Voicy heldio ˤ#873. ߹ɼϿ (7) --- ¤ۿޤkhelf ʷѸ˥եˤΥС3̾ˤϿǡɾƤޤʤ꤬ȤޤˡϺפˡ¤ (information_structure) ȤѸ졦ǰδܤǫ˲⤵Ƥޤ
¤˴ؤŪ1Ĥˡֵ (given information) ȡֿ (new information) Ωޤäϸ§ȤơäʹˤȤäƴΤε˻Ϥޤꡤξ̤Τοä뤳ȤǡʳŪ˶ͭμѤƤޤĤޤꡤȿʤߡˤΤȤʤäơξ˿Ѥ߾夲졤ˤޤǤΤȤʤäƼοä롤ȤȤǤ
Cruse Ѹ켭ŵ "given vs new information" (74--75) ιܤѤޤ
given vs new information These notions are concerned with what is called the 'information structure' of utterances. In virtually all utterances, some items are assumed by the speaker to be already present in the consciousness of the hearer, mostly as a result of previous discourse, and these constitute a platform for the presentation of new information. As the discourse proceeds, the new information of one utterance can become the given information for subsequent utterances, and so on. The distinction between given and new information can be marked linguistically in various ways. The indefinite article typically marks new information, and the definite article, given information: A man and a woman entered the room. The man was smoking a pipe. A pronoun used anaphorically indicates given information: A man entered the room. He looked around for a vacant seat. The stress pattern of an utterance can indicate new and given information (in the following example capitals indicate stress):
PETE washed the dishes. (in answer to Who washed the dishes?)
Pete washed the DISHES. (in answer to What did Pete do?)
Givenness is a matter of degree. Sometimes the degree of givenness is so great that the given item(s) can be omitted altogether (ellipsis):
A: What did you get for Christmas?
B: A computer. (The full form would be I got a computer for Christmas.)
äϵξ˿դä뤳ȤήƤȤ¤δܻƳޤ
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
ǯù¤δطõ븦椬ƤƤ롥ŪˤäơȸΥեܤƤƤ褦ѸˤǤС㤨иűѸ˴ؤơù¤δطõäꡤȾ¤ؤɵ᤹븦椬Ƥ롥
⤦Ū˽Ҥ٤褦űѸǡ (tense) (aspect) ϷŪɸ졤ϤäѤʸˡŪȤưƤƥȤθǤɽѤʬۤĴ٤ƤߤȡλϾʲô̤λϾطʲôȤ餫ˤʤ롥Сñ졤ưŪֻͭĽϴλɽ蘆졤³ȿ̵Ľ̤λɽ蘆ȤʾϡHopper ˤ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle оݤȤʬϷ̤ǤꡤűѸ̤ƤϤޤ뤫ɤŪʷù¤ѤǽΤȤƶ̣
Ʊ褦ˡŪͳȤűѸθ¤˰äƤȤߤʤ㤬ŦƤ롥Ѹ "then" þa, þonne ϡäΤĤʤȤƺѤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥Ʊˡ줬֤뤳Ȥˤꡤ¾ʸǤŪ֤ƶ뤳Ȥ褯ΤƤ롥ɤνиѰۡù¤3Ԥϡʣ̩ܤ˴ϢäƤ褦ʤΤ㤨СʸϤޤꡤľ onginnan (to begin) ư֤ȡäη³ްդ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ줬ǡƤСä³ްդȤ
ޤþa, þonne ϤȤ "focus particles" ȤΤ褦ˡξˤؤäƤȤ롥ʸ˸Ȥʬ (topic) Ȥʤꡤʬ (focus) Ȥʤ롥
̻Ūʻ鶽̣ΤϡűѸ줫ѸˤơŪʥꥨ경ƤˤĤơ餬ôäƤù¤뵡ǽषƤäϤǤȤȤǤϡù¤뵡ǽϡ¾Τʤʤˤä줿Τ뤤ʤäΤȸΥեΤΤˡʥߥåѲǽ롥
Lenker, Ursula. "Old English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 21 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 325--340.
Ѹ˸1ͼԤǤ Jucker ϥɥ֥å1ǡʬˤӤ뤤ȹͤ3ĵƤ롥ȯù (speech_act) ŪѲ (dialogue) ηȯŸäΰȯŸǤ롥ֺݤλͤȤʤ褦ϢսѤƤ
At present, three areas of research appear to be particularly promising. First, the research on the history of speech act has only just started to attract more than just occasional research efforts. . . .
Second, the research of the evolution of forms of dialogue is still in its infancy. . . . Culpeper and Kytö (2010: 2) [= Culpeper, Jonathan and Merja Kytö:. Early Modern English Dialogues: Spoken Interaction as Writing. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.] ask: "what was the spoken face-to-face interaction of past periods like?" in a systematic way and approach this question from various angles. In particular they look at the structure of conversations, at what they call "pragmatic noise", i.e. pragmatic interjections or discourse markers, and social roles and gender in interaction.
