ롥ϤʤʤΤѸѸǤνϤɤäΤˤĤơ̸Ūˡ뤤Ω줫鲿Τ̣䤤Ǥ롥
Chrambach, Susanne. "The Order of Adverbials of Time and Place in Old English." Contact, Variation, and Change in the History of English. Ed. Simone E. Pfenninger, Olga Timofeeva, Anne-Christine Gardner, Alpo Honkapohja, Marianne Hundt and Daniel Schreier. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins, 2014. 39--59.
ɸϡѸǤФм夲Ǥ롥ղø (adjunct) ȸƤФ礬ϢȤɤΤ褦ʽ֤ΤQuirk et al. (8.87) "Relative positions of adjuncts" ˤƳ⤷ƤƤΤǡݡѤ
In the relevant sections, we have given indications of the norms of position in respect of each class of adjunct. We turn now to consider the positions of adjunct classes in respect of each other. Two general principles can be stated, applying to relative order whether within a class or between classes:
(i) The relative order, especially of sentence adjuncts, can be changed to suit the demands of information focus . . . .
(ii) Shorter adjuncts tend to precede longer ones, and in practice this often means that adverbs precede noun phrases, which precede prepositional phrases, which precede nonfinite clauses, which precede finite clauses.
Subject to these general principles, where adjuncts cluster in E [= end] position, the normal order is:
respect --- process --- space --- time --- contingency
It would be highly unusual to find all such five at E (or indeed all such five in the same clause), but for the purposes of exemplification we might offer the improbable and stylistically objectional (sic). . .:
John was working on his hobby [respect] with the new shears [process] in the rose garden [place] for the whole of his day off [time] to complete the season's pruning [contingency].
The same point could be made more acceptably (but at greater length) by forming a series of sentences, each with any two of these adjuncts.
Adjuncts that can occur at I (= initial) are usually those that either have relatively little information value in the context (eg in reflecting what can be taken for granted) or are relatively inclusive or 'scene-setting' in their semantic role (eg an adjunct of time). Thus:
That whole morning, he devoted himself to his roses.
Not only is the adjunct at I one of time, but the anaphoric that indicates that the period concerned has already been mentioned. It is unusual to have more than one adjunct at I except where one is realized by a pro-form (especially then), but they would tend to be in the reverse order to that observed at E. In practice, this usually means:
space --- time orprocess --- time
For example:
In America [A1], after the election [A2], trade began to improve.
Slowly [A1] during this period [A2] people were becoming more prosperous.
