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implicature - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2022-08-26 Fri

#4869. ĴθȲäδް --- ̿󥰡ֱѸء Day 5 [english_linguistics][pragmatics][semantics][implicature][cooperative_principle][tautology][voicy][2022_summer_schooling_english_linguistics]

(pragmatics) ϡ̣ (semantics) ȤȤˡդΰ̣򸦵椹ΰǤդΤΤΰ̣ȤüԤΰ̣տޤܤޤŪʰ̣ǤϤʤüԤդȤäƤ븽ˤΩƤΰ̣ǤäˤƤϡäʹϸŪ˹٤ʰ̣Ѥ饤Ǽ路ƤΤǤ
ϱѸؤǤȯŸΰ˭٤ǤDay 5 ǤϡֶĴθפȡֲäδްաפ˹ʤäƸιͤδܤ⤷ޤ



1. Ĵθ (cooperative_principle)
1.1 #1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1])
1.2 #1133. Ĵθι ([2012-06-03-1])
1.3 #1134. ĴθˤȤ ([2012-06-04-1])
1.4 #4851. tautology ([2022-08-08-1])
2. äδް (conversational implicature)
2.1 #1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1])
2.2 #3402. presupposition trigger Υס ([2018-08-20-1])
2.3 #3403. presupposition 3Ĥ ([2018-08-21-1])
6. heldio #452. Ĵθεå




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2020-11-30 Mon

#4235. quite a few ϡ¤餲Ǹǵž [euphemism][intensifier][semantics][implicature]

#4233. ʤ quite a few ֤ʤΡΡפΰ̣ˤʤΤ ([2020-11-28-1]) ơˤĤƤ⤦ͤƤߤƼθˡŵƤߤȡquite ȤϤȤˤȤ񤷤Ȥʬ롥ƻΰ̣Ūʤɤ˱ơ֤ޤäˡפȤդɽ魯ȻפС֤ޤޤȡפȤष٤¤餲褦Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Τ褦¿ĸŪʶḤ̂ŪʬϤǤԿʤȤ¿䤽¾διͻɬפȤʤäƤ롥
(893) ϡquite a/an ιܤκǸǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ʤ quite a few/bit quite a lot ȤۤƱդնŪƹɽǤ롥Quite a few people turned up.---CEED ¿ο͡줿ˡ


ǤϡնŪפȤѸ줬ȤƤ롥Τ quite ˤϡ嵭̤ɽ¤餲Ȥǽǧ롥ŪˤСquite ̤Τ褦٤ĸȶȡŪˤ "downtoner" 䡤Ĥޤ٤򾯤ȤƸ̤ˤä٤졤Ʊ˶ȤƤΥĤ¤餲롥ޤնɽ (euphemism) ȤäƤ褤
Ȥquite a few ξ硤ͽ۳ȯŸ뤲褦Ȥȿ̤٤㤤Ȥ̣ a few 򤵤˾ʤ褦 quite դ¤餲ɽȤ򡤤ˡ׸̤ˤäƤޤޤȿž褦ʤΤǤ롥ϡŪʸ̮ˤ particularized conversational implicature ȤƤޤ߽ФŪʰ̣ˤʤäȻפ뤬줬֤Ѳ˵ڤǡgeneralized conversational implicature ؤȾʤΤǤϤʤ
⤷ζڽ񤭤ʤС̣ˤ֤äפλȤʤ롥

ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ

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2019-04-12 Fri

#3637. ɽ魯 Will you . . . ? ν (2) [oed][speech_act][politeness][interrogative][historical_pragmatics][pragmatics][implicature][auxiliary_verb][construction]

[2019-04-07-1]ε˰³Will you . . . ? ʸȯˤĤơOED ˤȡιʸνФ1300ǯ Vox & Wolf ȤưʪäˤȤ롥Bennett and Smithers Ǥ The Fox and the Wolf ꡤβս (l. 186) ʸ̮ (ll. 171--97) ФƤߤ褦

'A!' quod þe wolf, 'gode ifere, 
Moni goed mel þou hauest me binome! 
Let me adoun to þe kome, 
And al Ich wole þe forȝeue.'175
'Ȝe!' quod þe vox, 'were þou isriue, 
And sunnen heuedest al forsake, 
And to klene lif itake, 
Ich wolde so bidde for þe 
Þat þou sholdest comen to me.'180
'To wom shuld Ich', þe wolf seide, 
'Ben iknowe of mine misdede?--- 
Her nis noþing aliue 
Þat me kouþe her nou sriue. 
Þou hauest ben ofte min ifere---185
Woltou nou mi srift ihere, 
And al mi liif I shal þe telle?' 
'Nay!' quod þe vox, 'I nelle.' 
'Neltou?' quod þe wolf, 'þin ore! 
Ich am afingret swiþe sore---190
Ich wot, toniȝt Ich worþe ded, 
Bote þou do me somne reed. 
For Cristes loue, be mi prest!' 
Þe wolf bey adoun his brest 
And gon to siken harde and stronge.195
'Woltou', quod þe vox, 'srift ounderfonge? 
Tel þine sunnen, on and on, 
Þat þer bileue neuer on.' 


