Ѹˤͭɡ [ŋ] /ŋ/ Ȥ1ĤβǤǧƤ롥[ŋ] ̤β /n/ ΰ۲ȤƤδġѸβηϤˤ [ŋ] /ŋ/ Ⱦüʰ֤ŤͿƤ롥βǡˤΰ֤Ťˤϡ줬ѸˤŪʳdzΩȤȴط롥δϢ뵭ȤưʲƤ
#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])
#3482. ƬλҲϢñ㲽Ƥˡ ([2018-11-08-1])
#3855. ʤֿסʤˤΥɽ *Shingkoiwa Ȥʤ餺 Shinkoiwa ȤʤΤǤ ([2019-11-16-1])
#4344. -in' -ing ξάǤϤʤ ([2021-03-19-1])
Minkova (138) ˤȡ /ŋ/ ˤ2Ĥð롥1ĤϡβǤ coda ˤʤȡ2Ĥˤϡ˲ä domain-final ˤʤȤǤ롥Ԥϲ١ǡԤϷ֡å١ȹͤƤ褤ԤͭΤˤСñ줴Ȥ˼¸ /ŋ/ /ŋg/ ۤʤΤաȽҤ٤ƤΤƱǤ롥
The distribution of contrastive /ŋ/ prompts some interesting phonological questions. Like PDF /h-/, which can appear only in onsets, /ŋ/ is a 'defectively distributed' phoneme: it can be distinctive only in coda position. The restriction reflects its historical origin since it is only through the loss of the voiced velar stop in the coda that /ŋ/ became contrastive: kin--king, ban--bang, run--rung. Before /k/, as in plank, sink, hunk, [-ŋ] remains a positional allophone followed by the voiceless stop. Thus, we get a three-way opposition in pin [pɪn]--ping [pɪŋ]--pink [pɪŋk], sin, sing, sink, and so on.
Another peculiarity of contrastive /ŋ/ is that it has to be domain-final, that is, the [-g-] is preserved stem-internally, rendering [-ŋ-] allophonic, as in Bangor, bingo, tango, single, hungry, Hungary, all with [-ŋg-]. Note that the preservation of [-g-] does not depend only on syllabification, because in forms derived with -ing or the agentive suffix -er, the [-g-] of the stem is not realised, and the derived form copies the shape of the base form: singing, singer with just [-ŋ-]. In addition to the most frequent -ing and -er, the majority of the native suffixes such as -y, -dom, -hood, -ness, -ish, -less, -ling, also -let (OFr), preserve the shape of the base: slangy, kingdom, thinghood, youngness, strongish, fangless, kingling, ringlet have [-ŋ-]. The addition of a comparative suffix, -er or -est, as in longer, strongest, youngly, however, results in heterosyllabic [ŋ].[g]. The addition of Latinate suffixes generally preserves the [g], as in fungation, diphthongal, but not always, as in ringette, nothingism. Then there is vacillation with some derivatives: prolong and prolonging are always just [-ŋ], prolongation varies between [-ŋ-] and [-ŋg-], and prolongate is always [-ŋg-]. There are some idiosyncrasies: dinghy, hangar allow both pronunciations, and so do English and England. The behaviour of [-ŋ] in clitic groups and phrases is also variable; the variability of [-ŋ] is of continuous theoretical interest. In our diachronic context, the deletion of the [g] and the possibility of phonemic [ŋ] in narrowly defined contexts in late ME and EModE is most notable as an addition to the inventory of contrastive sounds in English.
Ѹʹ [ŋ] ϲDz (phonemicisation) ФˤʬۤŰ줵椨ˡŪʰϺ˻ޤǾ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ε#3949. ȤѸβηϤ˵ڤܤƶ ([2020-02-18-1]) ˰³褦 Minkova (148--149) εǡŪʸݤȤƸƬ [ts-] ȤҲΩļѸҲ𤷤˺Ƕܤ٤ƬλҲȤ [ʃm-, ʃl-, ʃt-] 롥Ѹ˵ĤȤѸŪʻҲϢǤϤ뤬͡ʸȤ [ts-] Ȥϰۤʤꡤۤꤵ롥ΥϤο͡ѤƤ륤ǥå (yiddish) Ǥ롥ǥåϡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) ΥޥɤηޤǼ褦ˡȤޥ췲°Ǥ롥
2塤ꥫ罰ϤȤѸ˹ܽǥåüԤθäȤȤˡ嵭ħŪʻҲϢѸ˻ơüԽĤʸŪʱƶϤ椨ˡλҲϢѸΤʤǡֻ̱פƤȤǤ롥Ρֻ̱פ䡤褦ʡɤ褦äδߤĤġŪ̥ϤäƤΤǤ롥Ȥ schmaltz ʲ٤δ, schmooze (٤, schmuck , shtetl ʾʥĮ, shtick ʤäʾ̡, shtum ۤä, shtup ʥåˤʤɡschm- [ʃm-] ˻äƤϡäβ (phonaesthesia) ŪǤȤʤäƤ롥
Minkova (148--149) βѤ褦
After World War II, Yiddish is spoken by more people in English-speaking countries --- US, Canada, Australia and Great Britain together --- than in Continental Europe or Israel. Large Yiddish communities in New York, Los Angeles, Melbourne and Montreal have contributed to the recognition and integration of new vocabulary and new consonant clusters: [ʃm-, ʃl-, ʃt-], which have become productive phonaesthemes in PDE. With at least a quarter of a million Yiddish speakers in North America, and a strong presence of Yiddish culture in film, TV and literature, familiarity with these clusters is to be expected and there is no attempt to assimilate them to some native sequence. What is more, the onset <schm-> [ʃm-], treated as a 'combining form' since 1929 by the OED, is clearly productive in playful reduplication, generating mildly disparaging or comic attention-getters: madam-shmadam, able-shmable, holy-shmoly, the Libros Shmibros lending library in Los Angeles.
夲 [ts-] ˤƤ⡤ [ʃm-, ʃl-, ʃt-] ˤƤ⡤Ѹ줬͡ʸܿäƱˡտ魯äʲǤаޤ褯ʬ롥ܿ (contact) ε¿СŪʷDzηϤˤ⤽αƶڤ֤ȤȤ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ѸǤ [ts] ȯⲿȤʤcats, hits, let's, nights, watts ʤɡt ǽΤʣ3ñ -s ղäС˸벻Ϣ˻2ĤηǤޤ֤뤿ᡤŪˤϤޤDz /t/ Ȳ /s/ ơΩΩǡν¤ΤȲᤵ롥Ĥޤꡤ[ts] βɽϤޤ /ts/ Ǥꡤ/t͡s/ ǤϤʤ
ѸޤǻȡǶޤ櫓ǤϤʤ [ts] ⸽¸ߤ롥줫μѸ tsar/czar ʹˤ [zɑː] Ȥȯ뤬[tsɑː] Ȥȯ롥ܸ줫μѸ tsunami [ts] ȯ롥¿ʤʳ [ts] Ѹ϶ʹƤƤꡤ/ts/ ǤϤʤ /t͡s/ ΰռƤƤȤ⤤뤫⤷ʤ⤷ǤкǿβDz (phonemicisation) λȤʤꡤѸ첻˾ΰյġ Minkova (148) εͤˤʤ롥
. . . /ts/ is phonotactically non-native but not universally unattested. The earliest <ts->-initial borrowing in English is from Slavic: tsar (1555); the voiceless alveolar affricate onset [t͡s-] in this word and its many derived forms is most commonly assimilated to a singly articulated [z-], though the affricate [t͡s-] pronunciation is also recorded. Only three more [t͡s-] words were added in the sixteenth to seventeenth century, nine in the eighteenth century, and twenty-three between 1901 and 1975, with sources from languages from all over the world: Burmese, Chinese, German, Greek and Japanese. All of the most recent borrowing preserve the [t͡s-]; apparently the phonotactic constraint which generated the [z-] in tsar is no longer part of the system: no one would say [t͡s-] or [zuːˈnɑmi]. In other words, [t͡s-], although of more recent lineage, is likely to join [ʒ] ... as an addition to the consonantal inventory. The still marginal acceptability of a [t͡s-] onset can be related to its relative complexity and lower frequency of occurrence, though tsunami is hardly a rare item in English after 2011.