Ȥ櫓֤Ȼ֤ˤĤƤϸѸǤϤνǡʤ֤ɤǤġפν֤Τ̤Ǥ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ܸǤ֤̾ĤɤǡפȤʤΤǡȿФȤȤˤʤ롥
ˤĤƱѸˤδδؿϡΤ餳νäΤȤǤ롥⤷Ȥˡɤä褦ʤΤǤ롥εǡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
̤˸ˤơ¤ (information_structure) δ顤ȤʤʼȤϸ¤ʤˤʸƬʸ֤Τ˾ޤȤ롥ܸΤ褦ʼͳʸĸǤС¸뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݡܸƱͤ˸礬ŪͳäűѸǤ⡤ξ¤˱뤳Ȥʤä
ḽѸΤ褦ʤ褽경ĸξˤϡ餫ιפ餵ʤФʤʤűѸ줫ѸˤʸʸˡȤƤV2§졤礬경ƤˤĤơȤʤʸƬˤäƤ뤿ˡˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤäơפʼʤ1Ĥܤ褦ˤʤäΤưʸǤ롥ǽưʸˤŪ줬Ȥʤ硤ǽưʸưʸ˴뤳ȤˤꡤŪ줬ȤʤꡤʤʸƬ֤褦ˤʤ뤫
θ경ȼưʸ¿ѲȤ츫Ω2ĤŪݤϡ¤ȤŪʳǰΩȤƴϢŤΤǤ롥ϡ#4561. Ⱦ¤θ ([2021-10-22-1]) ̤Ǥ롥ʤȤⲾȤƤ϶̣
β¾ڤ褦Ȥ Seoane 롥Helsinki Corpus 1518ޤǤʬʤʤV2§줿λΥ֥ѥˤѤĴˤСʲ̤ꡤɤäƼưʸΨƤ뤳Ȥʬ (Seoane 371)
| Words | Actives | Percent active | Passives | Percent passive | |
| M4 (1420--1500) | 44,000 | 2,928 | 81.9 | 647 | 18.0 |
| E1 (1500--1570) | 50,000 | 2,236 | 78.5 | 612 | 21.4 |
| E2 (1570--1640) | 48,000 | 2,550 | 77.9 | 722 | 22.0 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 55,000 | 2,893 | 78.5 | 2,903 | 21.3 |
| Total | 197,000 | 10,607 | 78.5 | 2,903 | 21.3 |
ѸˤˤƤϡˤƸ (word_order) ѲƤȤ䤤1ĤνפʸȤʤäƤ롥űѸǤϤ⤽ SVO ʤɤθǤϤʤŪͳä櫓ʤɤΤ褦ˤƸθ礬ȯãƤΤȤΤ礭Ȥʤ롥
ޤűѸǤϼ켫ΤɬܤǤϤʤ礤ʸȤפǤ롥ǤϡʤˤˤƼ줬ɬܤȤʤäΤŪȤʤ櫓
Τ褦ˡѸ˸ˤˤƸѲ (syntax) ˤδؿǤ³ƤȤǤ롤Ȥ츫ΤȤ館⿵Ť˺ƸƤɬפ롥ϳΤǤϤ뤬Ʊˤƾ¤ (information_structure) ˴ؤǤ⤢뤫Fischer et al. (211) ϡŪѲäϤκǸǡΤ褦˷Ǥ롥
Word order sits at the cross-roads between syntax and information structure. On the one hand, syntax provides the basic templates that speakers can draw on to manage the information flow in and between clauses. On the other hand, the repertoire of syntactic structures available to speakers is attuned to the demands of information management. Unsurprisingly, then, it is by taking into account information structure that most recent progress in understanding word order and word-order change has been made.
¤¦ߤȡűѸΤ褦˸礬ŪǤСν𤵤椨ɽμͳ٤褬롥礬경ȡ¤ݤ졤ˤԼͳ䤦ˡ̤θŪפɬפȤʤäƤ롥
ѸؽԤǤ䤿ϱѸθŪѲ䶦ŪѰۤñ˽䤹ˤȤȤ館ƤޤˤȤäƸȤϡΤȾʬŪŪǤϤ뤬⤦ȾʬϾ¤ä˴ؤǤ뤳ȤǧƤ
Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.
2֤ۤ̾ hellog #4186. ʤ Are you a student? Ф *Yes, I'm. ǤϥʤΤǤ ([2020-10-12-1]) Ǽ夲ФѤʵǤȯ˴ؤǤ⤢ޤΤǥ饸ʤ٤άƤߤޤμǤİǤǤ礦
ݥȤϡñΤʤˤϼȶȤۤʤȯĤΤȤȤǤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤʸˡṲ̄¿ߤޤñϥǥեȤǤϼȯޤ Yes, I am. 褦ˡ˲άƤơʸĤ̤ʾˤ϶ޤʤȤ⡤ʤФʤޤˡѽФʸˡŪʸ餳ΡäݤʸݤǤϤޤȶ2ĤȤҳФƤƤ
ϢˤĤƤ##4186,3713,3776εå
줿ѤʵǤɸΤ褦 yes/no ʸؤβǡNo, I'm not. ϵƤޤ*Yes, I'm. ϵƤ줺Yes, I am. ȴʤФʤޤѸؽκǽ I am ξά I'm ǤȽ櫓ǤάȤʤ礬ΤǤϤʤʤΤǤ礦
ϡʸ˾ά֤ȤϤǤʤפȤʸˡ§뤫Ǥ⤦ΤˤСĸ˴ؤƤϡǤ϶Ǽ¸ʤФʤʤȤȤǤĸȤΤϡȤʤäƤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤɤޤޤޤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])#3776. ǽζȼ岻 (2) ([2019-08-29-1])ˡȤʸˡŪʵǽ̤ΤȤǤ
θϡ̾ʸ̮Ǥϼ夯ȯ졤ά뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤñȤȯˤϡֶפȤʤޤam ǤСɸβΤ褦ʸˤˤϡ̾μ /əm, m/ ǤϤʤ̤ʶ /æm/ ȤƼ¸ʤФʤޤ
ǤϡʤǶȤʤʤФʤʤΤǤ礦̾be ưˤưˤֻˤ衤졤ư졤Ūʤ̤Ǥ³뤿ᡤ켫Τ뤳ȤϤޤŪʾά (ellipsis) ư (movement) ؤˤϡ˵뤳Ȥ⤢ޤ
Are you a student? --- Yes, I am (a student).