ʪήϤǤ롥ĤٰͤƤޤäѤͤΤФ̤꤫äΤ礤ϵƤӻߤ᤿չߤϵ򤽤ΤϵͤȤʬæФ褦Ȼʤ롥ϵˤޤǤΰԤˤĤ褦ȡϵϤεˤʤꡤѤʹߤȴꤦ褦ˤʤ롥ǡWoltou nou mi srift ihere, / And al mi liif I shal þe telle? (ll. 168--69) Ȥϵȯˤʤ櫓
նʸ̮ǤΤȤˡư줬¿ѤƤꡤѤϵݤ礤Τʤΰջ֤տޤΤäƤȤݤ롥βսϡwill 򸶵ΰջ֤ΰ̣Ǽȡ֤ʤˤϻʹȤջ֤ޤǤлϿΤ٤Ƥ򤢤ʤ˹𤲤ޤ礦פȤʤ롥Ǥʸ̮餫ϵϸѤʹƤ餤ȻפäƤ롥äơɤߤäơ֤ʹƤʡϿΤ٤Ƥ򤢤ʤ˹𤲤ޤ礦פȤǽȤʤ롥Ȥΰջ֤䤦ȤȰȤϡ̣Ūˤ϶ϺǤꡤǡʤƤȹͤ櫓顤Ǥξΰ̣¸ƤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
ľθѤϡȤϼ뤫Τ褦 Nay! . . . I nelle. Ǥ롥ѸǤ Will you hear my shrift now? Ф No, I won't. Ƥ褦ʤΤʤȤѤϡϵȯʹȤջ֤뤫פȤȲʤդˤεФ No ƤΤǤ롥ϵȤƤϰΤĤǸäΤ⤷ʤˤϵȲᤵƤޤäȤˤʤ롥ºݡϵϤ뤫Τ褦ˡNeltou? ʤΰջ֤ʤȤˤ֤Ƥ롥
⤷ϵ¦˰ΰ̣ƤȤƤ⡤ΰȤްդϡʸ̮˻٤ƽƸतü첽줿Ūް (particularized conversational implicature) Ǥäơ̲줿Ūް (generalized conversational implicature) ǤϤʤޤƤ䴷Ūް (conventional implicature) Ǥʤ褦˻פ롥λ Will you . . . ? ʸνȤߤʤȤѤ餺ǽ⤷ʤ줿ʸ뤤ȤΩɽȤߤʤˤ᤹

Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-17-1]

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2019-04-07 Sun

#3632. ɽ魯 Will you . . . ? ν [oed][speech_act][politeness][historical_pragmatics][pragmatics][implicature][construction][auxiliary_verb]

Ѹˤˡư will Ѥɽ魯ȤơWill you do me a favor? ʤɤɽ롥ŪƤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ˤäƤ Will you shut up? Τ褦ˤ䤭Ĥ̿Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ŪʻؼȤ Will you sign here, please? Τ褦ˤѤ졤ݥ饤ȥͥμ٤˱ѤΤǡȤʤΤϰճ񤷤Ūˤ̤ΰդȤʤΤǡΰտޤΤˤˤ please դȤ¿
ɽεϡ2;Τΰջ֤䤦ջ̤ȤƤ Will you . . . ? ˤȹͤ롥Ū߻򲡤ĤΤǤϤʤޤΰջ֤ºŤ䤦ȤκۤȤΤǡʬ餫ǫʸˤʤ뤫ʸγ򤷤Ƥʤ顤ºݤ˹ԤʤäƤΰꡦ̿ᡦؼȤȤǡݥ饤ȥͥθŵŪȯù԰ (indirect speech act) λȤ롥

OED will, v1. ˤȡI. The present tense will. ΤȤ6bˡˡ󤲤Ƥ롥

b. In 2nd person, interrog., or in a subord. clause after beg or the like, expressing a request (usually courteous; with emphasis, impatient).