[t͡s-] ǻϤޤñ줬ޤʤƤ٤㤤Τǡ/t͡s/ βDzäƤȤϤޤǴˤ䤫ʤΤȤѤκǸˤ褦 tsunami Ϸ褷ƥ쥢ñǤϤʤҳ䵤ݤʤϵĶѲ˷ǰƤ븽¿ο͡ܤ륭ɤ1ĤǤ롥ñ줬ٲȤΤϻ䤿ˤȤä˾ޤʤȤѸβηϤ¦ߤ /t͡s/ ¤ʲDz˹ƤȤ⤤롥
κǿβDzȤСѤˤƤ褦 /ʒ/ 뤷/ŋ/ ⤢롥ԤˤĤƤϡ#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) (2) ԤˤĤƤϡ#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1]) ȡ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ɸϡǤˡѤʵפΰĶƤꡤषïʤǤ礦ޤǤ3Ĥε ([2019-11-13-1], [2019-11-14-1], [2019-11-15-1]) ǡʤֿסʤФˤΥɽ Shimbashi ˤ n ǤϤʤ m Ѥ뤫ȤˤĤƵƤޤ֤ˤ褦ʵȤʤäƤޤʤʤΤǡεɤˡ
[ŋ] ȯ ng ʸ2ʸ1Ȥֻˤɽ魯ȤϸѸǤϰŪǤꡤϲŪ /ŋ/ βǤȤΩƤ¤бƤȹͤޤƱɡҲǤäƤ [n] [m] Τ˶̤٤ΤȤ [ŋ] ¸ߤ餳 n m ֤ΤǤϤʤng Ȥȼ֤ĤΤǤޤȤСȯ [ɕiŋkoiwa] Ǥ顤Ѹʤ뤤ϥإܥˤDzŪ˸̩ɽܻؤΤǤ *Shingkoiwa դ路ȤǤ礦ƱͤͳǡѸ ink, monk, sync, thank *ingk, *mongk, *syngc, *thangk ʤɤ֤Ƥ٤ȤǤ⤽ʤäƤޤ
ͳϡ/ŋ/ ˤĤƤ /n/ /m/ ȰۤʤꡤΩǤȤƤδפ夤ˤꤽǤŪˤС/ŋ/ ΩǤȤʤäΤϸѸ줫ѸˤƤλˤޤcf. #1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])ˡ/n/ /m/ ĸοǯˤؤͤβǤȤС/ŋ/ ֤˷βǤȤȤˤʤޤ/ŋ/ ѸޤǤϤޤDz /n/ ξ۲Ȥ֤ŤǤꡤηϾ夵ƽפǤϤʤ椨ֻä n ȶ̤٤ȤϤߤʤƤʤäΤǤС[k] [g] ֤ˤ [ŋ] Ͼ۲ȤƸΤ褦˼¸Ƥޤ /ŋ/ ȤƤ¸ߤʤäᡤվñ n ֤ƤȤȤǤ
Ѹ kingk (king), dringke (drink), thingke (think) ʤɤֻȯŪˤߤ줿ȤΤǤṲ̄äΤ king, drink, think פΤۤǤʹߡŪˤ /ŋ/ βDzʹԤȤϤֻŪˤ夫 ng, nk ΤޤɸಽʹԤ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ˻ޤ
ɸεޤ礦ֿפΡ֤פϲŪˤϾ۲ [ŋ] ȤƼ¸ޤѸǤϾ۲ [ŋ] ֻ ng Ȥɽ뽬ǤʤäŪаޤޤΤᡤѸɽӤ˴ŤإܥǤϡ*Shingkoiwa Ȥʤ餺n Ѥ Shinkoiwa ƤΤǤ
ѸˤǤϰ̤ˡ첻äĹ첻ˤѲϿ¿ƤΤΡҲѲŪޤäȤcf. #1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])ˡ첻ȻҲηоˤĤƤϡѸαΧ (prosody) 礭ؤäƤȤ롥Τ˻ҲѲˤΩäΤʤǤ⤢ƥ㡼ʤΤȤСMinkova and Stockwell (36) ˰͵ơʲ5ܤ
Simplification of long consonants
Phonemicization of the voiced fricatives [v, ð, z]
Vocalization or loss of [ɣ], [x], [ç] and distributional restrictions on [h]
Loss of [-r] in some varieties of English
Simplification of the consonant clusters [kn-], [gn-], [wr-], [-mb], [-ng]
1ܤ "Simplification of long consonants" Ȥ degemination Ȥ⤤ǡűѸ줫ѸˤˤꡤűѸ gyldenne "golden" Ѹ gyldene ʤɤȤʤäθѸؤαƶȤƤϡ#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) #1284. û첻ܻҲξˤϻҲŤͤ -ing ղäȤֻ§ ([2012-11-01-1]) Ȥ줿
2ܤ "Phonemicization of the voiced fricatives [v, ð, z]" ϡfricative_voicing ȸƤФǤ롥#1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵ͭ ([2013-01-21-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̵ͭΥڥñʤ۲δطäեѸʤɤαƶˤꡤξԤۤʤ벻ǤȤΩ뤳Ȥˤʤä/v/ βDzˤĤƤϡ#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])#2230. Ѹ̵ͭʸ ([2015-06-05-1]) ȡ
3ܤ "Vocalization or loss of [ɣ], [x], [ç] and distributional restrictions on [h]" ϡĶˤʣѲ뤲Ȥؤ㤨СűѸ dragan, sagu; hlot, hræfn, hnecca; boh, heah, sohte; toh, ruh, hleahtor 줾Ѹ draw(en), saw(e); lot, raven, neck; bow(e), hei(e), sout(e); tuf, ruff, lauhter ʤɤȤʤäƤheir, honest, honour, hour ʤɤθƬ h ꤵ⡤ȴؤʡ#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) h γƵȡˡ
4ܤ "Loss of [-r] in some varieties of English" ϡnon-prevocali r Ǥʡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) γƵȡˡ
5ܤ "Simplification of the consonant clusters [kn-], [gn-], [wr-], [-mb], [-ng]" ϡƻҲüλҲæ벻Ǥ롥λҲбʸߤֻ˻ĤäƤΤǡǧ䤹#122. /kn/ ǻϤޤñ ([2009-08-27-1])#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]) ΤۤŪˡ#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) ȡ
ʾΤ褦ˡ첻٤ƼϾʤȤϤҲѲ⤳ߤƤߤȸѸβֻˤʤαƶڤܤƤΤȴ롥
Minkova, Donka and Robert Stockwell. "Phonology: Segmental Histories." A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 29--42.