And third, the evolution of domains of discourse appears to be a very promising field of research. The existing work on courtroom discourse, the discourse of science and news discourse needs to be continued, and other domains should be tackled.
ä˺äƤ顤Ѹ˸θǰƬˤ뤤ϤŪѤǤ륳ѥԻ¿Ԥʤ褦ˤʤäƤ㤨СCorpora of Early English Correspondence (CEEC), Corpus of Early English Medical Writing (CEEM), Corpus of English Dialogues 1560-1760 (CED), Corpus of English Religious Prose (COERP), Old Bailey Corpus (OBC), The Corpus of Early English Recipes (CoER) ʤɤƤۤˤ Corpus Resource Database (CoRD) õ줿
Jucker, Andreas H. "Linguistic Levels: Pragmatics and Discourse." Chapter 13 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 197--212.
褤 Donald John Trump 45奢ꥫΤ˽Ǥcf. #2656. 奢ꥫΤǤΰ ([2016-08-04-1])ˡ
ȥäѸˤĤƤϡ̤͡ɾʤƤ2118俷ʹī6̤ˤ֥ȥˡפ˴ؤ뵭äǯ3θԤˡˤȡȥʸˡ6ǯ٥ǡҥȥ7ǯ٥äȤǶ plain spoken αѸ줬ͭԤ˼ȤȤǡ䥱ͥǥγĴ⤤ϤǤ˲ΤΤȤʤäΤ褦
ǧθؤ George Lakoff ˤȡȥΤΥĥåȯʬϤȡĥ䤹ؤŪѤĤݼؤǤ뤳ȤʬȤˡȤ¦̤Ǹȡ(1) ϤʤĤ롤(2) üʪ(3) Τؤ(4) ¬Ȥ롤ȤħȤΥȥåϤտŪǤꡤ̱ޥߤ⤽μ˾äƤޤäƤʬϤ롥(1) ϡΤʤȤȤäʤ뷹뤳Ȥؤ(2) ˤĤƤϡľܤ鷺Ȥ⡤ݼؤˤǤ뤳ȤǼ롤 implicature άŪѤĹƤȤ(4) ϡȿˤ뤿ˡ֥ᥭȤιɤä˥ᥭۺѤפʤɤȤ֤夲뤳Ȥʤɤ롥
Τ褦ʥȥˡϡ٥ؤ鸫ϼȥåȤȤˤʤ뤬ݼؤˤϸ̤Τ褦
⡤ƤĥåǤ register style ۤʤꡤ˱ƥȥåޤάۤʤäƤΤȤ˥ǥʤ¤ϤѤƤȥʬϤϡνǤʹߤ⡤ޤޤܤƤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ΤȤˤʤ뤬2013ǯ212 The Guardian ꡤꥫΤΥԡ٥Ѳ˴ؤơThe state of our union is . . . dumber: How the linguistic standard of the presidential address has declined Υǡ⻲ȡ
ҥȥ顼ŷͤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ǥڥμˤȯˡλƳޤǼƤȤ顤˱ŪͤƼäƤȤ狼롥ҥȥ顼αȤȤƤΥꥢγʳˤĤơŪӥѥŪʬϤˡإҥȥ顼٤롥ŪʬϤ˴ؤƤϡҥȥ顼150줫ʤ뼫ѥѤĴܤȤʤäƤꡤƻˤĤƶ̣ʬϷ̤Ƥ롥
Ȥ櫓䤬ؿäΤϡʥȾħŪ˸̾ Ausdruck ɽˡBekenntnis ʸˡVerständnis ˤȴϢ̾칽ʸ¿Ѥ˴ؤʬϤǤʹġp. 161--62ˡư줫̾Ǥꡤ̾ŪʸΡ̾칽ʸˡפ˹ƤȤ̾칽ʸȤϡ֤٤줿ȡפ֤ζٱפ̾濴ȤɽΤǡѸǤ (the fact) that the train was terribly delayed the terrible delay of the train ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
פĤȤ̾칽ʸħС(1) ̩٤ǻʤ뤤ϥѥȡˡ(2) Ūǽդ餷ʤդ롤(3) β (hypostasis) κѤˤ̣Ƥ¤Ȥ䤹ȤȤʡ#1300. hypostasis ([2012-11-17-1]) ⻲ȡˡϡɥĸ졤Ѹ졤ܸʤɤˤⶦ̤ħȻפ롥
̾칽ʸˤƤϡбư칽ʸǤϤƤ;Ρꡤ֡ˡʤɤʸˡƤɸʤȤ¿ʬ̤ʤȤȤϡ٤˥奢ξݤ줿ۣΤޤޤ֤ȤȤȤƤϹ̩٤ǥѥȡijʼĥäͭΤǡƤȷδ֤ʥåפޤ롥ϤäꤷƤȤۣ桤ȤĤ߽ΤʤץȲѼԤϡְѡפ뤳ȤǤȤ櫓Ȥͤ̾칽ʸȥåȤƹǻȤʤǤ롥
ĤʬϤˤСҥȥ顼ξˤϡ֤Τ褦ʷȤФ餷ϡʥȾˤƤޤޤʹŪԻˤʰݤͿ뤿ΤΤǤä (161--63) Ȥ
ԡإҥȥ顼١ҡӡ2014ǯ
ɸ ethnomethodology ʥΥɥˤϡ1967ǯ˥ꥫμҲؼ Harold Garfinkel κФѸǤꡤ쥳ߥ˥˴ؤҲŪʥץؤäδäȤʤ뵬ϡꡤQõ뤳ȤŪȤ롥 (anthropological linguistics)Ҳ (sociolinguistics)ʬ (conversation analysis)٤̱² (ethnography_of_speaking) ʤɤΰȽŤʤʬꡤغŪʬǤ롥Trudgill μҲѸ켭ŵꡤϢ4ĤѸβͿ
ethnomethodology A branch of sociology which has links with certain sorts of sociolinguistics such as conversation analysis because of its use of recorded conversational material as data. Most ethnomethodologists, however, are generally not interested in the language of conversation as such but rather in the content of what is said. They study not language or speech, but talk. In particular, they are interested in what is not said. They focus on the shared common-sense knowledge speakers have of their society which they can leave unstated in conversation because it is taken for granted by all participants.
ethnography of speaking A branch of sociolinguistics or anthropological linguistics particularly associated with the American scholar Dell Hymes. The ethnography of speaking studies the norms and rules for using language in social situations in different cultures and is thus clearly important for cross-cultural communication. The concept of communicative competence is a central one in the ethnography of speaking. Crucial topics include the study of who is allowed to speak to who --- and when; what types of language are to be used in different contexts; how to do things with language, such as make requests or tell jokes; how much indirectness it is normal to employ; how often it is usual to speak, and how much one should say; how long it is permitted to remain silent; and the use of formulaic language such as expressions used for greeting, leave-taking and thanking.