I am taller than you are (tall).
She doesn't know who the man is.
Sam kicked the ball harder than Dennis did (kick the ball hard).
They ran home as fast as they could (run fast).
What are you looking at?
This is the very book I was looking for.
Τ褦üΤȤǤϡˤäεǽ϶Ǽ¸ޤϡ̾ξ¤δפ̤Ƥ뤿ᡤȤƤۤ¸뤫ȹͤޤYes, I am (a student). ΥǤСbe ưˤϡ a student άƤȤȤɸ䤬դƤꡤ̾ I'm a student. be ưֽաפôäƤȤΤǤ
ʤNo, I'm not. ƤΤϡbe ư줬櫓ǤϤʤȹͤƤޤ뤤ϡbe ư + notפ蘆äƸ³Ǥξάɸ뵡ǽôäƤΤǤϤʤȤͤޤ (cf. No, it isn't.)
ѸˤμȤˤƿҤͤ줿䡥ޤľ塥Τ
ޤѸŪˤ뤳ȤϡűѸѸǤϡŪʻȤǤΡִ (article) ̤ȯãäȤȤǤthe a(n) ȤǺऽΤΤϸűѸ줫餢äΤǤ줾츽괧괧ȤƤѤƤޤǤĤޤꡤűѸˤ the a(n) ȤñΤͤϳΤˤɤ⡤Ϥޤ̾ź٤ɬܤιܤȤơϳƤʤäȤȤǤ
ȤȤϡ䤿Ȥʬ˶ϫƤ븽ѸΡִפȤܤϡѸˤߤΤʤǡ˳ƤΤȤȤˤʤޤϱѸˤκǽ餫餢ä櫓ǤϤʤޤλ¤Ƥɬפޤ
ʤΤˤΤʤdzƤȤΤϡʤˤѸ˸¤ޤ⤽Ѹޤ衼åѤ饤ɤ˵ڤ¿θΥ롼ĤǤĸˤϴϤޤǤ²°ŵꥷ졤˥졤ɸȤ̤θϤᡤޥɡޥɡȸɤνХ륫ϢǤⴧ줬ߤ뤳Ȥ顤ˤβǴȯãƤȤ狼ޤʡ#2855. νˤ봧ʬ (1) ([2017-02-19-1]) ȡˡ
ޤ²ΥνܤƤߤƤ⡤ȤܤϤ˳ǧޤΤȤƤϾɤǤϤޤˡŪˤϥ衼åѡեꥫʿΤʤɤˤкߤƤ褦ǡؤΩ줫϶̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ơѸäᤷޤ礦űѸˤⴧμȤʤΤϤäˤ衤ʤθ夽줬δŪʵǽȯã뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ礦1ĤˤϡѸ줬Ѹʹߤ˸경ƤȤ¤طƤ褦˻פޤ#2856. νˤ봧ʬ (2) ([2017-02-20-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡָ礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤פΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
ꡦȤϡɽλؤƤΤʸ̮äʹˤȤäƴΤ̤Τꤵ뤫ʤȤä̤ΤȤǤäŵŪʥѥϡǤȤǤäʤ鿷ƳƤȤΤǤΤ褦ʾή¤ (information_structure) ȸƤФޤϾ¤ɸ뤿μʤäƤȹͤޤ䴧⤽Τ褦ʼʤθȤʤޤ礬ͳǤСǤƬˤäƤꡤǤ֤ʤɤˡѤǤǤ礦cf. #3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡμͳ٤㤯ʤ̤μʤʤɬפƤޤѸѸˤƸμͳ٤äƤä̡¤ɸ뤿οƻȤơǺȤƼˤä the a(n) ʤɤѤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
1Ĥβˤޤɸμ˥ХƤ櫓ǤϤʤʤɤȤǤ
ȯ˴ؤΰϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ȤƤϢơѸˤˤθ경ˤĤơ#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
ǯù¤δطõ븦椬ƤƤ롥ŪˤäơȸΥեܤƤƤ褦ѸˤǤС㤨иűѸ˴ؤơù¤δطõäꡤȾ¤ؤɵ᤹븦椬Ƥ롥