(48) ϡѲ (phonological change) θȤ礭2̤Ƥ롥
(1) ŪưŤˤ (endogenous or internal motivations): ȤƲŪŪװ
(2) 쳰ŪưŤˤ (exogenous or external motivations): ¾졦¾ȤܿҲŪʸŪʤɤμҲŪװ
䤹ʬǤ롥 (2) θ쳰Ūװڻ뤵Ƥ¤ŦƤ¿βѲϡΤ (1) θŪװˤäƥޡȤƤ⤽ɤ餫Ȥ (1) ϡäѲ WHY ǤϤʤHOW εҤˤȤɤޤ뤳Ȥ¿βѲλξǵΤϤʤȤֻư (actuation problem) ˤǤꡤWHY ˤϤɤƤ (2) 餶ʤ
ѲѲη̤ȤƲηϤɤΤ褦˱ƶȤʬहСʲ3ʬpp. 47--48ˡ
(1) ͻ (merger): ʣβǤΩ1ĤβǤ˹Τ롥
(2) ʬ (split): ñβǤʣβǤʬ뤳ȡ⤷ʬ̤β¾βǤͻ礷ǤѤʤˤϡ켡ʬ (primary split) ȸƤ֡ʬη̡ʲǤˤϡʬ (secondary split) ȸƤ֡
(3) (shift): ʬѲ̡ηϤȤʤäˡ경٤̤ʬϢŪ˲Ѳ뤳ȡ
դΤϡ(1) (2) ϲηϤ˱ƶͿѲǤ뤬(3) ǤѲDzηϤΤΤѤ餺ƲǤΤΤʤǺʬ̤ۤˤʤȤȤػҼꥲȤС(1) (2) ǤϰػҤμѤꡤ(3) ǤϰػҤɤŪʰ֤ѤȤȤˤʤ롥
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
Ϣ Hockett ˸Ѹ˴ؤʸѡȤƤ뤬ƱʸѲμ (kinds) ȻȤ (mechanism) ζ̤ˤĤ Hockett θ
ŪʸѲλȤơ[f] [v] ΩβDz夲褦űѸǤξ1Ĥβ /f/ ΰ۲ˤʤäѸǤϸƬʤɤ [v] ĥեñμѤʤɤ̤ /f/ /v/ ǤȤƤΩ褦ˤʤä
ѲˤĤơɤΤ褦ȤŪʲˤϰڿ줺ˡλ¤٤СϡֲѲפǤɽǤ롥֤ѲǤʤСѲäѲǤʤѲǤȤ롥ϡѲμ (kind) ˤĤƤθȤ֡졤äʤɤ̤1Ĥθ˴ŤʬǤ뤫顤θ˰¸ĤߤȤäƤ褤ȤѤС˱ѲμʬѤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѲλȤ (mechanism) Ȥϡ[v] βDzǤСŪˤɤΤ褦ʲơ۲ [v] /f/ Ω /v/ βǤϰ̤ΤȤξܺ٤ΤȤǤ롥ΥޥäơѸ줬 [v] Ƭʤɤˤĥեñܿ˵ڤǡƬ [f] ĸȤκǾФΩ[v] βDzΩȤȤǤʤβDzμºݤξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ʤɤεȡˡȤߤˤ͡ʤΤ̤뤬㤨вѲ (sound change) (analogy) (borrowing) 3Ĥζ̤ꤹȤΥǼȤƴͿƤȤߤϡѤȤʤĤλȤߤꤹ뤫ˤĤƤŪ¿ͤΩ줬ꤦΤǡ¸αĤߤǤϤ롥
ѲμȻȤߤ̤٤ǤȤ Hockett μĥϡѲΥӥեȥե2üδطʬह뤳Ȥȡ2üδ֤ǺѤᥫ˥餫ˤ뤳ȤȤۤʤĤߤǤȤȤơαĤߤˤĤưȤγǰѸΥåȤƤ٤Ǥꡤ2ĤΤΤƱƤϤʤʤHockett (72) ۩
My last terminological recommendation, then, is that any individual scholar who has occasion to talk about historical linguistics, be it in an elementary class or textbook or in a more advanced class or book about some specific language, distinguish clearly between kinds and mechanisms. We must allow for differences of opinion as to how many kinds there are, and as to how many mechanisms there are---this is an issue which will work itself out in the future. But we can at least insist on the main point made here.
ϢơHockett (73) ϡѲλȤ (mechanism) ȸ (cause) ȤѸˤĤƤ⡤դƤ롥
'Mechanism' and 'cause' should not be confused. The term 'cause' is perhaps best used of specific sequences of historical events; a mechanism is then, so to speak, a kind of cause. One might wish to say that the 'cause' of the phonologization of the voiced-voiceless opposition for English spirants was the Norman invasion, or the failure of the British to repel it, or the drives which led the Normans to invade, or the like. We can speak with some sureness about the mechanism called borrowing; discussion of causes is fraught with peril.
Hockett εϡѲ what (= kind) how (= mechanism) why (= cause) Ѹ츯ˤĤƲƹͤƤ뵡Ȥʤä
Hockett, Charles F. "The Terminology of Historical Linguistics." Studies in Linguistics 12.3--4 (1957): 57--73.
첻 (gvs) 䥰ˡ§ (grimms_law) ɽ벻ν۴ĥե (circular shift, chain shift) ˤ͡Ū롥Samuels ϡ첻ܤϡϵŪ ("mechanical") ѲȤƻϤޤäʳǵǽŪ ("functional") ʺѤƯƲηϤȤƤΥХ줿ϢβǤȤߤƤ롥ŪѲȤϡŪˤС㡦첻ˤĤƤϡĴ줿ʶĥˤΰ۲줿ȤȤǤꡤ첻ˤĤƤϡ줿дˤ2첻Ūʰ۲줿ȤȤǤ롥ơ첻ϡϤΤ褦˵Ū۲餯ΩƺΤäʳˤʤäơηϤΰݻ褦Ȥ뵡ǽŪʰϤ˲ƺǽŪʬۤȤͤ
Circular shifts of vowels are thus detailed examples of homeostatic regulation. The earliest changes are mechanical . . . ; the later changes are functional, and are brought about by the favouring of those variants that will redress the imbalance caused by the mechanical changes. In this respect circular shift differs considerably from merger and split. Merger is redressed by split only in the most general and approximate fashion, since the original functional yields are not preserved; but in circular shift, the combination of functional and mechanical factors ensures that adequate distinctions are maintained. To that extent at least, the phonological system possesses some degree of autonomy. (Samuels 42)
Samuels εαǤ롥۴ĥեȤǽŪΩ줫鲻Ǥʬȵۼ (split and merger) βȤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤäƤ뤫Ŧʤ顤Ԥ벻ηϤμΧǫƤ롥Τ褦 Samuels Ω줬ǽŪФäƤȤθˤʤӤ䤹ΤäϤޤǵŪװǤ Samuels ƤõƤϢơ#2585. ѲưΤϷǽ ([2016-05-25-1]) ȡ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
űѸŵŪ <cyning> 뤤 <cyng> ֤Ƥ줬ѸǤŵŪ <king> ֤褦ˤʤäƤ롥 /k/ ɽ魯ʸ <c> <k> ؤ֤줿ȤȤˤϤʤưŤäΤ
/k/ бʸ <c> <k> ִ줿аޤˤĤơScragg (45) ϵǽŪΩ줫鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . Old English orthography continued to represent the two sounds [= [k] and [ʧ]] by <c> (i.e. both of these words in late Old English were spelt cinn or cynn). Although <c> could still unambiguously represent /k/ before back vowels and consonants (as it still does in cat, cot, cut, climb, crumb), there was no agreed way of distinguishing the sounds graphically before front vowels. The use of <k> for the plosive appeared sporadically from the ninth century but it was not until the thirteenth that it was fully established in words like king and keen, by which time <ch> had been adopted for the affricate.