a1300 Vox & Wolf in W. C. Hazlitt Remains Early Pop. Poetry Eng. (1864) I. 64 Thou hauest ben ofte min i-fere, Woltou nou mi srift i-here?
a1400 Pistill of Susan 135 Wolt þou, ladi, for loue, on vre lay lerne?
1470--85 Malory Morte d'Arthur i. vi. 42 Sir said Ector vnto Arthur woll ye be my good and gracious lord when ye are kyng?
1592 R. Greene Philomela To Rdr. sig. A4 I..craue that you will beare with this fault.
1600 Shakespeare Henry V ii. i. 43 Will you shog off?
1608 Shakespeare King Lear vii. 313 On my knees I beg, That you'l vouchsafe me rayment, bed and food.
1720 A. Ramsay Young Laird & Edinb. Katy 1 O Katy wiltu gang wi' me, And leave the dinsome Town a while.
1823 Scott St. Ronan's Well III. iv. 96 I desire you will found nothing on an expression hastily used.
1878 T. Hardy Return of Native III. v. iii. 144 Oh, Oh, Oh,..Oh, will you have done!


ɽȤƤ Will you . . . ? ưν°˸ will ȯãǽΤŪˤϤꤽOED ǤС°4Ĥ1592ǯΤΤǤꡤ֤طդΤ褦ˤߤ롥ޤ1300ǯȤʤᤤ餯ɽȤ夷Τ϶ѸäƤǤϤʤȤŪʵǽް (implicature) İ̲ȤΤϡ˸˾ˤĤƲ뤿ؤ̯ǤꡤΤʤȤ򤤤櫓ǤϤʤϢơ#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1])#1984. ŪްդỌ̇̄Ѳ ([2014-10-02-1]) ⻲ȡ

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2018-08-21 Tue

#3403. presupposition 3Ĥ [presupposition][pragmatics][implicature]

ε#3402. presupposition trigger Υס ([2018-08-20-1]) presupposition ˤˤĤƼ夲ˤϤȤ櫓פ3Ĥ롥(1) constancy under negation, (2) defensibility or cancellability, (3) the projection problem Ǥ (Huang 67--75)

(1) constancy under negation

ʸꤵƤ⡤̵Τޤޤ˻ĤȤ̣롥εǤСThe king of France is bald. Ȥʸϡ"There is a king of France" Ȥ뤬Ʊʸꤷ The king of France isn't bald. ȤƤɤ뤬ʤνפ˴ŤơפȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥

An utterance of a sentence S presupposes a proposition p if and only if

     a. if S is true, then p is true
     b. if S is false, then p is still true


(2) defeasibilty or cancellability

ˤϡطʤȤʤꡤ¤μäδް (conversational implicature)äʸ̮ˤäƤ̵ȤʤȤ롥㤨СJohn got an assistant professorship before he finished his Ph.D. Ǥ "John finished his Ph.D" Ω뤬ۤƱʸ John died before he finished his Ph.D. ǤƱΩʤʤ롥ˤϲǤʤȤ¤μ뤫餳ǧΤǤ롥
ޤThere is no king of France. Therefore the king of France isn't bald. Ǥϡ1ʸ¸ߤˤꡤ2ʸ̾Ϥ "There is a king of France" ȤΩʤʤ롥
ۤˤϡThe president doesn't regret vetoing the bill (because in fact he never did so!) Ǥϡbecause ʲʤʸǤ "The president vetoed the bill" Ȥ뤬because ʲäʸǤϡŪꤵ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ȯư줬Ѥˤ⡤ΩʤȤ롥John said that Mary managed to speak with a broad Irish accent. Ǥϡ"Mary managed to speak with a broad Irish accent" Ȥʤ

(3) the projection problem

ñʸȤ߹蘆äʣʸȤʤȤñʸˤä߽Ф줿ϡʣʸˤƤ (projection) 졤ѤΤȻפ뤫⤷ʤΤˤΤ褦ʾ¿ (2) Ǥߤ褦ˡñʸǤʣʸΤμݤ礷ʤˤϡ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ɤΤ褦ʥͤ졤뤤ͤʤΤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ͤ "the curse and the blessing of modern presupposition theory" ȤƤФƤ롥ιۤǤ뤳Ȥ "curse" ǤꡤŪȯۤäƤʤнǤʤȤǡΰ̣ΩٻΤȤ "blessing" Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-26-1]

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2018-02-18 Sun

#3219. Ѹ˴ؤ˸ [me][pragmatics][historical_pragmatics][syntax][passive][grammaticalisation][invited_inference][implicature][subjunctive][auxiliary_verb][standardisation]

