ε#5772. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˰̣ˤʬϲǽ ([2025-02-14-1]) ǡ1Ĥδ̩ŬѤʻˤĤƹͤϤ³ؿѸؼŵ٤ parts of speech ι˰͵ʤ顤ϵǽΤߤ˴Ťʻʬͼ¸Ƥߤ褦
(3) ǽˤʻʬ. Fries (1952, ch. 6) ʻ̩˵ǽˤʬह٤ǤȼĥȼʻʬƤΰ֡εǽϤˤơƱΰ֤ˤĤθˤޤȤThe concert was good (always). / The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly). / The team went there. 3ɽŪʸ (test frame) ȯȤơʸˡ¤ѤˡʸΤɤθΰ֤ˤ뤫ˤäơ4 (CLASS WORD) --- ۤƸ (CONTENT WORD) Ʊ --- ꤷʻȤ
(class 1 word): concert, clerk, tax, team ΰ֤ˤ
(class 2 word): was, remembered, went ΰ֤ˤ
軰 (class 3 word): good ΰ֤ˤ
(class 4 word): always, suddenly, there ΰ֤ˤ
ʳϵǽ (FUNCTION WORD) Ȥ A O ޤ15η (group) ʬդ٤ϡThe poorest are always with us. poorest ϡη֤ɤǤȤΰ֤Ȥ뤷ޤI know the poorest man. poorest ϡ軰ȤΤǤ롥ˡa boy friend a good friend boy good Ʊ軰Τ餫Ǥ롥ä a cannon ball cannon ̾Ǥ뤫ƻǤ뤫εƤʤ̤ξ cannon 軰Ȥʤ롥͡ʬˤСĤθ줬ĤʻʤʤΤʤĤΤȤˤʤꡤĶˤɤʸ줬뤫ȡ̾Ȥ̾ȤǤʤ1줺ĸ줦뤹٤ƤθʤФʤʤΤ褦ʬˡθ̩˲ͤϤ뤬ʸˡηΤȤƤ;̣Τʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ޤɤʬȻפֵǽפȤϡŪǽפΤȤǤ롥ΤˤϤŪ˰ӤƤ롥Ѥˤ϶Ť餤ؿѸؼŵ٤εҤˤϡʻʬϼˤꡤȤ뤳ȤǧǤ롥ϽפȻפ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
will be doing ηɽ蘆̤ʹԷ (future progressive) ˡˤĤơǤ̤λȤϡ̤ΤˤƿʹνɽȤΤǤ롥߿ʹԷλǤꡤʹԷλǤΤȤޤäʿŪˡ̤ξѤΤ̤ʹԷȤȤWe'll be waiting for you at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning. When you reach the end of the bridge, I'll be waiting there to show you the way. Τ褦ʸǤ롥ˡ礭褷ʤ
̤ʹԷΤ⤦1ĤˡϡŪñ̤ʡԤ̤סˤˡǤ롥ñ̤ will do η̤ˤäƤɽǤ뤬Ȱջ̤ɤߤȶ̤ĤʤʤȤ롥㤨 I'll talk to him soon. ǤϡüԤΰջ֤ΤäֶᤤäĤפΰ̣ñʤԤΡֶᤤä뤳Ȥˤʤפۤɤΰ̣ʸ̮λ٤ʤ¤ξŪȤʤ롥Τ褦ʾ I'll be talking to him soon. ̤ʹԷˤ뤳ȤˤꡤԤɤߤŪ˼ȤǤ롥
Ʊͤ Will you come to the party tonight? ϡ֤ʤեѡƥʤפȤͶΰ̣ʤΤ֤ʤեѡƥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤ͡פۤɤνʵ䤢뤤ϳǧΰ̣ʤΤξŪȤʤꤦ롥Ԥΰ̣Ūɽ路ˤϡWill you be coming to the party tonight? Ѥ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ūˤ will do ̤ɽϡ˾ջ֤ɽ路ư줬ΰ̣ɺ (bleaching) ɽ魯νưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ΤȤcf. #2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1])#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])ˡνư will ȤƤäñ̤פɺ櫓ǤϤʤٻĤְջ̤פʿԤƹԤʤƤ롥ʸˡˤФز (layering) λǤ롥زη̡ξŪȤʤäƤޤä櫓ʤΤǡΰ̣Ƥǡ̤ȤʹԷפȤȯãƤ will be doing ηñ̤פΤˤήѤȤȯۤޤ줿ʸˡζͤΤ褦ʤȤäƤ褦Ƕ̣
嵭Τ褦ʻ𤬤뤿ᡤ̾ϸߡʹԷȤʤư줬̤ʹԷȤƤѤǽФƤ롥He'll be owning his own house next year. Τ褦ʸȡ
ʾ塤Ȥ Quirk et al. (4.46) ȤƼɮʤ̤ʹԷȯã19ʹߤŪݤǤ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
첻ŪħȤƲѤƤȤѸˤ֤ȡΤ褦ʷѻ롥űѸǤϼȤƲ̤κĹûˤѤ졤ѸʹߤǤϼȤƲκʶĥдˡˤѤ褦ˤʤäȤѲ (67) ϡˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
θϱѸΥꥺ¤˵Τȹͤ롥ĤޤꡤꥺפȤѸϡƱӤۤƱ٤Ĺˤɬפ뤿ᡤĹꥺĴȤƽפ̤Τ첻ŪħϲʶĥдˡˤĹϥꥺĴΤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥
Ѹˤˤơ̤κȲκϡۤʤŪѤ褦ѲƤȤǤ롥ʲ˴ѡΧ˴ѤǤꡤŪ (typology) Ω줫鸡ڲǽʲǤ⤢롥ޤդߤСꥺǤϤʤʤ뤤ϥ⡼ꥺפȤܸΤ褦ʸǤϡΤ褦ʲ̤ȲȯŸ˴ؤ뷹ϤۤɸФʤȤȤͽ¬롥Ѹβ˵Ҥ˱ƶڤܤǤ뤳ȤϤѸζŪʲεҤȯɽʤɤˤϢǡɷŪʵϢơ#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1]) ⻲ȡ
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
Aitchison (175--76) ߤ뼫ǽ (systemic_regulation) 夲ĤġˡüԤդȤƤ롥ξǡȤβλˤ3ब̤ȽҤ١⤷Ƥ롥
[L]anguage has a remarkable instinct for self-preservation. It contains inbuilt self-regulating devices which restore broken patterns and prevent disintegration. More accurately, of course, it is the speakers of the language who perform these adjustments in response to some innate need to structure the information they have to remember.
In a sense, language can be regarded as a garden, and its speakers as gardeners who keep the garden in a good state. How do they do this? There are at least three possible versions of this garden metaphor---a strong version, a medium version, and a weak version.
In the strong version, the gardeners tackle problems before they arise. They are so knowledgeable about potential problems that they are able to forestall them. They might, for example, put weedkiller on the grass before any weeds spring up and spoil the beauty of the lawn. In other words, they practice prophylaxis.
In the medium version, the gardeners nip problems in the bud, as it were. They wait until they occur, but then deal with them before they get out of hand like the Little Prince in Saint-Exupéry's fairy story, who goes round his small planet every morning rooting out baobab trees when they are still seedlings, before they can do any real damage.
In the weak version of the garden metaphor, the gardener acts only when disaster has struck, when the garden is in danger of becoming a jungle, like the lazy man, mentioned by the Little Prince, who failed to root out three baobabs when they were still a manageable size, and faced a disaster on his planet.
³ʸ̮ Aitchison ϡȤڵϸĤäƤʤȤ⤭ºݤ˼ϡ֤Υȼ夤2ĤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤդϡװͽɤˤޤǤϴؤʤβ꤬ŦǤȤȤϤ뤷뤤ޤɤޤ줿缣ŤܤȤȤ⤹롥üԡʤƸˤϡͽɰؤǤϤʤоˡȤդǤ롤ȤƤ褤⤷ʤ
ѲΡͽɡפȡּšפȤˤĤƤϡ#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1])#546. ѲϸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤޤʤ ([2010-10-25-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1])#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
Ʊ۵ (homonymy)¿ (polysemy)Ʊ۵ (homonymic_clash) δطˤĤơ#286. homonymy, homophony, homography, polysemy ([2010-02-07-1])#815. polysemic clash? ([2011-07-21-1])#1801. homonymy polysemy ζ ([2014-04-02-1])#2823. homonymy polysemy ζ (2) ([2017-01-18-1]) ʤɤεǸƤȤ櫓Ʊ۵ͤ褦ȤüԤθưѲװǤȤĥˤĤơŪΩ줫ȿϾʤʤȤ˿줿㤨С#714. ѲˤƱ۵ɤɾ뤫 ([2011-04-11-1])#717. Ʊ۵˴ؤ ([2011-04-14-1])#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ȡˡ
Ʊ۵ͤβˤʤΤϡۤȤɤξ硤ñ٥롤ȤƸ٥Ǥ롥ǽǤȤ٥ǹͤƤߤȡƱ۵ͤˤĤƿʸǤ褦˻פ롥㤨СѸǷ -s ϡ̾ʣɸΤߤʤ餺̾ʶˤνͭʤɸ뤷ư3ñɸ롥ΰ̣ -s Ϥʸˡǽˤ¿ŪƱ۵ŪȤäƤ褯̣ǾͤäƤȤ櫓褦Ȥ뷹ä˸ʤ褦˻פ롥Hopper and Traugott ε˼褦
. . . grammatical items are characteristically polysemous, and so avoidance of homonymic clash would not be expected to have any systematic effect on the development of grammatical markers, especially in their later stages. This is particularly true of inflections. We need only think of the English -s inflections: nominal plural, third-person-singular verbal marker; or the -d inflections: past tense, past participle. Indeed, it is difficult to predict what grammatical properties will or will not be distinguished in any one language. Although English contrasts he, she, it, Chinese does not. Although OE contrasted past singular and past plural forms of the verb (e.g., he rad 'he rode,', hie ridon 'they rode'), PDE does not except in the verb be, where we find she was/they were. (Hopper and Traugott 103)
ǽǤˤƸȤϰۤʤᥫ˥बѤƤꡤƱ۵ͤФȿۤʤäƤΤȵ뤳ȤϡҤäȤǤ뤫⤷ʤΤ褦ʴƸѲװȤƤƱ۵ͤβȽŪ˹ͻƤߤΤ⤪⤷ʸˡŪ¿Ʊ۵Ȥϱ
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
첻 (gvs) 䥰ˡ§ (grimms_law) ɽ벻ν۴ĥե (circular shift, chain shift) ˤ͡Ū롥Samuels ϡ첻ܤϡϵŪ ("mechanical") ѲȤƻϤޤäʳǵǽŪ ("functional") ʺѤƯƲηϤȤƤΥХ줿ϢβǤȤߤƤ롥ŪѲȤϡŪˤС㡦첻ˤĤƤϡĴ줿ʶĥˤΰ۲줿ȤȤǤꡤ첻ˤĤƤϡ줿дˤ2첻Ūʰ۲줿ȤȤǤ롥ơ첻ϡϤΤ褦˵Ū۲餯ΩƺΤäʳˤʤäơηϤΰݻ褦Ȥ뵡ǽŪʰϤ˲ƺǽŪʬۤȤͤ
Circular shifts of vowels are thus detailed examples of homeostatic regulation. The earliest changes are mechanical . . . ; the later changes are functional, and are brought about by the favouring of those variants that will redress the imbalance caused by the mechanical changes. In this respect circular shift differs considerably from merger and split. Merger is redressed by split only in the most general and approximate fashion, since the original functional yields are not preserved; but in circular shift, the combination of functional and mechanical factors ensures that adequate distinctions are maintained. To that extent at least, the phonological system possesses some degree of autonomy. (Samuels 42)
Samuels εαǤ롥۴ĥեȤǽŪΩ줫鲻Ǥʬȵۼ (split and merger) βȤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤäƤ뤫Ŧʤ顤Ԥ벻ηϤμΧǫƤ롥Τ褦 Samuels Ω줬ǽŪФäƤȤθˤʤӤ䤹ΤäϤޤǵŪװǤ Samuels ƤõƤϢơ#2585. ѲưΤϷǽ ([2016-05-25-1]) ȡ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
#2585. ѲưΤϷǽפ˰³ˤĤƤ Samuels ιͤꤿSamuels (38) ϡѲθ˴ؤơεǽŪΩѲƳƤΤ뤤ĴηŪʵŪˤװѲưƤΤ䤤ʤ顤Τ褦ʸƤ롥
. . . provided the potentiality for contrast exists, it is likely to be realised sooner or later, though the accident may be only one of many that could have given the same result; and the greater the potentiality for contrast, the sooner it is likely to be realised, i.e. the more inevitable and less accidental the phonemicisation actually is.
ǤϡǽŪװѲŪȤơŪװѲμºŪʰȤƲƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ԤѲװ뤤Ϥäȼ夯СѲǤꡤԤѲ¸뤭äǤ롥Ԥ϶ȯŪ (accident) ˤʤȸڤƤ뤬ȤäơSamuels Ԥ٤ܼŪ˽פǤʤȤϹͤƤʤεdzǧ褦ˡSamuels ϷŪװΤۤǽŪװܼŪǤȤפǤȤ뤤ϤεդǤȤΤ褦ʥץꥪϴӤƤ뤫Ѳˤξ¦̤ꤵ٤ǤꡤȰξʤѲʤȤȤϸޤǤʤ¦̤פ䤦Τϥʥ
褦ʵȤơŪװȳŪװϤ줬פȤӤ褬롥#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) Ǽ夲 Aitchison ڤơѲϳݤڤȤʤСϷಽ뤤϶ȼäڤۤʤ٥ǤȤѲθ줬ܼŪǽפװ䤦ΤϥʥǤ롥ѲθǤϡ multiple causation of language change Ȥ٤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡۤˤʲεȤ줿
#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1173. Ѳɬȶ ([2012-07-13-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1])
#2151. Ѳθ3ء ([2015-03-18-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])
#2012. ѲȤ٤̸§7 ([2014-10-30-1])
#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1])
#1993. Hickey ˤ쳰Ūװؤο ([2014-10-11-1])
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ɸˤĤƤϡ#1577. ѲηŪȵǽŪ ([2013-08-21-1]) ǵѲѰ۷ȤȡϷŪʵŪˤ˶ưƤΤ뤤ϵǽŪ˶ưƤΤκŪˤĤơSamuels (28--29) Τ褦˹ͻƤ롥ĹεβսѤ롥
Does it [=the process of selection] involve merely fitting a ready-made stretch of the inherited spoken chain, recalled from memory, to a given situation? If so, the mechanical factors in change would appear more important. Or is there fresh selection of each functional element in the utterance? In that case, the functional factor would outweigh the mechanical. These are questions for which the psycholinguist has not yet provided an answer, and perhaps no answer is possible. From a subjective viewpoint, it might be surmised that, since many tactless or otherwise inapposite utterances turn out, in retrospect, to have been uses of previously learnt stretches of the spoken chain that simply did not fit the situation, our overall use of the 'form-directed' spoken chain is greater than we might think, and in any event greater than the conventionalities of cliché and phatic communion to which it is often restricted. Information theory has shown that all common collocations, being predictable, are more easily understood than rare collocations; and since the same presumably applies to the speaker's selection of them from the memory-store, their use is but another demonstration of the principle of least effort. On the other hand, a brain that is alerted to the danger of inapposite utterance will presumably 'check' the functional value of the units it selects. It depends, therefore, on the degree of alertness, whether an utterance is to be called as 'form-directed' or 'function-directed'; naturally there are borderline cases, but it is probably wrong to assume that utterance normally results from a conflict, within the brain, between the need for intelligibility and the tendency to rely on stretches of actual or embryo cliché. In the genesis of a single utterance, one or other factor will have the upper hand (which one depends on the speakers and the situation); but there is no way of gauging from individual utterances the relative importance of each factor for the processes of change. But although the two factors cannot be separated at the level of idiolect, it is reasonable to suppose that the total utterances of a community will fall mainly into one or the other of the two types --- 'form-directed' and 'function-directed'. Both types belong to the same language, and neither (except in extreme cases of cliché or innovation) is overtly distinguishable; they are interdependent and interact, and neither would exist or be understood without the other. It follows that, for the study of change, both types must in the first instance be accorded equal consideration . . . .
Samuels ϡȵǽˤưξ˻ĤĸѲͻϤ뤳Ȥפ⤯ġθѲǤϡ̤Ȥơ줬ͥǤ뤫ʬΤ⤷ʤǽ餫餤줫нŤΥХäƤϤʤȤȤȤ Samuels ʤεˤ functionalist ȤȽƤSamuels ȤϤΰѤκǸ夫餫ʤ褦ˡȵǽξΤǥХȤƤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ǯθѲθǤϡѲβָ (invisible_hand) θˤ褦Ȥ Keller λߤΤ褦ˤʤäƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤#8. ̽ڤȸѲ ([2009-05-07-1])#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1]) ʤɤεǰäƤ
Keller (123) Ƥ "invisible-hand explanation" ˡ徯äΤ˷Ǻܤ褦
(micro level) (macro level)
intentional causal
actions consequence
invisible-
hand explanandum
process
ecological conditions
An invisible-hand explanation consists --- ideally --- of three levels:
(a) The depiction of the personal motives, intentions, goals, convictions, and so forth, which form the basis of the individual actions: the nature of the speaker's language and the world he lives in, as far as they are relevant for the speaker's choice of action and his choice of linguistic means.
(b) The depiction of the process that explains the generation of structure by the multitude of individual actions. This process is called the invisible-hand process.
(c) The depiction of the generated structure.
Ρָפˤϡ#2531. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" ([2016-04-01-1]) ȡ#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1]) ˤ spaghetti_junction ȤطꤽǤ롥
Keller, Rudi. "Invisible-Hand Theory and Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 113--27.
ε#2445. ܥˤ̵ռ ([2016-01-06-1]) ǰѤˤ Franz Boaz ˴ؤϤκǸ (p. 98) ˡĹ餯ԻĤ˻פäƤؤθڤä
¿θ줬ñǼƤۤʣǤΤŪʶ̤ƤʤΤϤʤȤʤΤȤƥܥϰѤƤ롥֥ (Viggo Bröndal) ϡŪγѤʣ뤿μʤŪ˹֤Ƥ뷹뤳ȤŦФʬΰĤƤ˴ؤʣǤ¾Ƥ˴ؤƤŪñǤ롥Ρˡ§פˤäơñⴰꤵƤʣϡŪɽäƤ롥
ѸˤǤСϤĤηǸ롥űѸˤơ̾ƻʤˤϡʣñΤۤ¿ʣǤ롥3;̾Ǥ⡤ñǤ hē (he), hēo (she), hit (it) ˱3ΰۤʤ촴̤뤬ʣǤζ̤¤ hīe (they) Τߤȴά롥ưο;θ⡤ñǤϿ;Τˤۤʤ֤Τ̤ʣǤϿ;Τˤ餺1Ĥη֤뤳Ȥ¿ĤޤꡤʸˡƤιΤͭɸʤΤ˴ؤƤϡ餯̣ǽʣǤ뤤ȤơбŪñʤΤޤ롤ȤȤ
ͤƤߤСϸ줬ǽŪηϤǤ뤳ȤȤΤȤ⤷ʤͭɸǤʣηϤϡѼԤôꤹ¸³ΤϤˡ§פϡ١;ѤȤäǽŪʽǰȤط (see #1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1]))
äȤ⡤Ρˡ§פϰŪ˴ѻ뷹Ȥ٤ΤǤꡤ̸ŪˤȿϾʤ餺դ̻ŪѲʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ظؼ?ػˤäŷ͡ۺͤμ?١īǼҡ2010ǯ
ָηϤǤפȤ⤤ϡ塼Ρʹ¤˸ؤˤơŪʥơǤ롥θɽ⤦1ĤλȤơMeillet "tout se tient" 롥Meillet (16) ꡤսѤ褦
[La réalité d'une langue] est linguistique : car une langue constitue un système complexe de moyens d'expression, système où tout se tient et où une innovation individuelle ne peut que difficilement trouver place si, provenant d'un pur caprice, elle n'est pas exactement adaptée à ce système, c'est-à-dire si elle n'est pas en harmonie avec les règles générales de la langue.
"tout se tient" ϡ#1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1])#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1]) Ǥ礤˽Фβ Jeremy J. Smith Ǹˤ롥ϡѲˤηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȤݤˡĤ⤳ "tout se tient" Ф (cf. #1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1])) Meillet (11) Ȥ⡤ΰѤΩIJսǡѲ˴ؤƼΤ褦ʼĥҤ٤Ƥ롥
Les changements linguistiques ne prennent leur sens que si l'on considère tout l'ensemble du développement dont ils font partie ; un même changement a une signification absolument différente suivant le procès dont il relève, et il n'est jamais légitime d'essayer d'expliquer un détail en dehors de la considération du système général de la langue où il appraît.
"tout se tient" ϡΤ˹¤ؤˤ롤ƤθѲˤ1ĤλǤϤ뤬Meillet ̾ʼҲؼԤȤƤΤƤ¤˾Ȥ餷Ƥΰ⤤ľƤߤȡۤʤ롥ȤΤϡΰʸϡäѤ줬ηϤǤȤȤ⤹ʸ̮˸ƤΤǤϤʤƱ˼ҲŪǤ⤢Ȥˤ2Ĥζ¸ĥʸ̮ˤƸƤ뤫Ĥޤꡤ"tout se tient" ϰ츫ȥι¤Ūʰ⤤¤ Meillet ϼҲŪ¦̤˰ռʤ顤ζˤƤΤǤ롥
Ǥϡ"tout se tient" ȽҤ٤ Meillet ϡѲˤȼҲѲˤδطɤΤ褦ˤߤƤΤεǰ
Meillet, Antoine. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1982.
ε ([2015-03-21-1]) ǥꥦˤ#2154. Ѳͽ¬ԲǽפΩ2ε ([2015-03-19-1], [2015-03-20-1]) Lass ˤ볰Ŭ夲Ƥ줾ΩΤ褦˻פ뤬Ŭ¾θѲƱͤˤΤȤǤǤդβˤʤ Lass Ҥ٤Ȥ2Ĥ꤬Ĥʤä褦˻פѲǤդǤ꼫ͳǤȤˤĤơꥦ Lass Ωϻ̤äƤ롥
Lass (98) ϡŬˤĤƸƤʸ "The joys of idleness" ̵٤δӡˤꤹǽˤơ"historical junk" ŪʤˤФиѲξ뤳Ȥ˿ĤġۤȤΩʤ褦ˤߤबѲˤȤäƽפǤȤʤꤦ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
. . . useless or idle structure has the fullest freedom to change, because alteration in it has a minimal effect on the useful stuff. ('Junk' DNA may be a prime example.) Major innovations often begin not in the front line, but where their substrates are doing little if any work. (They also often do not, but this is simply a fact about non-deterministic open systems.) Historical junk, in any case, may be one of the significant back doors through which structural change gets into systems, by the re-employment for new purposes of idle material.
Crucially, however, mere 'uselessness' is not itself either a determinate precursor of exaptive change, or - conversely - a precursor of loss. Historical relics can persist, even through long periods of apparently senseless variation, and it is impossible to predict, solely on the basis of such idleness or inutility, that ANYTHING at all will happen.
ʤۤɡǽ㤱㤤ۤɳŬ뤿ξ郎ΤǤ뤫顤"conceptual novelty" ޤ䤹ȤȤˤʤʤɬޤȤϸ¤ʤˡΰ⤤ˤϰ츫ȵŪʶ褦˻פ뤬ޤǤ#836. ǽôȸѲ ([2011-08-11-1]) ʤɤƤȤǤϤ롥ηϤȤƤθȤ餤СΩεǽô (functional_load) ʤоʤۤɡʤƤ褤ΩȤȤˤʤꡤäƾüʤꡤ̵٤¸ߤ³ʤꡤ̤εǽ˼äʤꤹ뤳Ȥ䤹̤θСηȿΤʤ˶ǤȤ߹ޤƤ餺դդ餷ƤǤۤɡѲηˤʤ䤹ȤȤ#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) #1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) Ǹ褦ˡѲηϤμˤ䤹Ȥ⡤̵٤δӡפȴط
¤ؤʤ餺ȤҲؤδ⡤ƱȤsocial_network ˤС夤嫤ǷФƤ (weakly_tied) Ŀ͡ηȿΤʤ˶ǤȤ߹ޤƤ餺դդ餷ƤװѲοޤˤʤ䤹Ȥ (cf. #882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ס ([2012-07-19-1]))
Ҥ̵Ѥѡפ⤤ϡηȿ˴ؤ뤢ѲƤϤޤΤ⤷ʤ
Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.
#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸˤƤפѲϤֵǽƤȯפȤª뤳ȤǤ뤬ϡֵǽ¤γŬפȴ뤳ȤǤ롥űѸ衤οȼäƸ¤ (Lexical Projection) ǽ¤ (Functional Projection) ؤȺʬϤˤƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ǽƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ؤȳŬƤäȤΤ
ʸˡεǤϡʪʲʬŪѤ볰Ŭ (exaptation) ȤǰѤ褦ˤʤäƤݺ (151) Τ狼䤹
ŬȤϡȤСʪʲ¦̤ǤϡȤβݻΤ¸ߤƤӤΩ줬¸Ŭ夲̤ȤʤꡤĻؤοʲĤʤäȤͤǤά͡Lass (1990) ϤγǰѲ˱Ѥư DO ȯãγŬʤȤȻưäΤ̵̣¸ߤȤʤꡤ̤Ӥ˳Ѥ줿ˤƤޤܽǤϡιͤʤᡤ¤ޤŬȼĥȻפޤά͵ǽƤϤȤȰĤ FP (Functional Projection) ȹͤ졤Ŭη̡ޤޤʹ¤ȤƶȤ櫓ǤѸϤ̻ŪѲβǡ̾ưζ֤ξüȶˡ濴ι¤鵡ǽ濴ι¤ؤȰܹԤƤȹͤ졤η̡졤ư졤ư֡λʹԷ¿ͤʬۤȸ櫓Ǥ
Τ褦ʸѲѤϡɭοʲȤͤˤĤʤ롥ҥȤͭθȯȿʲָʲפȸƤ֤ȤС嵭Τ褦ʸѲϡָξʲפȤߤ뤳ȤǤȤĴ碌ʤֿʲפȤߤǸ椬ʤƤ롥
ݺ (158) ϡμȿκѤ˿ʤ顤κǸΤ褦äƤ롥
켫ΤĤƻõѤϡ뼫ȿʼȯŪȤޤˤȸʤȤǽǤȿȤη뾽䥷ޥޤΥ֥ͭ̾ǤʪŪʪŪ¦̤ФǤʤȤСϤĻФԷ֡ʰδֳֻ֤ѡˡݸݡкѥƥҲΩʤɤˤڤӤޤξʲޤˤΰȤƹͤ졤ưŪŬѲᥫ˥ߤ¸ߤȤǤ줳ȤФοʲƳָפȸΤǤϤʤǤ礦ѸˤʸˡθݤϤޤˤιǤꡤѲθ椬ʣηϤʳؤĤμʤˤʤ뤳ȤƤƤΤǤ
Ѳ礭1ĤβǤ롥
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
εǰѤ Luraghi ƱʸǸѲŪ (teleology) ˤĤƤ롥teleology ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤˤƤäƴϢǰˤĤƤɬפ롥
ޤѲ therapy ʼšˤ prophylaxis ͽɡˤȤ롥#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ָѲˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1]) Ǽ夲ˤƤȤƵǽŪʸѲ (functionalism) 롥Kiparsky "language practices therapy rather than prophylaxis" (Luraghi 364) Ȥΰ⤤ĤƤ뤬Lass ʤɤϤɤǤʤȤƤ롥
Ǥϡfunctionalism teleology ƱΤʤΤۤʤΤʤΤˤĤƤ⡤Ȥδ֤ǰոϰפƤʤLass Ʊ뤷Ƥ褦Croft ʤɤҤԤ "functional proper"Ԥ "systemic functional" Ȥƶ̤Ƥ롥"systemic functional" ϸ teleology "functional proper" üԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ؤޤüԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ȤƤ "functional" ȤɽѰۤѲˤĤƤѤ¤ˤơüԤΤǤϤʤ˸ "functionalism" äƤ褤⤷ʤ줬°ؤΤüԤ°ؤΤ̤ƤȤפ
Teleological explanations of language change are sometimes considered the same as functional explanations . . . . Croft . . . distinguishes between 'systemic functional,' that is teleological, explanations, and 'functional proper,' which refer to intentional mechanisms. Keller . . . argues that 'functional' must not be confused with 'teleological,' and should be used in reference to speakers, rather than to language: '[t]he claim that speakers have goals is correct, while the claim that language has a goal is wrong' . . . . Thus, to the extent that individual variants may be said to be functional to the achievement of certain goals, they are more likely to generate language change through invisible hand processes: in this sense, explanations of language change may also be said to be functional. (Luraghi 365--66)
ΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡפʤȤϡָ줬ѲפȡüԤפȤǰ̤ƤȤǤ롥#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡζ̼Τˤ⤢꤬ޤޤƤ뤬ޤüԡʽġˤäƤθǤꡤѲǤ롥üԼΤθѲˤƤ teleology ֤ϤʤȤLuraghi (365) ۩
Croft . . . warns against the 'reification or hypostatization of languages . . . Languages don't change; people change language through their actions.' Indeed, it seems better to avoid assuming any immanent principles inherent in language, which seem to imply that language has an existence outside the speech community. This does not necessarily mean that language change does not proceed in a certain direction. Croft rejects the idea that 'drift,' as defined by Sapir . . ., may exist at all. Similarly, Lass . . . wonders how one can positively demonstrate that the unconscious selection assumed by Sapir on the side of speakers actually exists. From an opposite angle, Andersen . . . writes: 'One of the most remarkable facts about linguistic change is its determinate direction. Changes that we can observe in real time---for instance, as they are attested in the textual record---typically progress consistently in a single direction, sometimes over long periods of time.' Keller . . . suggests that, while no drift in the Sapirian sense can be assumed as 'the reason why a certain event happens,' i.e., it cannot be considered innate in language, invisible hand processes may result in a drift. In other words, the perspective is reversed in Keller's understanding of drift: a drift is not the pre-existing reason which leads the directionality of change, but rather the a posteriori observation of a change brought about by the unconsciously converging activity of speakers who conform to certain principles, such as the principle of economy and so on . . . .
Ϣ drift, functionalism, invisible_hand, unidirectionality γƵ⻲ͤˤ줿
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
4֤εǡưˤʹ꤬äƱ餤뤤Ϥʾ˱ƶϤĤȤƤʡ#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])ޤεǽ˴ؤ뤽¾ε (function_of_language) Ǹ褦ˡʹϸưԲķǤ1ĤǤ뤫顤ͤƤߤΤȤǤ롥 (139) Τ褦ˡθѲθˤơʹˤ줬ɤΤ褦ʹ뤫Ȥ˷ƤפȤϤ褽ǧʤФʤʤ³ơäŪϡ뤿ᡤ뤿Ǥ뤫顤äȤڤʤΤϡäΰտޤȤʹ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡʹ꤬Τʹ褦äȤǤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ʹΤθѲ¸ߤ̵뤵Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѲΤʤˤϡʬ (metanalysis) ˤꤦޤΤ⤢СƱ۵ (homonymic_clash) ⤢뤳ȤϻŦƤ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ǤϡʹδͿ̣Ѳˤ줿ʹδͿϤ褽뤵ƤȤϤ
(118--38) ϡܸΥϹԻҲηϤꤵŪʥϹԻҲʹΰ˵Ƥ롥ΥϹԻҲϡ11 [ɸ] [w] Ѳʡ#1271. ܸಽȤθ ([2012-10-19-1]) ȡˡ㤨СβѲ˽äơ [ɸawa] [ɸiwi]ˤ [ɸowo] ȤʤäΤޤȯã뤲ƤʤСƬ [ɸ] [h] Ȥʤꡤϡ֥ϥסϡ֥ҥסˤϡ֥ۥסʼºݤˡ֥ۥۡפ¤ǡ֥ۥפ⤢ˤȤʤäƤΥϹԻҲμ夵䶯٤ޤҲνƱˤꡤĻŵŪƱ˽ʣ (reduplication) ޤä2ܤΥϹԻҲ褷ߤϡ֥ϥϡס֥ҥҡס֥ۥۡפȤʤäƤ롥ϹԻҲĴϢѲ뤲ƤȤϡľܤˤäˤ˰㤤ʤŪˤŪϹԻҲʹΰŪʼ夵˵ȹͤ롥ʹΰȤʹΩΩäɸǤ롥ҤλҲˤĤ [h] > [ç] ȤѲΤ⡤[h] ʹΰ䶯ȤƤ롥
ܸΥϹԻҲȴϢơѸ [h] Ȥμդβ˴ؤˤʣˡ§ (grimms_law)#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) h γƵ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) ʤɤ꤬ط롥 (132) ܸȱѸˤݤŦƤꡤ<gh> ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ġıѸ light, tight ʤɤ gh ɤޤʤ«ˤʤäƤ뤬 h ϡʹæڥˤ줬ĤäΤǤ뤷rough, tough ʤɤ gh [f] ˤʤäƤΤϡʹΰ [h] [f] ֤줿̤Ǥ롥[ɸ] [f] Ȥΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ܸΤ뿰ಽȵäƤ뤳Ȥܤ
ȤСrough tough [f] ϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) Ǽ褦äΤβѲη ([x] > [xw] > f) ȤƤǤϤʤ[x] 뤤 [h] ʹΰˤʤʤʹΤΡ [f] ǤִȤȤˤʤ롥줬˵äȤ¾ڤ뤳Ȥ
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١ֽ2001ǯ
#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1]) ϡޤϤäƲƤʤѸˤǤ롥QŪˤϡҲŪƶϤΤ London 濴Ȥ륤ѲȯϤȤʤꡤʤɼդŤƤϤѸǤϤषդθबعߤƤȤ㤬¿
ФơMillar Samuels ήεǽŪΩ줫顤"conservative radicalism" ȤͿƤ롥ȤƼ夲ƤѲϡ3;ʣ̾ they ˤűѸ hīe ִȡͤȲꤵƤ롤³ though ˤ þeah ִӻؼ those ˤ tho ִ
The issue with ambiguity between the third person singular and plural forms was also sorted through the borrowing of Northern usage, although on this occasion through what had been an actual Norse borrowing (although it would be very unlikely that southern speakers would have been aware of the new form's provenance --- if they cared): they. Interestingly, the subject form came south earlier than the oblique them and possessive their. Chaucer, for instance, uses the first but not the other two, where he retains native <h> forms. This type of usage represents what I have termed conservative radicalism (Millar 2000; in particular pp. 63--4). Northern forms are employed to sort out issues in more prestigious dialects, but only in 'small homeopathic doses'. The problem (if that is the right word) is that the injection of linguistically radical material into a more conservative framework tends to encourage more radical importations. Thus them and their(s) entered written London dialect (and therefore Standard English) in the generation after Chaucer's death, possibly because hem was too close to him and hare to her. If the 'northern' forms had not been available, everyone would probably have 'soldiered on', however.
Moreover, the borrowing of they meant that the descendant of Old English þeah 'although' was often its homophone. Since both of these are function words, native speakers must have felt uncomfortable with using both, meaning that the northern (in origin Norse) conjunction though was brought into southern systems. This borrowing led to a further ambiguity, since the plural of that in southern England was tho, which was now often homophonous with though. A new plural --- those --- was therefore created. Samuels (1989a) demonstrates these problems can be traced back to northern England and were spread by 'capillary motion' to more southern areas. These changes are part of a much larger set, all of which suggest that northern influence, particularly at a subconscious or covert level, was always present on the edges of more southerly dialects and may have assumed a role as a 'fix' to sort out ambiguity created by change.
Millar Conservative radicalism ̾ΤȤDz⤷ƤηϤ˼ޤƤᥫ˥ϡƵǽŪȤ뤬Υᥫ˥बѤȤơܿ (dialect contact) ȽѰ۷ (variants) ζ¸äȤפǤ롥ܿ (contact) η̤ȤƷ֤Ѱ (variation) εޤ졤ηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ˤꡤ֤Ѥ줿ΤǤ롥ˤϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ѳ3 contact, variation, systemic regulation ФäƤ롥Millar conservative radicalism Ȥͤϡ츫ԲĻĤؤθѲŤȤˡӤŪͿƤ褦˻פ롥
they though Ѳ˴ؤ̤ȤƤϡ#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1]) ȡ#713. "though" "they" Ʊ۵ ([2011-04-10-1]) ȡ
ʤMillar (119--20) ϡ3;νñ̾ she ˤűѸ hēo ִˤ conservative radicalism Ʊ褦ŬѤǤȹͤƤ褦she ˤĤƤϡ#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ ([2011-06-28-1]), #793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])#974. 3;̾μʷ˺Ѥ۲([2011-12-27-1]) ȡ
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
Ѹˤʸˡñ㲽 (simplification) ˤǤȸ뤳Ȥ롥űѸ줫Ѹˤʣʶ (inflection) פʸˡ (grammatical gender) 졤Τ˸줬ñ㲽褦ˤߤ롥ޤפˤĤƤϡ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1]) 2β̤Ƴ
ñ㲽ȤѸϡԥ䥯쥪벽ʸ̮ǤѽФ롥줬ԥ䥯쥪ؿܤƤݤŵŪ˴ѻʸˡѲϡñ㲽ȤħŤ롤ȸ롥
ˤñ㲽ȤǰˤȤ館ˤβäñ㤢뤤ʣȤߤʤˤĤơŪ˹դʤǤ롥áʸˡѤˤäñ㡦ʣδϡʤ⤷ȤƤ˰ۤʤ#293. ٤¬뤫 ([2010-02-14-1]) Ǥ褦ˡˤɤνŤߤͿ٤Ȥ⤢롥ޤǽŪΩ줫顤 functional_load entropy ¬뤳ȤǤȤƤ⡤ϸ; (redundancy) ĤΤǤϤʤäȤ롥ˡñ㲽ȤϸѲħȤ館뤿βʳŪѸǤϤʤѲȷӤĤɾޤѸǤϤʤȤ̤ʤʴϢơ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) ȡˡ
(57) ϡ쥪ˤߤȤ롤̣ΤʤΡñ㲽פˤĤơ3ĤιͤҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
(A) ֺǾסβϡϡڥ륻ˤäƺ줿ڥ륻ϡ쥪ΤʤˡʤˤȤäƤ礫ʤħΤߤʤǾηϤߤ
(B) ֺŬס̡ॹ쥦ǡˤȤäơ֥쥪ˤǤɽϺŬ֤ˤס
(C) Ωסλϥ㡼ɥˤä줿㡼ɥϡ⡼ꥷ㥹ξ硤Ϥ¸ߤƤηϡʥե졤ޥ졤Хȥˤޤ˰ۼǤäˡηϤḺäȹͤ
ϡγǰۣǤȤơñ㲽פȤѸ줽ΤΤ˵褷Ƥ롥ե١Ȥ˥쥪줫ζŪѤѤ褦 (57--58) εϡܼĤƤȻפ
ñ㲽ȤǰΤΤǤϤʤȤХ˥쥪 mon zanfan ̤錄ΤɤͤȤɽϡե mon enfant ñ錄λҡͤ mes enfants ʣ錄λҶͤȤĤη뤳ȤǤ롥ߤơ˥ñʣȤ̤ʤ顤եñȤʤ뤫⤷ʤ̤̤ߤСƱͳ顤쥪ɽϤäȤޤ顤äƤñפǤϤʤȤ⤤ºݡñפȤΰ̣ϡʣŪǤϤʤפȤ⡤ס֤ޤǤʤפȤ⤤ΤǤ롥ˤ褯Ĵ٤ʤС˥ϡϤäꤵɬפȤʣɽ魯ȤǤ뤳Ȥ˵Ĥλˤ mon bane zanfan ʻλҶˤΤ褦ˡbane Ȥʣɽ魯ƻѤơͤ顤쥪ȥեΤϡˤϡäѤäȤФǤ륯쥪줬ƥȤǤ礭ʾƤ뤳Ȥˤ롥ƤФ餯δ֤ɤ٤ꤵˤȤvey mon zanfan! ̤λҤߤƤͤ͡Ȥ褦ΤȤ虜虜ɤ⤬ͤʣϤäꤵɬפϤʤ¾ǡեǤϡʣ᤹ˤϡƤξ硤̾ηŪɸǤϤʤɸˤäƤ롥顤쥪ǽηϤȤΩƤʤʤСƱˡɽˤĤ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥̤βȤФäˤʤ
οˤĤƤεƤȡ˥쥪пäƤ뤫顤եäʣȤȤˤʤ¡˥쥪ǤϡǤĤǰĤˤʤäƤΡܡʤɡˤФ̤Τᤸ뤷롥ֻΡĤΡܡפˤĤƤϡmon bane zyé ȤȤϤǤmon dé zyé ȤʤФʤʤƱͤˡֻΡ̰ĤΡܡפȤȤϡmon koté d zyé Ȥkoté d dé ϡпѤ̤Τᤸ뤷Ǥ롥äơmon bane soulie ϡηؤȤǤʤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ʻ𤬤뤫顤ñ㲽פȤȤФϻȤʤˤȤϤʤθˤϡ̥쥪äΤȤߤͿͼŪʥ˥奢뤷ǽŪ¤Ū˰ۤʤӤƤʾ塤Ū˲ˤϡޤ̩礭ޤǤ롥ֺƹ¤פȤäۤäȤֺƹ¤פȤΤۤäΩŪǤ뤷¾¿Ѹñ㲽ǾŬˤȤȤʤꡤ餫ˤ褦ȤƤ빽¤ŪʤθиܤȽǤʤȤ롥
κǽΰѤˤ륤ڥ륻θѤˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) ॹ쥦ˤĤƤϡ#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) ȡ
١롦 ë ɧ إ쥪١ҡʸ˥ӡ2000ǯ
Millar (111--13) ѸˤˤŤƿꡤdrift ʶήˤˬƤܥ֥δϢ뵭ϡcat:drift ȡˡ
Sapir ξ drift ϡѸʤѸȤ1ˤˤѲΰؤΤä drift γǰϳĥ졤Ϣʣθ˶̤ƤߤѲĬήؤ褦ˤʤäˤäơѸ drift в졤ޥˤߤ drifts ӡȤ櫓 drifts ®٤ӤȤ褦ˤʤäMillar (112) ⡤ΥޥȤ顤Ѹˤˤ drift ˬƤ롥
A number of scholars . . . take Sapir's ideas further, suggesting that drift can be employed to explain why related languages continue to act in a similar manner after they have ceased to be part of a dialect continuum. Thus it is striking . . . that a very similar series of sound changes --- the Great Vowel Shift --- took place in almost all West Germanic varieties in the late medieval and early modern periods. While some of the details of these changes differ from language to language, the general tendency for lower vowels to rise and high vowels to diphthongise is found in a range of languages --- English, Dutch and German --- where immediate influence along a geographical continuum is unlikely. Some linguists would suggest that there was a 'weakness' in these languages which was inherited from the ancestral variety and which, at the right point, was triggered by societal forces --- in this case, the rise of a lower middle class as a major economic and eventually political force in urbanising societies.
Ƥ Millar ȤǸʸμ "Some linguists" Τʤ1ͤǤ롥Samuels ήεǽŪʴˡҲŪװͤ碌ơѸ drift θġθѲθõȤΩSapir drift = "mystical" ȤȤ館ऱǤ¤Ū褦ȤΩǤ⤢롥⤳Ω˻ǤꡤȤ櫓ҲŪװ "trigger" ǽ˴ؿƤ롥Ϣơ#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޥӤȤˤĤƤϡMillar (113) ϡdrift οʹԤ٤ϼŪ˼ޤͿƤ롥ʲ˾Ѥޤʤä˰Ϥޤ줿ϡŤʳǤθɽ魯ˡ

οޤϡ#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) Ǽ Lass ˤ륲ޥΡָŤ (archaism) οľ̤ηɽ路ΤȤǤ롥ξ硤drift οʹ٤ȸŪʡ֥פδطˤȤɤߤˤʤ롥
οޤǤϡEnglish Afrikaans ANALYTIC ζˤ˰֤Ƥ뤬 DRIFT λȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ⡤DRIFT η³ѲϿʹǤ롥
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
֤ʤѲΤפȡ֤ʤüԤϸѲΤפȤϡ˰ۤʤ䤤Ǥ롥ȯΩۤʤäƤ롥
Why does language change? Ȥ䤤Ǥϡ줬ʼΡˤȤʤäƤʪΤ褦˼餬ȯŸƤ椯Ȥäͭ (organicism) ȯã (ontogenesis) Ƥ롥ѲɬԲ (necessity) Ǥ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Why do speakers change their language? Ȥ䤤ǤϡüԤʼΡˤǤꡤüԤͳջ (free will) ˤäƸѲΤȤ (mechanism) 䵻 (artisanship) 롥
ɤ餬ȯ䤫ȤСKeller (8--9) ˸餻СɤѲ䤦ƤʤȤΤϡѲϽŪʸ (collective phenomena) Ǥ롥νŪʸݤ椷ƤΤŪ (teleology) ǤϤʤָ (invisible_hand) θǤ롤 Keller ϼĥ롥
ˤĤƤϡ#10. Ͽ ([2009-05-09-1]) ˤθ Bernard de Mandeville (1670--1733) ˤ The Fable of the Bees: Private Vices, Public Benefits (1714) ˵뤳ȤǤ롥ȤơKeller 3Ѥ褦
the insight that there are social phenomena which result from individuals' actions without being intended by them (35)
An invisible-hand explanation is a conjectural story of a phenomenon which is the result of human actions, but not the execution of any human design (38)
a language is the unintentional collective result of intentional actions by individuals (53)
ѲƤϤȡġüԤθưˤϰտŪη̤ȤƵѲϺǽ餫տޤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϤϰտŪϤտŪȤʤȡδ֤ˤɤΤ褦ʥ֥åܥåϤޤäƤΤȤʤ뤬Υ֥åܥåΤȤȸƤǤΤǤ롥ġüԤΰտŪʸư̵˽ޤäơȤ֥åܥåäƤ椯ȡġüԤˤϻפʤä̤ФƤ롥η̤ѲȤȤˤʤ롥顤Keller (89) ϸѲĹŪʵǽŦƤ롥
As an invisible-hand explanation of a linguistic phenomenon always starts with the motives of the speakers and 'projects' the phenomenon itself as the macro-structural effect of the choices made, it is necessarily functionalistic, although in a 'refracted' way.
Ѳ˻ΥǤüԤΤȤʤäƤ뤬ǸΥȥͥȴȡĤΤޤˤΤڤؤäƤ롥Τ褦ʸѲѤļԤߤСWhy does language change? Why do speakers change their language? ŬڤʼǤʤȤ餫ɤäƤȤ⤤뤷ɤäƤȤ⤤롥Ƥ롤ȤȤˤʤ
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1]) ˴ؤƼ䤬줿ǡƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ롥go went δطˤȤɤޤ餺깭ˤϤĤΤԵ§ʤ¸ߤΤȤ礭˴ؤͻǤ롥
ʤ go β went ȤʤäΤȤȡʤޤ went ΤޤޤǤ *goed ȤʤʤΤȤȤ̤Ǥ롥ԤˤĤƤϤƤȤơԤˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦ѸȤƽҶϡʳ˱ went -> *goed -> went Ȥϩ̲᤹Ȥֵ§§ä *goed ʳ٤ϷФˤ⤫餺㳰ʤǽŪˤ went 夯ȤΤ̣ʤˤФˤ䤵Ϥ *goed ˤơwent Ѥ˻Τεǽ (functionalism) Ȥ뤫ꡤϲʤ
went ȤԵ§ʤȤ櫓Ե§ٹ礤ζ佼ˤ夷ƤװȤơФФθǤζü٤ι⤵Ŧ롥٤ι⤤ζϡֵ§Фˡľܤη֤إۤŪǤȤ롥be ưζΰ۾Ե§ʤɤ⡤ˤä
ֹٸ̯ʿפϡΤ1ĤǤϤҲؤδ顤̤ζ̣Ƥ롥Ҳؤθ1ĤˡüԤϽ°붦ƱΤظŪʶ (conformity) ȤΤ롥Ҳؤγ路 Hudson (12) ϡ conformity ˤĤƿ줿ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Perhaps the show-piece for the triumph of conformity over efficient communication is the area of irregular morphology, where the existence of irregular verbs or nouns in a language like English has no pay-off from the point of view of communication (it makes life easier for neither the speaker nor the hearer, nor even for the language learner). The only explanation for the continued existence of such irregularities must be the need for each of us to be seen to be conforming to the same rules, in detail, as those we take as models. As is well known, children tend to use regular forms (such as goed for went), but later abandon these forms simply in order to conform with older people.
ޤHudson (233--34) ̤βսǤ⡤ͤˤä˹碌褦ȤռƯƤȤ accommodation theory ˸ڤʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The ideas behind accommodation theory are important for theory because they contradict a theoretical claim which is widely held among linguists, called 'functionalism'. This is the idea that the structure of language can be explained by the communicative functions that it has to perform --- the conveying of information in the most efficient way possible. Structural gaps like the lack of I aren't and irregular morphology such as went are completely dysfunctional, and should have been eliminated by functional pressures if functionalism was right.
"conformity", "accommodation theory" ȰۤʤѸѤƤ뤬2ĤΰѤϤȤˡΥɺŬεǽ⡤μҲŪʼ«ŪǽܤơԵ§ʷ֤¸³Ť褦ȤƤ롥ϡgo β went Ǥͳľܤ櫓ǤϤʤεǽȤ1ĤƶͿΤǤϤ
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
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