<c> <k> ؤѲϡ/y/ ߿Ȥ첻ѲͿƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥űѸǤϸ (palatalisation) θ̤ˤꡤ첻Ԥ /k/ [ʧ] ȤƼ¸褦ˤʤäƤ첻Ԥ /k/ [k] ȤƼ¸³ƤꡤߤʬۤʤᡤξϤޤƱ첻Ǥΰۤʤ¸Ǥˤʤääơɽ魯ʸ <c> 1Ĥǻꤿ
Ȥ첻 /u/ i-mutation ˤ첻 /y/ Ȥʤꡤ߿ /i/ ؤѲȡcinn [ʧin] cynn [kin] Ωޤ졤ʬۤ롥 /ʧ/ /k/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤȤƶ̤褦ˤʤäDz (phonemicisation) βǤ롥
ʳˤơۤʤ벻ǤϰۤʤʸɽΤդ路ȤǽŪȯۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ͤˡϤĤμ¸ȼѤδ֤Ф夤Τϡ/k/ Ф <k> /ʧ/ Ф <ch> Ƥˡä <c> ΤΤĤäƤʤȤդ줿
Ѹˤ <k> <ch> Ѥ줿طʤˤϡֻѤ륢Υޥ̻νͿƤScragg θǤʸǤб˴ؤ뵡ǽŪ˽ϤƤΤФOED K, n. εҤϡΥޥֻˤڤǤꡤХμ줿Ȥ롥
Yet, in the Old English use of the Roman alphabet, both the guttural and the palatal sound were represented by C, although in the practice of individual scribes K was by no means infrequent for the guttural, especially in positions where C would have been liable to be taken as palatal, or would at least have been ambiguous, as in such words as Kent, kéne, kennan, akenned, kynn, kyning, kyðed, folkes, céak, þicke. But, even in these cases, C was much more usual down to the 11th century; and K can be regarded only as a supplemental symbol occasionally used instead of C for the guttural sound. After the Conquest, however, the Norman usage gradually prevailed, in accordance with which C was retained for the original guttural only before a, o, u, l, r, and K was substituted for the same sound before e, i, y, and (later) n; while the palatalized Old English c, now advanced to /ʧ/, was written Ch. Hence, in native words, initial K now appears only before e, i, y (y being moreover usually merged in i), and before n ( < Old English cn-), where it is no longer pronounced in Standard English, though retained in some dialects.
űѸǤ⤹Ǥ <k> ѤƤȤˤդ٤Ǥ롥ʸǤֻѲޤᡤѲˤϡʣξװͿƤȤ (multiple causation of language change) ˺ƤϤʤʤ
Ϣơ/k/ бʸŪˤĤơ#1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1]) ȡ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
516դΡѤʵפˡ<s> <x> ֻȤ̵Ҳ /s, ks/ ǡȤͭҲ /z, gz/ ȯˤĤƼ䤬줿Ƭ <s> ɬ /s/ б롤Τ첻Ԥʤ <x> /gz/ б뷹ʤɡŪ˻ͤȤʤ뵬§⤢ˤϤ뤬ǽŪˤñ줴Ȥ˷ޤäƤ륱¿Ūʥ롼ߤʤΤǤ롥Τ褦ˤϡŪۤʤ
ѸŪˤϡ/(k)s, (g)z/ ˤȤɤޤ餺֤ƤӸƤɬפ롥ȤΤϡŪˡűѸǤΩϤʤäȹͤƤ뤫Ǥ롥űѸˤȤ /s/, /θ/, /f/ ۤβǤäбͭ [z], [ð], [v] ͭ˶ޤ줿Ķˤ۲ȤƸ줿ˤǤȤΩƤʤä (cf. #1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵ͭ ([2013-01-21-1])#17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1])ˡʸϲñ̤бΤ̾Ǥ뤫顤ʬۤʤ̵ͭγƥڥФ1ĤʸǤбƤнʬǤꡤ<s>, <þ> (or <ð>), <f> ʾ塤<z> <v> ʤɤʸפä
ͭϡѸˤƲDz (phonemicisation) θˤĤƤϽ⤬ƤƤ뤬פʤΤȡȤΤŪʱѡæŻҲ (degemination)ˤƬͭ (cf. #2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])#2226. ѸǸƬͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1]))ͭĥեäμѤʤɤǤʤ˴ؤǿʸȤơHickey Ȥ줿ˡʲǤϤȤ櫓եäμѤȤװǰƬˤƵʤ롥
ͭǤϰ̤ȡбΩʸǤԹ礬褤/v/ ˤĤƤϡȤͤե줬 <v> ʸäƤˡѸ <v> Ƴ뤳Ȥ⤿䤹ä⡤եǤ /f/ = <f>, /v/ = <v> ʼºݤˤ <<v>> ¤ <<u>> Ѥ줿ˤδطꤷƤᡤƱ괶Ѹˤܿ졤ᤤʳ夷ߤ˻롥Ѹ /f/ = <f>, /v/ = <v> 㳰ƾʤͳǤ (cf. of)
/z/ ˤĤƤϻ𤬰ۤʤäƤűѸǤťեǤ <z> ʸϤä/s, z/ ΤβФƤ <s> ѤΤ̤äեǤ /s/ = <s>, /z/ = <z> ΰꤷطۤƤʤäΤǤꡤѸ /z/ DzǤ⡤/z/ = <z> δطꤢưŤ /v/ = <v> ξ夫äȻפ롥̤Ȥơ<s> ̵ͭΤɽ魯ȤűѸ줫νѸˤ줺Ρפߤˤޤ³Ƥ롥
/ð/ ˤĤƤϡ˻𤬰ۤʤ롥űѸ <þ> <ð> ϸǽǡⲻ /θ/ ΰ۲ [θ] [ð] ɽ魯ȤǤѸꡤ̵ͭ줾ΩǤˤʤäƤ⡤줾ΩʸǤͿ褦ȤʤäͳΰϡöŪǤϤ뤬եˤβ¸ߤʤäȤ
/v/, /z/, /θ/ ΩʸǤͿ줿ɤȤǰۤʤ뿶Τϡեб벻ǤʸǤδطäɤȤ礭ƤۤˤϳơβDzߤ˰ۤʤ륿ߥǡۤʤװˤ줿餷ȤͿƤDzᤵȡǤȿʸǤȤδطΰȤϢưƤ褦ˤ⸫롥ѸˤȯֻδطˤäƤϡŪ˹ͻ뤳Ȥפ
Hickey, Raymond. "Middle English Voiced Fricatives and the Argument from Borrowing." Approaches to Middle English: Variation, Contact and Change. Ed. Juan Camilo Conde-Silvestre and Javier Calle-Martín. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2015. 83--96.