űѸ˴ؤ˸ȤơǶ2Ĥεǿ줿cf. #3208. ݥ饤ȥͥäűѸ ([2018-02-07-1])#3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡ褽 speech_act, politeness, discourse_analysis, information_structure ˴ؤä Traugott γˤäơѸ˴ؤ˸ȤơɤΤ褦ʤΤ뤫Ƥߤ
Traugott ϡϥɥ֥åƬ3ĤŦƤ (466)

(1) "the shift from information-structure-oriented word order in Old English to 'syntacticized' order in Middle English; this in tern led, at the end of the period, to new strategies for marking topic and focus in special ways."
(2) "the development of auxiliary verbs in contexts where implied abstract temporal, modal, or aspectual meanings of certain concrete verbs became salient"
(3) "the appearance of a large set of new discourse types, from romances to drama, scientific writings, and letters"

(1) ϸΥ󥿡ե˴ؤ̤ȤäƤ褤űѸ줫Ѹˤƶޤष礬경ƤäȤˤꡤŪͳʸѤƾ¤ȤάäƤΤ뤳ȤǤʤʤäˡ̤μʤʤʤФʤʤʤäȤȤǤ롥㤨СѸˡ԰ټԤɸ by ȼư֤ιʸȯãƤȤϡΤ褦ʾ¤˵ʬ뤫⤷ʤ⤷β⤬ΤǤСŪװѲΰȤʤäȸ뤳Ȥˤʤ
(2) Ūʴޤߤ(1) ȴŪ˴ϢȻפ뤬ư줫ưؤȯãʤŵŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) λˤΤˡʸ̮˽줿ް (implicature) ͶƳ (invited_inference) ʤɤƻΩƤäƤ븦ؤѸˤ϶ޤοˤ³ˡˡοˤꡤŪؼʤȤˡư줬ȯã뤬ȯãˤŪʥᥫ˥बͿƤǽ롥
(3) ϿäνиǤ롥夬ˤĤ졤λˤϤʤäƥȡפƤ뤳ȤѸ˸¤äݤǤϤʤѸǤΤ˿郎߽Ф줿Traugott ϥޥ󥹡ࡤʳŪʸϡȤäŦƤ뤬¾ˤե󥹸ʤӥƥˤαƶ뤤Ϻ礷¿Ѥλʸ䱤ʸʤɤ󤲤
ۤѸˤϱѸν񤭸դɸಽ (standardisation) ⵯϤƤꡤïĤɤɸѼѤΤѤʤäΤȤäҲŪоݤȤʤ

Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Middle English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 30 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 466--80.

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2017-04-28 Fri

#2923. ȱμ [pragmatics][grammaticalisation][syntax][subjectification][intersubjectification][implicature]

ǯǤϡּ (periphery) դθ椬ܤƤƤ롥ĻرؤθץȤ١Ȥ˴ؤ뾮ԡˤͽȯäΤϤȽ٤Ǥ줿ʤܤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ŪƳȤʤ1Ϥˡּפ並ˤˤĤƤβ⤬롥ȾǧƤ (9)

Ȥå˥åȤκǽ餢뤤ϺǸΰ֤ǤꡤǤϥ᥿ƥŪʤӤˡʤϥ᥿Ūʸޤ졤˥åΤѰȤ


ˤϺǽΰ֡ʤʤˤȺǸΰ֡ʱˤ2Ĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬ξԤδ֤ˤƯΰ㤤ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ԸˤСֺȱμθλѡפȤơΤ褦ʬô⤵Ȥ (25)

μ (LP)μ (RP)
Ū (dialogual)ԤλŪ (dialogic)
ý롿դ (turn-taking/attention-getting)ýʾꡤý߽Фɸ (turn-yielding/end-marking)
äˤĤʤ (link to previous discourse)³äͽ¬ (anticipation of forthcoming discourse)
ɸ (response-marking)¥ (response-inviting)
경ե졼ಽ (focalizing/topicalizing/framing)⡼벽 (modalizing)
Ū (subjective)ּŪ (intersubjective)


ϡʤФǤʤʸˡ (grammaticalisation)Ѳ (subjectification)ּѲ (intersubjectification)Ūް (conventional implicature) ηʤɹѲλݤˤͿ롥ŸڤߤΰǤ롥

ŵҡԡˡȯäΤϤȽꡡŪĴΤʤ١ҤĤ˼2017ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-09-03-1]

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2017-01-20 Fri

#2825. ֥ȥˡ [discourse_analysis][rhetoric][implicature]