⤦Ū˽Ҥ٤褦űѸǡ (tense) (aspect) ϷŪɸ졤ϤäѤʸˡŪȤưƤƥȤθǤɽѤʬۤĴ٤ƤߤȡλϾʲô̤λϾطʲôȤ餫ˤʤ롥Сñ졤ưŪֻͭĽϴλɽ蘆졤³ȿ̵Ľ̤λɽ蘆ȤʾϡHopper ˤ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle оݤȤʬϷ̤ǤꡤűѸ̤ƤϤޤ뤫ɤŪʷù¤ѤǽΤȤƶ̣
Ʊ褦ˡŪͳȤűѸθ¤˰äƤȤߤʤ㤬ŦƤ롥Ѹ "then" þa, þonne ϡäΤĤʤȤƺѤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥Ʊˡ줬֤뤳Ȥˤꡤ¾ʸǤŪ֤ƶ뤳Ȥ褯ΤƤ롥ɤνиѰۡù¤3Ԥϡʣ̩ܤ˴ϢäƤ褦ʤΤ㤨СʸϤޤꡤľ onginnan (to begin) ư֤ȡäη³ްդ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ줬ǡƤСä³ްդȤ
ޤþa, þonne ϤȤ "focus particles" ȤΤ褦ˡξˤؤäƤȤ롥ʸ˸Ȥʬ (topic) Ȥʤꡤʬ (focus) Ȥʤ롥
̻Ūʻ鶽̣ΤϡűѸ줫ѸˤơŪʥꥨ경ƤˤĤơ餬ôäƤù¤뵡ǽषƤäϤǤȤȤǤϡù¤뵡ǽϡ¾Τʤʤˤä줿Τ뤤ʤäΤȸΥեΤΤˡʥߥåѲǽ롥
Lenker, Ursula. "Old English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 21 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 325--340.
I believe that she has done it. Ȥʸ that Ѥ I believe her to have done it. ȥѥե졼뤳ȤǤ롥Ԥʸǡ֤ʤΤ she ǤꡤʤʤηäƤ뤬ԤʸǤưμΤƱʪؤʤ her ŪʤηäƤ롥ϡΰ̣μǤϤ³ΤΡ1ʾˤ believe λ۲뤬椨ˡʤǤϤʤŪʤͿΤ롥ǤϡԤΤ褦ʳͿΤȤ Exceptional Case-Marking (= ECM) ȸƤǤ롥ޤbelieve μ뤳Τ褦ʹʸϡгդιʸȤΤ롥
believe ˤߤ褦ʥѥե졼ϡthink declare ɽֻ͡פפɽ魯ư¿ǽ̣ΤϡECM ʸϼư֤ѤΤ̤ȤȤǤ롥嵭Ϥǽư֤ʸ夲She is believed to have done it. Τ褦˼ư֤Ǹ뤳ȤΤۤŪ¿º say ʤɤǤϡǽư֤Ǥ ECM ʸϵƤ줺The disease is said to be spreading. Τ褦ˤäѤư֤Ǹ롥
μư֤ؤФϡʤʤΤ
1Ĥˤϡֻ͡פפˤƽפʤΤϡƤμǤ롥ʸǤСshe the disease Ǥꡤ줬ʸƬǼȤƸȤΤϡ¤⼫ľǤ롥
⤦1Ĥζ̣ѻϡis believed to ʤ is said to ʬΤȤ evidentiality ɽ魯⡼ʵǽӤӤƤȤΤĤޤꡤreportedly ۤɤ֤뤳ȤǤʵǽǤꡤŤѸǤ sceolde "should" Ȥˡưɽ蘆ƤǽǤ롥Los (151) ˤС
Another interesting aspect of passive ECMs is that they renew a modal meaning of sceolde 'should' that had been lost. Old English sceolde could be used to indicate 'that the reporter does not believe the statement or does not vouch for its truth' . . . :
Þa wæs ðær eac swiðe egeslic geatweard, ðæs nama sceolde bion Caron <Bo 35.102.16>
'Then there was also a very terrible doorkeeper whose name is said to be Caron'
The most felicitous PDE translation has a passive ECM.
̣Ǥϡbe believed to be said to be going to ʤɤƱ褦ˡưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ
Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
εǡĸϤۤ¿ʤȤ̣ΤϡŪʬۤФȤǤ롥衼åѡեꥫʿΤ˴ĸ줬¿εǤϡܤʸȤĤġŪкߤ˾Ƥ
Ѹˤ봧ȯãϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡؼ줫θŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) η̤Ƥ롥¾θǤƱͤŪȯãȤƤȤ뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥ҤΤ褦ŪʤޤȤޤ꤬뤳Ȥ顤 (139) ϡŪ˸Ϣȯã䤹Ȥ¦̤褦˻פפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤĹˤ錄ܿˤ (linguistic_area) ιͤطʤˤ롥
Ƕͭβǽϡȯͼ칽¤˻ޤܸ͡⤽βǽ1ĤǤ롥εǤ줿褦ˡưƬĸˤФи뤬θνΤʤǤ1ۤɤߤ줺ʬۤϤФäƤΤǤ롥㤨С٥ȸɡإ֥졤ӥ졤ȥͥʤɤưƬĴĸ췲Ǥ롥
Ǥϡ2ĤθŪħ˲餫ϤΤ (139) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
ֽŵŪ˸褦ˡ̤ˡʸƬȤΤϡФܤʤξᡤˤƺǤŪʰ֤ȹͤ롥ưƬξϡΰ֤̾ŪǤǤʤư줬ơ̾ꡦɽΤʸƬ֤Ѥˡ̾ŪǤ˴դꡦζɬŪ⤯ʤäƤȹͤ롥
ȴϢơưƬĸʤ餺Ȥ⡤礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤뤫⤷ʤ
ˡ־ݤɡĹפΤ褦ʡܡɾΡ۷פȡ־ݤɡĹפΤ褦ʡּ졽Ρּ۷פȤŪʶ̤ͤʤСԤǤξܤˤɽ蘆ΤǡΤ褦ʡʳ̤ɸμʤפǤ뤬ԤǤϴΤ褦Ūʼʤᤵ䤹Ȥ⤢ꤽɾȡѸϳΤ (1) ۷Ǥꡤ(2) ĸǤ뤫顤ȤȤ褤Ȥˤʤ롥
ǽҤ٤ƤȤϡĸŪưŤǤ⤢ꡤĸȤͤ˴Ť쳰ŪưŤǤ⤢롥ʬۤϡ餯θ⳰װߤ߹äơ٤ФΤ
ָˤȤäƴȤϲסءظ٥쥯1ظԽԡˡ罤۽Ź2012ǯ136--41ǡ2003ǯ10Ͽ
ǯΤ˸ΤʤǰäƤǰ1Ĥˡּ (periphery) 롥μϳŪƤ褤ΤˤȯäξüʬȤȤ館Ƥȯäκü LP (left periphery)ü RP (right periphery) ȸƤФ졤ŪˤȤ櫓פʵǽ̤ݥȤ롥εǽȤϡŪˤϡñľΰտޤ롤ؤΥݥ饤ȥͥޤθžóϤʤɤι٤ޤޤʾ, p. 16ˡ
˸μ礿ؿǤɸ (discourse_marker) ϡΤ˼˸뤳Ȥ¿ɸŪˤϡȯä (bracket an utterance) ǽͭȤ뤬˸뤳ȤϡŪŬäƤȹͤ롥LP RP ξ¦鶴߹褦ˤơ֤פȤϡ줫ΤߤѤ뤳Ȥºݤˤ¿褦Ǥ롥
ǤϡLP ǤϤɤΤ褦ɸ¾ɽѤ뷹Τ뤤ϤɤΤ褦ʸŪǽ̤뤳Ȥ¿ΤޤRP ǤϤɤʤΤޤ̸Ūˤߤ硤"form-function-periphery mapping" ʾp. 17ˤδطˤĤƲ餫ϤޤܤƤʤޤǤθʬäƤȤϤĤ롥 (17--20) ꡤ3Ҳ𤷤褦
(1) LP ˤϡ³礿ʬ뤿ǧŪȤͿ֤䤹ηȤϡɸѸ if ⡤ɥĸ wenn ⡤ܱڥڥʬȥԥå--ȹ¤ΥȥԥåʬʤɤǤ롥ä꤬Ȥ˲餫ȤƤξȤȤ館롥
(2) LP RP ξý (turn-taking) ˴ؤäƤ롥äΤȤˤơȯäΥХȥäϡLP ˤýäȤꡤХȥϤȤˤ RP ˤý뤳Ȥ롥
(3) LP ˤϡ줫ԤüԤι٤Ǥ뤫Τ餻뵡ǽ롥СLP ֤ɸηϡäιٹ¤ (action structure) ʤ̤ɥĸüԤ줫Ҥ٤褦ȤȿаոΤ餻 obwohl 䡤ܸüԤäγϤ֤Ǥפʤɤ°롥
(1), (2), (3) Ϥ줾ϰۤʤ뤬ȯäפȤŪǽ̤Ƥ롥ǡ(1), (2), (3) ̸ĤθŪǽȤϡ줾줬ߤ˾Ϣ³ΤΤ褦ˤפ롥㤨СѸ Excuse me, but . . . ܸΡ֤ߤޤפ LP ˸졤(1) (3) ʤ (2) ⡩ˤεǽƱ˲̤ƤȹͤʤּפȤϡ⤷ǰƤ
ŵҡɸʸˡᤰȡּפȤͤס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ3--27ǡ