ethnography of communication A term identical in reference to ethnography of speaking, except that nonverbal communication is also included. For example, proxemics --- the study of factors such as how physically close to each other speakers may be, in different cultures, when communicating with one another --- could be discussed under this heading.
conversation analysis An area of sociolinguistics with links to ethnomethodology which analyses the structure and norms of conversation in face-to-face interaction. Conversation analysts look at aspects of conversation such as the relationship between questions and answers, or summonses and responses. They are also concerned with rules for conversational discourse, such as those involving turn-taking; with conversational devices such as discourse markers; and with norms for participating in conversation, such as the rules for interruption, for changing topic, for overlapping between one speaker and another, for remaining silent, for closing a conversation, and so on. In so far as norms for conversational interaction may vary from society to society, conversation analysis may also have links with cross-cultural communication and the ethnography of speaking. By some writers it is opposed to discourse analysis.
ethnomethodology ϡεǽ (function_of_language) Ȥˤ⵿ꤲ롥ȤΤϡethnomethodology ϡߥ˥ƻȤƤǤϤʤŤƻȤƤȤ館뤫Wardhaugh (272) ۩"people use language not only to communicate in a variety of ways, but also to create a sense of order in everyday life."
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ܥ֥Ǥ code-switching (CS) ˴ؤƤĤεƤȤ櫓Ѹˤλϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1]) Ƥ CS ˴ؤ븦ȯŸ˸岡ǡޤ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ήԤˤ٤ǡŪˤ CS θ⾯ĿӤƤƤ褦ǤꡤѸˤˤƤ⤤ĤʸФ褦ˤʤä
˱Ѹˤ CS μ֤ϡޤޤƤʤȤ¿⤽⡤CS ѻ˥ƥȤϤɤٻĤäƤΤSchendl ϡѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ줬ߤƥȤϷ褷ƾʤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
There is a considerable number of mixed-language texts from the ME and the EModE periods, many of which show CS in mid-sentence. The phenomenon occurs across genres and text types, both literary and non-literary, verse and prose; and the languages involved mirror the above-mentioned multilingual situation. In most cases Latin as the 'High' language is one of the languages, with one or both of the vernaculars English and French as the second partner, though switching between the two vernaculars is also attested. (79)
CS in written texts was clearly not an exception but a widespread specific mode of discourse over much of the attested history of English. It occurs across domains, genres and text types --- business, religious, legal and scientific texts, as well as literary ones. (92)
鷺͡ʥƥȤ CS 褦ʸإƥȤȤƤϡŪˤ "(i) sermons; (ii) other religious prose texts; (iii) letters; (iv) business accounts; (v) legal texts; (vi) medical texts" ƤꡤʸإƥȤȤƤ "(i) mixed or 'macaronic' poems; (ii) longer verse pieces; (iii) drama; (iv) various prose texts" ʤɤȤ (Schendl 80)
Ѹˤ뤤˸ؤˤ CS ʤޤƥȡˤ椹յϾʤȤ3롥1Ĥϡ2Ѥȸܿξβ˻2ĤϡCS ȼѤζܤ˴ط롥üѤ¿ѸˤˤȤäơѤβ餫ˤ뤳ȤϡŪˤºŪˤˤƽפǤ (see #1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1])) 3ĤˡŪ CS ̻ŪʼͿ뤳Ȥˤꡤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Schendl, Herbert. "Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 77--92.