褤 Donald John Trump 45奢ꥫΤ˽Ǥcf. #2656. 奢ꥫΤǤΰ ([2016-08-04-1]
ȥ׻äѸˤĤƤϡ̤͡ɾʤƤ2118俷ʹī6̤ˤ֥ȥˡפ˴ؤ뵭äǯ3θԤˡˤȡȥ׻ʸˡ6ǯ٥ǡҥ꡼ȥ7ǯ٥äȤǶ plain spoken αѸ줬ͭԤ˼ȤȤǡ󥫡䥱ͥǥγĴ⤤ϤǤ˲ΤΤȤʤäΤ褦
ǧθؤ George Lakoff ˤȡȥΤΥĥåȯʬϤȡĥ䤹ؤŪѤĤݼؤǤ뤳ȤʬȤˡȤ¦̤Ǹȡ(1) ϤʤĤ롤(2) üʪ(3) Τؤ(4) ¬Ȥ롤ȤħȤΥȥåϤտŪǤꡤ̱ޥߤ⤽μ˾äƤޤäƤʬϤ롥(1) ϡΤʤȤȤ󼨤äʤ뷹뤳Ȥؤ(2) ˤĤƤϡľܤ鷺Ȥ⡤ݼؤˤǤ򤹤뤳ȤǼ롤 implicature άŪѤĹƤȤ(4) ϡȿ򸫶ˤ뤿ˡ֥ᥭȤι񶭤ɤä˥ᥭۺѤפʤɤȤ֤夲뤳Ȥʤɤ롥
Τ褦ʥȥˡϡ٥ؤ鸫ϼȥåȤȤˤʤ뤬ݼؤˤϸ̤Τ褦
⡤ƤĥåǤ register style ۤʤꡤ˱ƥȥåޤάۤʤäƤΤȤ˥ǥ򼨤ʤ¤ϤѤƤȥ׻ʬϤϡνǤʹߤ⡤ޤޤܤƤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ΤȤˤʤ뤬2013ǯ212 The Guardian ꡤꥫΤΥԡ٥Ѳ˴ؤơThe state of our union is . . . dumber: How the linguistic standard of the presidential address has declined Υǡ⻲ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2017-01-23-1]

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2015-04-14 Tue

#2178. 饤ɸΩ줫ߤ̣ΰ̲ü첽 [semantic_change][pragmatics][cooperative_principle][implicature][zipfs_law][information_theory][hyponymy]

Grice ζĴθ (cooperative_principle) ȲŪް (implicature) ˤĤơ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1])#1133. Ĵθι ([2012-06-03-1])#1134. ĴθˤȤ ([2012-06-04-1])#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1])#1984. ŪްդỌ̇̄Ѳ ([2014-10-02-1]) ʤɤεˤƤGrice ϸ˳̿⤿餷θθοŸˤ礭ʱƶڤܤʤǤ⿷饤 (Neo-Gricean) ˤȯŸܤͤ롥
饤ɤ򸣰 Laurence R. Horn ϡGrice ε󤲤4Ĥθ (Quality, Quantity, Relation, Manner) 2ĤθؤȺQ[uantity]-principle R[elation]-principle ȤǤ롥ξ꼰ϡʲ̤Ǥ (Huang 38 )

Horn's Q- and R-principles
a. The Q-principle
Make your contribution sufficient;
Say as much as you can (given the R-principle)
b. The R-principle
Make your contribution necessary;
Say no more than you must (given the Q-principle)


Q-principle Ϥ¿ξ󶡤褦Ȥ븶ǤꡤR-principle Ϥ꾯ʤǺѤޤ褦Ȥ븶Ǥ롥δϡäθȤξΤ᤮礤ˤۤʤʤˤϸѤˤ "most effective, least effort" λۤȿǤƤꡤѤηкŪʸǤ른åפˡ§Zipf's Lawcf. #1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])ˤȤ⿼ط롥Huang (39--40) ۩

Viewing the Q- and R-principles as mere instantiations of Zipfian economy . . ., Horn explicitly identified the Q-principle ('a hearer-oriented economy for the maximization of informational content') with Zipf's Auditor's Economy (the Force of Diversification) and the R-principle ('a speaker-oriented economy for the minimization of linguistic form') with Zipf's Speaker's Economy (the Force of Unification).


ợѲɽŪʼȤơ̲ (generalization) ü첽 (specialization) 롥줾ζϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1])#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) ǵ󤲤̤Ǥꡤ֤ʤǤϡ̣ΰ̲ü첽饤ɤθΩ줫顤줾 R-principle Q-principle бΤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤܤ
줬̣ΰ̲Фȡ줬Ѥʸ̮¿ʤ뤬Ūˤθξ̤Ͼʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̣ΰ̲ȤϾ̤ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȡβϡɬ׺Ǿ¤ξͿФ褤Ȥ R-principleʤä¦ηкѤˤäưŤƤ˰㤤ʤ
ǡ줬̣ü첽Фȡ줬Ѥʸ̮Ͼʤʤ뤬Ūˤθξ̤礭ʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̣ü첽ȤϾ̤礭ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȡβϡǤ¿ξͿ褦Ȥ Q-principleʤʹ¦ηкѤˤäưŤƤ˰㤤ʤ (Luján 293--95)
Τ褦ʤȤ館ϡ̣Ѳ෿ˤĤƸΩ줫Ǥǽ򼨤Ƥ롥

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.

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2014-10-02 Thu

#1984. ŪްդỌ̇̄Ѳ [semantic_change][pragmatics][implicature][polysemy][cooperative_principle][metonymy][metaphor]

#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1]) ǡۤʤδް (implicature) ΤʤǤäߤζ̤ȤʤΤϡGrice particularized conversational implicature, generalized conversational implicature, conventional implicature 3Ǥ롥δްդϡνǷ֤ȤηӤĤʤꡤ뤤ϥɲٹ礤⤯ʤ롥
ȤǡθŪʴްդỌ̇̄Ѳ¿Ȥ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥̣Ѳ¿ϡ֡ʤǤϸˤȤˤȷӤĤƤ¸θˡդääꡤŤüƤǤ롥̣ѲŪʲˤ2Ĥ (Kearns 123)

(1) Fa > Fab: Form F with sense a acquires an additional sense b
(2) Fab > Fb: Form F with senses a and b loses sense a

(1) Ϥ F ˷ӤĤ줿 a ˡ b ä(2) Ϥ F ˷ӤĤ줿 a b a (1) (2) ѵС̤Ȥ Fa Fb ؤȸܤȤˤʤ롥ä˽פʤΤϡ餷ä (1) βǤ롥ˤơF ȴϢŤ줿 a ξ b äΤ
Ǿ嵭μδްդ˻äƤ餪particularized conversational implicature Ǥϡʸ̤ΰ̣ a Ȥˡ׻ˤäƴްաʤ a Ȥϰۤʤ̣ b ƳФ롥ϲäˤñȯδްդˤ֤ȤηӤĤϼ夤ᡤ꼰 F ȼʤa > abפȤconventional implicature ϡ֤ȶӤĤްաäȤи˥ɲ줿̣Ǥ뤫顤̣ѲδϡѲλΰꤷ֡Ǥ Fab Ȥ֤б롥Ǥϡ2Ĥδ֤̣ѲưŪʲʤ (1) 꼰줿Fa > FabפβбΤϲ generalized conversational implicature Ǥ롥generalized conversational implicature ϡ̣Ѳβ1ʳ˴ؤפʼδްդȤȤˤʤ롥
ŪްդỌ̇̄ѲϤۤˤ⤢롥㤨С̣ѲŵŪʥѥǤ̲ (generalisation) ü첽 (specialisation) (cf. #473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])) ϡĴθ§ (cooperative principle) ˴ŤްդȤ뤳ȤǤ롥Grice ƶĴθ§ȯŸ Grice (neo-Gricean) Horn ϡ̲㳰ʤü첽Ȥ R[elation]-principle ("Make your contribution necessary.") ˤäȤ (Kearns 129--31)
Kearns ϡimplicature metonymy metaphor ȤδطˤĤƤƤ롥ợѲˤ implicature ˤĤơΤ褦᤯äƤ롥

. . . if implicature is construed broadly to subsume all the inferential processes available in language use, then most, perhaps all of the major types of semantic change can be attributed to implicature. Differentiating more finely, metaphor and metonymy (which are themselves not always readily distinguishable) produce the ambiguity or polysemy pattern of added meaning, in contrast to the merger pattern, which is commonly attributed to information-strengthening generalized conversational implicature . . . . On an alternative view, implicature (narrowly construed) and metonymy are grouped together in contrast to metaphor, on the grounds that the two former mechanisms are based on sense contiguity, while metaphor is based on sense comparison or analogy. (139)


Kearns, Kate. "Implicature and Language Change" Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 123--40.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-04-07-1] [2015-04-14-1]

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2014-09-24 Wed

#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴް [pragmatics][implicature][cooperative_principle]

Ȥް (implicature) ˤ͡ʤΤ롥Ǥ褯ΤƤΤ Grice ήŪް (conversational implicature) ΰ֤Ťϡ¾μδްդȤδطˤ򤹤ɬפ롥͡ʼδްդϡLevinson ˵ä (45) ʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

System of Implicature

ޤȯ (utterance) ϡ̣Ū˲ᤵʸ̤ΰ̣ (what is said) ȡŪ˲ᤵް (implicature) Ȥʬ롥ްդϡ礭Ūް (conventional implicature) Ȥʳʬ롥Grice ʹߡŪްդ̵ͭˤĤƤϵ뤬but Τܤΰ̣ʤɤŪްդŵȤ롥John is rich but he is modest. Ȥʸˤ but and ֤Ƥ⡤̿οϱƶʤbut and ȤǤʸΰ̣ľŪ餫˰ۤʤ롥Grice ϡbut λѤˤäܤΰ̣ϡbut ȤƤäƤʵ沽Ƥ˴ŪްդˤΤȹͤĴθ§ (cooperative principle) äθ (maxims of conversation) ͳʤޤ줿ްդǤ
ˡ󴷽Ūްդβˡͭ̾ʲŪް (conversational implicature) ֤Ť뤬¤ǤޤΤƤʤŪް (non-conversational implicature) ʤΤ롥ϡGrice ζĴθ§Ȳäθफϳ뤬¾ǧθ ("Be polite" ǤȤ"aesthetic, social, or moral in character" ʤɤħĤΡˤˤްդΤȤǤ롥
ơŪްդβˤϡβñȯü첽줿Ūް (particularlized conversational implicature) ȡ깭ˤ˴ѻ̲줿Ūް (generalized conversational implicature) ̤롥㤨СطޤǺʤ I'm very happy to have married you. ȸȤʤ뤬ʷ뺧10ǯΤˤǤȤʤʤϡˤäδްդޤȤ̣ǡ̲줿ΤǤϤʤü첽줿ŪްդǤ롥I ate some of the apples on the table. ʤɤοɽޤʸˤŵŪˡ̲줿Ūްդѻ롥ʸϡŪˤϥơ֥ˤ뤹٤ƤΥ󥴤򿩤٤ˤȯ뤳ȤǤ롥ξ硤ȤϤ鷺Ȥ̯ʴΤϡ"some" Ȥˤ "all" ǤϤʤϤȤ̲줿Ūްդ߼뤫Ǥ롥Τ褦ʿɽ˴ؤ̲줿Ūްդϡä˼ٴް (scalar implicature) ȸƤФ롥
嵭Τ褦˰֤ŤŪްդˤϡ7Ĥζ̣Ȥ롥

(1) äǽ (cancellability) 㤨СI ate some of the apples on the table. ľˡIn fact, I ate all of them. դäơҤμٴްդǤäȤǤ롥
(2) ȯƤʬΥԲǽ (non-detachability) ƥȤ0ä Jack ФơYou are a genius. Ȥʤ뤬Ʊʸ̮Ǥ¤ˤ You must win a Nobel prize. ʤɤʸǤϤȤʤ롥
(3) ׻ǽ (calculability) ŪްդϿ׻Ǥ뤫顤֤֤ۤŬѤ롥ƱǤС׻βƱϤǤ롥
(4) 󴷽 (non-conventionality) Ūްդϡ˴Ū˥󥳡ɤƤΤǤϤʤޤǿˤäƳΤǤ롥
(5) ãǽ (reinforceability) The soup is warm. ϼٴްդˤ "not hot" ްդ뤬θդä The soup is warm, not hot. ȤƤĹϴʤްդƤ夫ºݤȯäˤäƼȤƤΤǤ롥
(6) (universality) ۤơ餯ŪǤ롥
(7) 경Բǽ (not fully determinable) ׻ˤޤްդʤΤǡդꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤžɽʤɡİԤǤʤüԤǤްդꤹ뤳ȤǤʤ⤢ꤦ롥

йֲäˤסظ١翮סԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ33--52ǡ

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2012-06-04 Mon

#1134. ĴθˤȤ [pragmatics][cooperative_principle][implicature][rhetoric]