ɸ3ϡŪ˵ʷϩ̤ɸѸꡤ夷Ǥ롥vane סˡvat ʾ¤Ѥʤɤβˡvixen ʻĥ͡ˤϡƬͭ v äƤ롥Ƭ v ǤϵǤⲿǤʤΤͺ˥ĥͤɽ魯 fox Фƻĥ vixen ٤Ƥߤ褦ˡ3ˤƤϸ츻Ū̵ f ͽۤȤͭðۤʤΤǤ (cf. OE fana, fæt, fyxen) ŪˤϡѸǤΤ߸Ƭ̵ΧͭʬۤŪ˸¤Ƥ3ˤĤƤϤɤ櫓ɸѸؤȯŸѼ˼ޤ졤̲ΤǤ롥ȤʤäƤϤۤȤɵŤʤ3ϻҲΡ¤äȯͳ褹ΤǤ (cf. vixen ˤĤƤϡAmerican Heritage Dictionary ˤ vixen ⻲ȡˡ
Ρ¤פϡΥɤǤ¸³Ƥ롥ǤϸƬ [f] Τ٤Ȥ [v] Τߤʤ餺[s], [ʃ], [θ] Τ٤Ȥdzơ [z], [ʒ], [ð] Ȥä褦ˡΤбߤ롥Upton and Widdowson (52) Ͽޤꡤfinger θƬˤĤʬۤ

ɤκüCornwall üǤɸŪ [f] ԤƤ뤬 Cornwall αѸήΤǤϤʤ˽Υȷϸ Cornish ֤ɸѸ˥롼ĤĤΤǤ (cf. #779. Cornish Manx ([2011-06-15-1])#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])ˡ
ơߤǤϸƬ [f] [v] ʬۤ˸¤Ƥ뤬Ѹˤϥ˹äƤιϰϤǡ餯Ǥ˸űѸƬͭϤޤäƤΤȻפ롥ѸǤ fader vader ʬۤ Plan and Bibliography (9) ˴Ť (101) ϿޤǤߤƤߤ褦

űѸǤϡǷѲޤǤϡˤ餺 [v] [z] ϸƬ뤳ȤϤʤäȤѸǤϡѲΤߤʤ餺̤ξƬ뤳ȤǽȤʤäLass (58--59) ϡθƬȤƤ [v], [z] ΰŪʵƤͳ1ĤϡޤͭˤȤߤƤ (cf. #1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]))
A third factor, perhaps the most likely, was the existence in Middle English of varieties that had in Old English times undergone voicing of initial fricatives. Many southern dialects had voiced at least initial /f s/ --- a development whose relics survive still in the rural West Country ('Zummerzet'). This parallels, and may well stem from, the same process in continental West Germanic: the <v> in G Vater 'father', now pronounced with /f/, and Du. initial <v> and <z> in vader and zon 'sun' (/f s/ in more innovating dialects, still /v z/ in conservative ones) reflect this. While the voicing in England was mainly southern, it did extend well up into the midlands in Early Middle English, and the standard still has a number of forms with voiced initials like vat, vixen, vane (OE fæt, fyxen, fana). Contact between speakers of these dialects and others without voicing may have facilitated borrowing of French /v z/, making them less 'outlandish'.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154.
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
Kurath, Hans, Margaret S. Ogden, Charles E. Palmer, and Richard L. McKelvery. Plan and Bibliography. U of Michigan P, 1954.
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ38ǡ
εǡ#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1]) 夲ȿФȤ⤤ܸǵäƤΤǾҲ𤷤褦
Ūܸζ̸ȯǤϡ2Ĥͭ [g] [ŋ] ̤Ƥ§ȤԤϸƬǡԤϸ첻θˤѤ졤ۤʬۤʤ㤨С䡤ݡʤɤθǤ [g] 졤䡤ƻīʤɤθǤ [ŋ] ʹ줿ԡפʤɤʣ2ǤλϤޤꡤ֤פʤɤƬľ塤ֽޡפʤɤοθޡ֤餬פʤɤε졤֥衼ȡפʤɤμѸˤƤϡǤäƤ [g] ɸŪǤ롥ֽޡפȡֽƸפФʤɤˤ [g] [ŋ] ΩΤǡ̩ʬۼŪΩ줫 /g/ /ŋ/ ϰۤʤ벻ǤȤȤˤʤ롥
嵭ζ̤ϡߤǤڤʤɤʬǤϰҿΤȤݤƤ뤬̤ζ̸ȯȤƤ [ŋ] ѤĤĤ롥1983ǯĴǤϡüԤǯˤ [ŋ] Ψ礭ۤʤäƤ뤳ȤΤ줿ˤȡ1930ǯޤ줿üԤ [ŋ] ξüǤȤطʤˤϡ餬³ˤؽФơ[ŋ] ιԤʤƤʤܤ뵡ȤŦƤ롥
1986ǯ Hibiya ˤƱͤĴǤ⡤ [ŋ] ̻ŪʾüΤ줿80üԤ80--90% [ŋ] ݤäƤ20üԤͭΨϥ˶ᤤ (Hibiya 163) Ĵˡϡˤ͡ǯüԤȯĴ٤뤳Ȥˤ̻ŪѲŪª褦Ȥ "apparent-time" δѻǤꡤüԤĹȼҶդդѲ (age-grading) ǤȤǽӽǤʤ
ǡ"real-time" δѻɬפˤʤäƤ롥Hibiya ϡ1920ˤƤΤĤʸŪڵ並̤ˡ[ŋ] ξüʶʤ̻ŪѲǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤˤȡʤȤ19ޤǤϡ[ŋ] ηŪѤƤȤȤơHibiya (169) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Kato . . . claims that speakers who were born around 1930 were the originators of the change from word-internal [-ŋ-] to [-g-]; the present investigation, however, indicates that the change began earlier. Those who were born in the 1910's and 1920's have [-g-] more frequently than the speakers from the real-time data base who were born two to three decades earlier. Therefore, the age distribution . . . represents a remarkably smooth and linear sound change in the Tokyo dialect, which is going to completion in the youngest generation of today.
[ŋ] [g] ִ뤳Ȥˤäơξʬۤ졤¾ /ŋ/ βǤȤƤϰ̤ϼ줿ȤäƤ褤ϡ#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1]) #1023. ܸμȿ ([2012-02-14-1]) Ǽܸ춦̸βηϡηϤˤƶηŪѲǤꡤæDz (de-phonemicisation) βǤȤ
Hibiya, Junko. "Denasalization of the Velar Nasal in Tokyo Japanese." Towards a Social Science of Language: Papers in Honour of William Labov. Ed. G. R. Guy, C. Feagin, D. Schiffrin, and J. Baugh. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1996. 161--70.
Ѹǡfinger singer ˤ ng ʬȯϰۤʤ롥Ԥ [fɪŋgə]Ԥ [sɪŋə] Ǥ롥ԤΤ褦ˡ-ing ǽ촴ղäˤ [ŋ] ΤߤȤʤդƻѲ̤ long ӵ longer [lɔŋgə] Ǥ롥äơ֤Ĺפȡ˾͡פȤǤϡƱ longer Ǥ [lɔŋgə] [lɔŋə] ȯۤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ťϸ -ng Ͼ [ŋg] ä岻Ǥˤ뤬14Ⱦ顤ǤɸѸ17顤[ŋŋ] ͳ [ŋ] ؤȲѲ뤲West Midlands Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool ʤɤǤϤβѲϵ餺[ŋg] ݤ줿
Τ褦¿Ǹ -ng [ŋg] [ŋ] Ѳ뤳Ȥˤäơsing [sɪŋ] sin [sɪn] ʤɤǾ (minimal pair) 뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ/ŋ/ Dz (phonemicisation)
ʤưȤƤ -ing ϡ [ɪŋg] [ɪŋ] Ѳۤˡ [ɪn] ؤȯŸѰ۷⤢äѸǤϤФ -in' ɽǡɸŪȤƤ[2013-01-26-1]ε#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴפȡˤŪˤϹԤʤƤ19ˤݼŪ RP ǤѤƤꡤषҤȯȤߤʤƤθ塤Ū˰ҿƤäΤϡֻȯ (spelling pronunciation) αƶȹͤ롥
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
[2012-08-31-1]ε#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶפ (1)(c) ǿ줿[f] Ф [v] βDzϡѸˤ벻ηѲȤơѸˤǤϤ褯ˤΤܤ롥եѤˤ offer Τ褦ʸ줬Ѹä˲äꡤŻҲ (degemination) ȤѲˡover : offer ʤɤκǾФ졤 /v/ ΩȤǤ롥
Britton (233) ˤСεϸŤ Kurath (1956) üȯߤǤǺ֤Ƥ뤬Sledd (1958) ˤäȿƤ롥ĤޤꡤοäǤȤºݤͤɤȡΤ Sledd ˷ۤ夬롥Kurath εȤοäʤ⤹ȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Britton 233)
Kurath ˤСѸˡ[VCV] ϥȡ ȤĶǡǽ첻Ĺ[VVCV] Ȥʤä Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL) ȸƤФ벻ѲǤ롥[VCCV] δĶǤŻҲ[VCV] Ȥʤä [C] [f, s, θ] ξˤϡŪ [VCV] δĶʿ [VVCV]ˤǤϤͭŪ [VCCV] δĶʿ [VCV]ˤǤ̵ƤꡤʬۤϿĶǤݤ줿ᡤ /v/ : /f/, /z/ : /s/, /ð/ : /θ/ 줾̡βǤȤΩ褦ˤʤäȤ
褯ͤƤߤȡλҲ̵ͭϡѲФޤѤäǤ⡤ĶˤäƼưŪ˷ޤΤΤǤ롥[VVCV] [VCV] ٤ƤߤСԤĹ첻ԤƤꡤԤû첻ԤƤ롥³ [C] ̵ͭϡľ첻ĹȤƷޤΤǤꡤΰ̣ʬ (complementary distribution) ʤƤȲǤ롥äơ[v, z, θ] ΩǤȤƤߤʤȤϤǤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
Kurath [f] ʤɤβDzεþ褦˸뤬ˡ⤽βDzϤǤ˳ΩƤȤĥ⤢롥Ƥ褦ˡMEOSL schwa ξüθ˵äꤹΤǤСschwa ξü MEOSL ޤǤηִ֤ˡ[V + voiced C] [V + voiceless C] ΩϤǤΩƤȤˤʤ뤫դϹä褦ʤΤǡʾοϤ˻ߤƤ
Britton, Derek. "Degemination in English, with Special Reference to the Middle English Period." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 232--43.
Kurath, Hans. "The Loss of Long Consonants and the Rise of Voiced Fricatives in Middle English." Language 32 (1956): 435--45. Rpt. in Approaches in English Historical Linguistics: An Anthology. Ed. Roger Lass. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.
Sledd, James. Some Questions of English Phonology. Language 34 (1958): 252--58.
ե줬ѸͿŪƶȤСäǤΤǤ롥¾ɽֻˤ⾯ʤ餺ƶڤܤˤ¿ʤ˴ؤƤϡФХե줫μѤȤƸڤ벻Ǥ롥Görlach (337--38) ˤȡˤ5बǧ롥
(1) /v/ βDz (phonemicisation) űѸǤ [v] ϲ /f/ ΰ۲ˤޤΩǤǤϤʤäȤ(a) very Τ褦 [v] ĥեѸή(b) vixen Τ褦 [v] μѡ(c) over : offer ˸ñҲȽŻҲΩξü(d) of ˸̵ˤͭȤäŪװˤꡤ/v/ ǤȤΩƱȤ [z] ˤĤƤ롥(a) װ˴ؤƤХեαƶ뤳ȤǤ뤬/v/ /z/ ۲ȤƤϸűѸ¸ߤƤĺ˵ǽƤ̵ͭΩؤ礷ȤȤ館СηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡGörlach ϡѸηװ뤷Ƥ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפȡˡ
(2) /ʒ/ βDzβűѸǤΩǤǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Ѹ joy gentle θƬ /ʤ/ ȤƼ¸줿ΤǡѸǤ鵩ʲä/ʒ/ βDzϡmeasure ʤɤθǤ [-zj-] ͻ餦Ȥ礭βDzˤꡤηϤ /ʤ : ʒ ? ʧ : ʃ/ оȴطϤꡤǤեαƶŪǤʤ
(3) եѸ˴ޤޤ첻αƶǡ첻 /ɔɪ, ʊɪ/ ѸDzDz2Ĥä뤳ȤǡѸ첻ηϤϤμ줿ΤȤʤä
| -- | ɛɪ | aɪ | ɔɪ | ʊɪ |
| ɪʊ | ɛʊ | aʊ | ɔʊ | -- |
. . . it is significant that phonemes said to be derived from French survive only where they fill obvious gaps in the English system --- and some of these were stabilized by loans from English dialect . . . . (337)
¦פʤΤζפʤΤ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפεפ롥
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
ε#904. ѸŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1]) ³ԡǼ夲Ƥ Haugen ʸǡFries and Pike ˤ붽̣̾ʸȤƤΤǡꤷɤǤߤѸββȰۤʤäƤ뤳ȤꡤκѸƱ˹뤫ݤȤɸȴؤäƤ뤫
ᥭ Oaxaca Υޥƥ²ˤää Mazateco Ǥϡ§ȤƤ٤Ƥ̵ĺɡθͭ롥㤨С /t/ ɡθǤϰ۲ [d] ȤƸ롥Ȥ㳰¸ߤ롥ڥѸ siento ɴˤǤϡ嵭θ§ˤɡθ [t] ȤθϹٸǡظ줬ʤˡ嵭θ§νפȿȤʤ롥ˤꡤ[nd] [nt] Ϥʬۤʤʤʤ뤿ᡤ¤ؤˡ˽С/d/ βǤȤƤϰ̤ǧᤶʤphonemicisation DzˤȤȤˤʤ
üԤȿĴȡsiento Τ褦ʶϤ㳰뤫Ȥäơ/d/ /t/ ȶ̤벻ǤȤưŪǧƤ뤳Ȥڵ϶ʤȤŪ minimal pair ƥȤ餫ˤȤȡüԤΰռȤϰۤʤȤȤ̷ä٤Fries and Pike ϼΤ褦ʷ˻롥
The Mazateco evidence points to the conclusion, then, that two or more phonemic systems may coexist within a single dialect, even though one or more of these systems may be highly fragmentary. (31)
siento ʤɤξͽϡ¸βημ˰֤Ť櫓ǤϤʤ㦤ΩĤ⤦1ĤβηϤ˰֤Ť졤ξηϤüԤǶ¸ƤΤǤϤȤǤ롥ĿͤˤʣβηϤζ¸ϡѸΤ⤿餹ۼʲ뤿˻ФͤǤϤʤ̾ȯäβηϤȤ䤭βηϤϰۤʤ뤷βηϤȤۤʤȤä褦ˡ͡ʼǸ븽ݤȤΤFries and Pike μĥǤ롥
Ǥϡդ˸ȡʬۤܺ٤Ĵ٤뤳ȤˤäơŪʲηϤ礿벻ηϤ̤ǤȤȤǤСԤħŤƤȹͤѸäŪƱǤȤȤˤʤΤñ˹ԤʤεǤҤ٤褦ˡ˲ꤷξηϤʬȤȤϤޤdzΨǤꡤʬۤܤĴ٤ȤΤϤǤˤʤsiento ѸǤȤȤ̤ξڵˤʬäƤ뤬椨˲ȤǤȤ𤬤ΤǤꡤդäѤ鶦ŪʴѻȤˡ줬ѸǤ˰㤤ʤƤϤϤ褦
Fries and Pike ϡʲηȤƤǤϤʤȤƤ롥
In a purely descriptive analysis of the dialect of a monolingual speaker there are no loans discoverable or describable. An element can be proved to be a loan word only when two dialects are compared. The description of a word as a loan is a mixture of approaches: the mixing of purely descriptive analysis with dialect study, comparative work, or historical study. Dialect mixture cannot be studied or legitimately affirmed to exist unless two systems have previously been studied separately. It follows that in a purely descriptive analysis of one particular language as spoken by a bilingual, no loans are discoverable. (31)
̤ˡѸϼ¦θβ˵ۼ䤹뤤ϡϸθβݻȤƤ⡤֤ȤȤ nativise 䤹ϤޤθβΤΤ¦θƳ졤˴Ťƺ줿ο줬Ѹȶ̤ǤʤʤȤ⤢롥
εȹ碌ơȤơɸ䤤Ф No ȸ虜ʤ
Fries, Charles C. and Kenneth L. Pike. "Coexistent Phonemic Systems." Language 25 (1949): 29--50.
2֤εֵǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ȡǽôȸѲ ([2011-08-11-1]) ǡSchendl 礤˽Фʤ顤ǽ (functionalism) Ĵǽ (systemic regulation) (therapeutic power) ǽô (functional load) ʤɤѸѤƤ˴ϢƼΤ褦ʼ䤬줿
Schendl (69)ΰѤˤĤƤҤȤļƤ
'therapeutic changes in one part of the grammar may create imbalance in another part'
ȤޤɤΤ褦㤬Τפ⤫ӤޤϤΤƤޤԶѹդȤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤȤƤⵤˤʤޤΤǸꤤޤ
Schendl ƱǶŪƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɼԤȤƤϳͤƤߤ뤷ʤ㤨вˤѲ¾㤨зˤ̤θѲϢŪ˰Ȥ褦ϱѸˤǤ¿뤬Ūˡ뼣Ū (therapeutic) Ѳ̤ΤȤǤ°Ȥʤ褦 (pathogenic) ѲϢȤΤϤäȡΤ˹ͤ줿
ʤ㤬פ⤫ФʤΤȹͤƤߤȡ"therapeutic" ȤѸ줬Ū˲ؤҴŪ˷Ȥطʤ뤫ǤϤʤȻפä̤ѸǤϡּפܻؤǽɸϡ֤ηϤˤơפȤϤʤ֤ؤΤǽΩΩäŪȤƤϡȤ "a symmetrical, balanced, simple, economical system" ظƤȤߤʤȤǤʤηƻ Schendl ˸ˡηϤʣβηϤʣȤ߹碌ˤäͭΤǤꡤΰѲ벼ηϤδ鸫 therapeutic ȤƤ⡤̤βηϤδ鸫 pathogenic Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ǤϡηΤδ餹ȡθѲϤɤ therapeutic ʤΤ뤤 pathogenic ʤΤꤹ뤳Ȥ
ȤƻפĤΤϡεǤ夲 /θ/ /ð/ Ωȯ̤θ /ð/ Dz (phonemicisation) ȤѲǤ롥űѸǤ,
[θ] [ð] 1Ĥβ (phoneme) 2Ĥΰ۲ (allomorphs) Ȥ֤Ťˤʤä˼ȤƵǽˤͭ [ð] Ԥʤ褦ˤʤ (ex. that, the, then, there, they, thou, though, with; cf. verners_law) thy vs. thigh Τ褦Ǿ (minimal pair) /θ/ /ð/ ̡βǤؤʬƤä
/ð/ βDzưŤǽŪʴȡҤ٤褦˼Τ褦ˤʤ롥Ѹ˳ (obstruent) Ǥ̵ͭΩ礭ʵǽô̤ôäƤꡤǤΩηǡ˳о»ʤ°פȹͤ롥/θ/ /ð/ βDzϤоǺѤ°ּפƤȲᤵ롥ºݤˤ thy vs. thigh κǾФϾʤΤǡ̵ͭΩϤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ /θ/ /ð/ βŪΩƤΤϡѸ첻ΤȤ̵ͭȤΩˤƵǽŪǤ롥ʾȤСεϤޤ therapeutic ʹͤɽƤȸ
ƱѲ (graphemics) Ω줫鸫ȡषηŪоƤȤͤ롥ˤơ1Ǥ1ʸбƤΤǤоŪǡѹդƤꡤñǡкŪǤ뤳ȤϵƤʤѸϤ˰̾⤤ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ơоŪǡѹդƤꡤñǡкŪʲǤȽǤδطɵ᤹褦ʸѲȤСϽδ therapeutic ѲȤȤǤȤҤ /ð/ βDz˹碌ƽηϤƱͤѲ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡ̤Ȥ <th> ȤŻ (digraph) ɽ蘆1ĤνǤ2Ĥΰۤʤ벻Ǥб뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäϡΩ줫餹ȡtherapeutic ǤϤʤष pathogenic Ѳȸ롥
ޤȤȡ/ð/ βDzȤѲϡδ therapeutic Ѳäδ pathogenic ѲäȤȤˤʤ롥Ǥϡ䤽¾٤ƹͤ碌ơѸȤηΤؤαƶȤǸȡѲϤϤƥץ饹äΤޥʥäΤƶμ̤ҴŪ˷¬뤳ȤΤǡȽǤϤܤĤʤȤˤʤʤΰ̣Ǥϡǽô̤ȤϱƶҴŪ˷¬褦ȤĤߤθǤꡤˡ1ĤʤΤ⤷ʤˡ
ˤơäơּפȤäơ¡פȤ뤫Ϥ褯狼ʤưʪξǤ顤Ʒڤ¤ͽɡ̤ͽܼιͤ롥ʤߤˡѤƤ pathogenic ȯ¤ˤȤƻ therapeutic еȤƺصŪѤޤǤǡѸȤ夷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ
Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.
[2010-05-05-1], [2010-05-06-1]ǥե٥åȤ <u> <v> ˤĤƽҤ٤ϱѸǺǤ֤ξʤ¸ߴʸ <z> ˤ롥
<z> ٤ʸǤ뤳Ȥϡ[2010-03-01-1]Ƿڤ줿BNC Word Frequency Lists lemma.num ˤ6318ñꥹȤ <z> ޤñȴФƤߤȡʲ36ΤߤǤ롥ʸΥޥʡ褯狼롥ʽɽϤΥڡHTMLȡ
size, organization, recognize, realize, magazine, citizen, prize, organize, zone, seize, gaze, freeze, emphasize, squeeze, gaze, amazing, crazy, criticize, horizon, hazard, breeze, characterize, ozone, horizontal, enzyme, bronze, jazz, bizarre, frozen, organizational, citizenship, dozen, privatization, puzzle, civilization, lazy
<z> ĸΤǺѤ size Ǥ716̤Ȥ㤵ǡ1000̰äƤΤϤθǤ롥ƮƤΤ<z> ĤäƤ jazz puzzle Ǥ롥
<z> ʬۤˤĤƵŤȤϡꥷͳμѸ줬¿ȡ-ize / -ization(al) Ĥ뤳 ([2010-02-26-1], [2010-03-07-1]) ñ˸뤳Ȥ<z> Ѹ졤ä˥ꥷ줫μѸȴϢŤƤȤȤϡʸθǤ learned ʥ۵롥<z> ΤĶ꤬䡤ޤ٤㤵ȤطƤǡνɽˤϿ㤷Ƥʤñ <z> 褯и뤳Ȥ craze, daze, laze, maze, doze, assize, freeze, wheeze ʤɤڤ롥֤ɽ줬¿褦Ǥ롥
<z> ϸűѸˤ⤢ˤϤäElizabeth ʤɤθͭ̾ʤɤ˸¤졤ϤޥʡäűѸǤ /z/ ϲǤȤƤ¸ߤƤ/s/ ΰ۲Ȥ¸ߤƤ˲ʤΤǡбʸ <z> ѤɬפʤäȤȤͳΰĤǤ롥Ѹˤʤ <z> ¿Ѥե줫̤μѸ줬ήˤĤ <z> Ѥ뵡<v> ξȰۤʤꡤۤɰ̲ʤäǤ price prize ʤɤ minimal pair ֻǤ̤Ǥ褦ˤʤäΤϡ<z> ξʹΤ褦ϤޤǡǤ <s> /s/ /z/ ξɽʸȤƳƤꡤ㤨̾ȤƤ house ưȤƤ house ֻ̤Ĥ뤳ȤǤʤʤɤȤؤˤ⤫餺<z> ФФ뤳ȤϤʤ<z> Կ͵ϡShakespeare ǤڤƤ ( Scragg, p. 8 )
Thou whoreson zed! thou unnecessary letter! ( Shakespeare, King Lear, Act II, Scene 2 )
Shakespeare Ʊֻͤ˴ؿ Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) ϡ<z> Կ͵ϻΤˤȤˤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Z, is a consonant much heard amongst vs, and seldom sene. I think by reason it is not so redie to the pen as s, is, which is becom lieutenant generall to z, as gase, amase, rasur, where z, is heard, but s, sene. It is not lightlie expressed in English, sauing in foren enfranchisments, as azur, treasur. ( The First Part of the Elementarie, p. 123 )
Ѹˤ̤ơ<z> ӸӤȤϤʤ¸߰յǤʤ顤֤Ȥե٥åȤæĤäƤΤꥷѸ졤ä -ize / -izationư찮ñȤ¤줿ꥢ˻ٻפľޤΤ褦¸ߴ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
Mulcaster, Richard. The First Part of the Elementarie. Menston: Scolar Reprint 219, 1582. (downloadable here from OTA)
ε[2010-05-05-1]³<u> <v> ʬꡥϡѸűѸˤޤ̤롥
ޤŦ٤ȤȤơűѸǤ <v> ȤʸѤʤäȤΤϡűѸǤ /v/ ( phoneme ) ȤƳΩƤޤDz /f/ ͭ۲ ( allophone ) ȤƤΤ¸ߤǤ롥alphabet ϸ§ȤƲǤбʸǤ뤫顤/v/ ȤǤʤʾ塤бʸäɬפǤϤʤ㤨СűѸ ofer "over" ȤǤϡҲ [v] ɽΤ <f> Ѥ줿ͭ˶ޤ줿ҲϼưŪͭΤűѸβ§ʤΤǡ<f> ֤ä [f] ʤΤ [v] ʤΤȤ¤ʤǤϼưŪ [v] βȤʤ롥Τ褦˵§äꤷƤΤǡ<f> ȤʸѤ롥;ʬʸߤʤȤ̣ǡǤ롥ʸѸ of of course <f> ȯӡ
ȤѸλѤäƤ롥ޤǤ /f/ ȤǤΰ۲Ȥ¸ߤƤԤ [v] ΩƼʬ¸ߤԡ뤷Ϥ /v/ ȤΩϰ̤ΤǤ롥طʤˤϡѸΥեήäեǤ /f/ /v/ Ϥ줾ΩǤȤΩƤꡤ㤨 fine vine ĤΰۤʤäΤ褦˲ǤΩڤñڥ minimal pair ȸƤ֡űѸǤϤΤ褦 /f/ /v/ minimal pair ¸ߤʤäѸǤϥե <v> ĸ¿ѤȤǡ /f/ /v/ Ω褦 minimal pair ޤ줿ƱѸ /v/ Dz ( phonemicisation ) ȡ˱ <v> ȤʸΩⴶ褦ˤʤäDzǤȤʸɬǤȤˡ̤ <v> ޤեѸ줬ŪäƤȤǡ<v> ʸȤƤ¸ߴϽʬ˴Ƥ
ѸǤϸűѸ줫ѤƤ <u> ȥեäƿȤϤ줿 <v> ¤ΩĤȤˤʤä餫֤ñǤϤʤäűѸǤ <u> ϸ§ȤƤäѤ첻ȤƻȤƤꡤϤʬۤä⤷˼줿 <v> /v/ бҲȤƳΩƤСΤ褦 <u> 첻<v> ϻҲȤ褦ʬۤƤȤ<v> ϱѸؼ줿餫첻Ȥ <u> ȤƤȤ줿ΤǤ롥ϡȤΥեǤäǤ⤢뤷˸ХƥǤ⤽äǤ롥ƥǤ <v> β첻 [u] ޤϻҲ [w] ǤʻҲȤƤϸ [v] ѲˡĤʸȤưƤӤʤۤɤˤβ϶ᤫäΤǤ롥
ơűѸǤ¸ߤ餷ʤä <u> <v> ʬ꤬Ѹ˥եֻʤäȤǿƤޤä줬褵Τ17ʹߤԤʤФʤʤäȤϡꥹʹߤʤ餯եαƶȴʤäȤƻפ碌롥
<u> <v> ˤĤơޤ phonemicisation ˤĤƤ Smith (79-82) ȡ
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
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