ɽΰ̣ˤϡǰỤ̄ (conceptual meaning) ǰỤ̤̄롥ǰỤ̄ϼỤ̄ (dictionary meaning) ȤƤФ졤ʪƥȤƤȤ館켫ȤʳΤΤ̤뤿Ф줿ŪܼŪǤν礫ʤ롥ǰỤ̄ϡʸ̡̮뤤ϤȤϢۤˤ공ǰỤ̄դạ̈Ǥ롥ǰỤ̄ˤϡĤμबǧ롥Leech ȤƳ⤷Ƥ (23--26) ˵äơñ˲ܤ
(1) Ụ̄ (connotative meaning)
λؼоݤϢۤؼоͭؤ ("what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to") 㤨СѸ mother ܸΡפϡλؼоݤϢۤͥοʤɤΥȼ⤷ʤΥϼŪǿͤˤäưۤʤΤǤꡤҲΤʤǰꤷƤʤ
(2) ҲỤ̄ (social [stylistic] meaning)
ѤطʤˤҲŪˤĤ ("what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use") ǯء̡Ҳءϰ衤Ρ줷ɰաʸʤɤμҲŪطʤȿǤΡʸŪħȤɽФΤǡʸỤ̄ȤƤФ롥Ѹ father, dad, daddy, pop, papa ܸΡס֤㤵ס֤סֿס֥ѥѡס֤Ȥפʤɤϡ줾ۤʤ register °ƤꡤѤμҲŪطʤۤʤäƤ롥#839. register ([2011-08-14-1])#227. ѸѼΥǥ ([2009-12-10-1])#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#849. ä (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
(3) Ụ̄ (affective meaning)
ѼԤδ٤ˤĤ ("what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer") Stop being so bloody arrogant." "What a darling little dress!" ˤ륤åʬΤ褦ˡäΰɽ蘆褦ʾ硥
(4) Ƥ줿̣ (reflected meaning)
ɽ̤θϢۤˤ̣ ("what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression") ¿줬ѤݤŪʰ̣ؤض (taboo) ŵŪ˸롥㤨СκݤˤϡڤסֵסʬפϤ줾γǰỤ̄ˡΥ۵Ƥ줿̣롥Ѹ cock, ass ʤɤŪƤ줿̣ȼˡѼˤäƤ뷹롥
(5) ϢỤ̄ (collocative meaning)
ϢȤƶ뤳Ȥ¿˴ϢŤ ("what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word") 㤨СŵŪ pretty Ͻɽ魯ȶhandsome ɽ魯ȶ롥ξγǰỤ̄ϡִ̤Τ褤פǰפ뤬ϢỤ̄ϰۤʤ롥ϢỤ̄ˤꡤԤϤ襤餷ԤüʴΩȤްդ롥
嵭 (1) (5) ϡ줬Ị̇ǤꡤޤȤϢỤ̄ (associative meaning) ȤƤФ롥μỤ̄ʸỊ̇Ǥ롥
(6) Ụ̄ (thematic meaning)
䶯ĴˤäƺФ¤ (information structure) ˴ؤ̣ ("what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis") 㤨Сγƥڥˤơ1ܤ2ܤʸǤϡο֤ˤäƼỤ̄ۤʤ롥
(a) John owns the biggest shop in London.
(b) The biggest shop in London belongs to John.
(c) I like Danish cheese best.
(d) Danish cheese, I like best.
(e) Bill uses an electric razor.
(f) The kind of razor that Bill uses is an electric one.
ʾǰỤ̄Ȥ櫓° (1)--(6) ϢỤ̄ϡǰỤ̄Τ褦˸ŪǤϤʤѼԤѤطʤˤѰۤ뤿ᡤ˵ܤ뤳ȤϤʤ㳰Ȥơ(2) μҲỤ̄ŪäǰꤷƤΤǡ˥졼٥ȼäƵܤ뤳Ȥ¿
ְ̣Ȥϡסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ1--27ǡ
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