Ĵθ (the Cooperative Principle) ˤĤơ[2012-05-23-1], [2012-06-03-1]εǼ夲ƤäλüԤۤΤ˽餷ƤȤ롼ΤȤǤ뤬ޤǸ§ȤƼΤȤƤªƤɬפ롥§Ǥ뤫顤ȤˤϰռŪ뤤̵ռŪˤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥㤨СGrice (30) ˤС (principle) 뤤ϸ (maxims) ϰʲΤ褦ʾˤ뤳Ȥ롥Ŭäʤ⤷褦

(1) Τ줺˸Ȥ硥̤Ȥơʹθ򾷤Ȥ¿ĤȤŵǤ롥ϡθȤȤˤäơʹ˸äå򿮤԰٤Ǥ롥˸¤餺뤳ȤŪȤϰʪʤɤ⡤ΥפǤ롥
(2) տŪ˿Ȥ硥Фơ֤μˤޤפ֤ꡤ֤Ȥǡפä򤽤餹褦ʥ
(3) ˽Ȥ¾θȤȤˤʤäƤޤ硥֡Ϥɤ˽Ǥ͡פФơŪʽΤ餺ˡΤɤפ褦ʥ̤θˤСФɬפʤܤͿ뤳ȤԤ뤬θˤСΤʤΤϸˤ٤ǤϤʤȤȤˤʤꡤԤν餬Ԥν˸̤Ȥʤ롥
(4) 򤢤̵뤷ˤδް (implicature) ߽Ф硥[2012-05-23-1]εǵ󤲤"How is that hamburger?" --- "A hamburger is a hamburger." Τ褦㡥̤󤲤褦

A: Smith doesn't have a girlfriend these days.
B: He has been paying a lot of visits to New York lately.


ΤȤǡB ȯϳ̤˼ A ȯ˸ƱƤ餺طθȤƤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ롥B äȤƤ褦ˤϻפʤʾ塤B A ọ̇ͭȯ򤷤ƤˤʤB ϤƴطθˤꡤΤȤ A 狼äƤϤȤΤȤˡA ˸ΰ̣¬褦ΩƤƤΤǤ롥Smith ϥ˥塼衼˿פȤް (implicature) ޤΤϡΤǤ롥ϤѤ΢Ȥ䵡ΤƼνŪˡϤΥפǤ롥
ȤϡˤȤˤϤϤä򤵤Τ⤷ʤ

Grice, Paul. "Logic and Conversation." Studies in the Way of Words. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1989. 22--40.

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2012-05-23 Wed

#1122. Ĵθ [pragmatics][implicature][cooperative_principle][philosophy_of_language][tautology]

Ĵθ (cooperative principle) Ȥϡůؼ H. Paul Grice (1912?--88) ˤäƤ줿ʬϤѸǡäˤŪãΩ뤿ˡäʹ꤬Ȥ˰ۤΤ˼äƤȤ̸§ؤäδް (conversational implicature) ʤΰ̣ʤŬڤ򤵤ΤȤˤؤ븶§ǡǯθȯŸ礭ʵȤʤäƤ롥Huang (25) ˷ǺܤƤ "Grice's theory of conversational implicature" 򼨤

Grice's theory of conversational implicature

a. The co-operative principle
   Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the state at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
b. The maxims of conversation
   Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.
     (i) Do not say what you believe to be false.
     (ii) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
   Quantity:
     (i) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).
     (ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
   Relation: Be relevant.
   Manner: Be perspicuous.
     (i) Avoid obscurity of expression.
     (ii) Avoid ambiguity.
     (iii) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).
     (iv) Be orderly.


Ĵθϡ4Ĥθ (maxim) Ԥ뤳Ȥˤäƽ餵ȸ롥4ĤȤϡθ̤θطθ֤θǤ롥ʹϡä꤬äˤƶŪǤ뤳ȡ嵭θ§ȸäƤ뤳ȤȤơäȯä᤹롥㤨Сä A "How is that hamburger?" ȤФʹ B "A hamburger is a hamburger." Ȥ롥B ȯäϤ켫ΤǤƱȿǤ̤ϥA B ĴθäƤȤΤȤ B θΰ̣ʲäδްաˤɤ߼Ȥ롥ĴθΤȤǤϡB A μФ relevant ֤ƤϤǤ뤫顤A Ϥ֤ΥϥСϤʿޤʥϥСǤꡤʾǤʲǤʤפʤɤȲ᤹뤳Ȥˤʤ롥βạ̈ͭʤΤȤΩĤˤϡA ˤäδްդɤ߼꤬ɬפǤꡤɤ߼äƤ B ŪǤȤɬפǤ롥ϻξԤǿ碌ΤǤϤʤޤǰۤλǤ뤫顤ϲäΰ̸§ȤƲꤹɬפ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

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