#1905. ܸˤֽס ([2014-07-15-1])#1915. ܸˤֽ (2) ([2014-07-25-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ2ĤεǤϡܸνȤФεȯŸˤĤơܸˤŪ˸ƤȤ˴ŤƵҤ¼ϥʬϡ˼ҲؤΩ줫顤ԤƤȤФ˵Ҥ˰۵ĤȤФϳƻͭθ쥤ǥʡ#2163. 쥤ǥ ([2015-03-30-1])ˤˤƤȼĥ롥
㤨СĮν˼ȤФεȤŪʸˤĤơ¼ϵǰɽƤ롥ֽȤäƤդŤ¿ͤʤΤǡ¿ͤʸդŤˤҤȤĤΡֽȤСפ뤳ȤϹͤˤ (50) Ȥ褦ˡ˼ϸνȤФο¿롼Ĥθ1ĤǤϤ뤬줬ñȤľܤ˽ȤФȯŸƤä櫓ǤϤʤȤ⤽⡤˼°ˤϡ˻ѤȤȤǤʤǻѤȤҲ˴ؤ¦̤ޤޤƤ롥षԤ֤С˼ϽȤФȤϳȸƤ֤ۤդ路Ȥȳ˶ᤫäոΤĤ˽̤εŪʸոΤʤذտŪ˼ळȤˤäơ˽ȤФƤȹͤ롥
¼ϡ头ȤνȤФȯŸطʤˤϤĤŪŪ¦̤äȼĥ˻٤졤٤Ƥ쥤ǥΤ˽ƤɸˤȤФӽʸױưʸؤ˶ư줿ȤФϽСҶιޤȤȤ˵ѤäƽȤФղä褦ˤʤä奢ƥδߡ黿٤ܸȤƤνȤСμʽ餷ȯϪΤȤª줿ȤС
¼θ쥤ǥΤ褯ޤȤ뤳ȤǤʤΤǡ¼ȤηѤ (227--29)
ܽǤϡȤФȤǰΤ䥢ȤΥХʴط䡤ԻԤήϫƯԳ顤̤ȲʤɤΤޤޤΩҲǡֽ餷εϡסζȤοס֥奢ƥסŷȤסֲĹβ²١סʸͥסܸפʤɤΰ̣ŤͿ뤳ȤǷƤȤƤޤ
һ夫³Ϥθˤäƽȯۤ뷹ͻν줿˼ȤŪʸäˤäƶ졤֤ĤĤߡפʡפȤʤäƸΥޥʡܤˤ⸫褦ʽ餷ȤηӤĤĴ褦ˤʤäȡ
γ塤ȷߤβɬפȤʤäǰ̱θդȤƽ㲽뤿ˡơҳζܤ𤹤Ū¾ԤȤ뤿ˤ⡤֤Ƥ衦פʤɶŪʸȷӤĤȤФڤȡ
ˤϡο̱Ϥοܸ͡뤳ȤǹḺ́ˤƱĹŪʲ²ŪȴѤ˴ŤƽưưطʤˡȤФŷȤȤ졤ĹξħǤ̤ΤפĴ줿ȡ
ˤϡηˤä˽ʿʤ졤ŷĹꤵǡȤФʽ餷ȯϪȤƺ⤬ڤȤФˤϡܤħ뤳ȤԤ褦ˤʤäȡ
βǡֽθաפϡ㲽ȤơܸȤơˡܸפܡפȤδطǸ³ƤޤܸˡֽȤФפȿƤΤϡĤλˤθ٤ˤĤƸ⤬ǽˤʤꡤ̣ڤ褦кѾäǤΰ̣ǡȤФˤΤ뤳ȤϡˤݤȤ⡤ܸ줬ʤƤΤǡ礯ȤΤǤʤȤȸΤǤ
˼Τ뿷ä
¼ ҡؽȤФܸ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2012ǯ
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow