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markedness - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2023-07-21 Fri

#5198. ̾ˤߤͭɸγ [markedness][typology][onomastics][toponymy][article][hydronymy]

̾ˤ϶ŪŪʴ鳬ΤǤϤʤVan Langendonck (33--34) ǡΤ褦ʶ̣ƤҲ𤵤Ƥ롥

   ZERO MARKING, as in city and town names: London, Berlin;
   
   SUFFIXING, as in country names: Fin-land, German-y;
   
   ARTICLE PREPOSING, as in names of, e.g. fields, regions, and rivers: the Highlands, the Rhine;
   
   The use of CLASSIFIERS plus possibly an article, as in names of seas, oceans, or deserts: the North Sea, the Gobi Desert


̾ˤߤͭɸγؤϡʹ֤ȿŪʴͿοϢưƤΤǤϤʤȤʹּҲˤȤäơԻԤϤƽפоݤ٤й衦ʤɤϿʹּҲؤαƶʳ褦˻פ롥嵭γؤϡֿʹ濴ΡϢ³ ("'anthropocentric' cline") ȤäƤ褵 (Van Langendonck 34)
Van Langendonck (34) ϡ괧̵ͭ˴ؤơ٤Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

. . . English shows the humanized place-names (e.g. settlement names) omitting the article, whilst the non-human place-names (e.g. river names) tend to adopt the article. This can be observed where the names of former colonies or regions lose their article when they become independent countries: the Ukraine > Ukraine, The Congo > Congo, the Lebanon > Lebanon.


θѶŪ˼ȤȡɤΤ褦ʲΩƤΤ褤°ˤʤ⡤ۤɶᤷ¸ߤǤϤʤΤˤ괧 the Ĥ䤹ʳ¸ߤǤ the ĤˤȤȤˤʤ̣ĹǤ롥

Van Langendonck, Willy and Mark Van de Velde. "Names and Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 17--38.

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2022-08-05 Fri

#4848. 첻ȻҲͭɸ [markedness][phonetics][vowel][consonant][typology]

ܸθ޽ޤˤ첻¤ӤδܤϡޤǤʤ [a, i, u, e, o] Ǥcf. #2104. ޽ޡ ([2015-01-30-1])ˡư5ʳѤǤֹԤʤסֹԤޤסֹԤסֹԤȤסֹԤСסֹԤסֹԤפȾ褦ˡ[a, i, u, e, o] ¤ӤȤʤäƤ롥ʤ¤ӤʤΤ
ϡ¤ӤŪ̵ɸ (unmarked) ͭɸ (marked) ؤν˱äƤ뤫Ǥ롥
(6) ˤСθϤȡ3첻ηϤθˤ [a, i, u] Ǥ¿4첻ηϤǤ [a, i, u, e] 5첻ηϤǤ [a, i, u, e, o] Ǥ¿ȤĤޤꡤ෿Ūˤäơ첻ͭɸ (markedness) ϡ㤤⤤ [a, i, u] [e] [o] ȤΤ褦ʤΤǤ롥
ҲˤƱͤͭɸν󤬤롥 (9) ϡ෿Τߤʤ餺콬ᤵǰƬˤĤġ̵ɸʻҲͭɸʻҲν򼡤Τ褦ͿƤ롥ʲ A > B ϡA B Ū̵ɸǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤

a. Ĵξ >
b. Ĵˡĺ > ໤
c. ĺ໤˻ ̵ > ͭ
d. ĺ໤˻ʳͭ > ̵


λҲͭɸǰƬˤƸ޽ޤΡ֤ʤϤޤפ¤ӤįȡɬŪʽǤϤʤ¤⤫Ӿ夬äƤʡ֤ϡפλҲϸŤ [p] äȤաˡ
ͭɸȤϸؤˤƤʤʤ񤷤ǰǤ롥#550. markedness ([2010-10-29-1])#551. ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§ ([2010-10-30-1])#3723. ͭɸ ([2019-07-07-1])#4745. markedness ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2022-04-24-1]) ʤɤε򻲾Ȥ줿

ס1ϡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס 򹯡 ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ

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2022-04-24 Sun

#4745. markedness ˤĤƺƹ [markedness]

ؤǤϡͭɸ (marked) ̵ɸ (unmarked) ȤѸ줬褯Ȥ롥ͭɸ (markedness) ȤŪǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#550. markedness ([2010-10-29-1])#551. ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§ ([2010-10-30-1])#3723. ͭɸ ([2019-07-07-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
ͭɸϸؤδŪѸȤʤäƤ뤬褷ƼγǰǤϤʤפ֤رμȤͭɸ꤬ФΤޥ줤ǤʤȤͭɸϲʬޤ줿ǰ˷̣ˤѤƤäαѤβ͡˰ۤʤबޤƤޤͭɸγǰܤ䤱ƤޤäȤ롥Ūͻ¿ʤƤΤΡäͭɸ̵ɸȤ뤫ŪΩ並ԸĿͤˤäưۤʤȤޤƤ롥ˤʬΤܤʬʤȤǰѸˤʤäƤΤ
Bussmann Ѹ켭ŵ markedness ιɤǤߤ뤳Ȥˤ롥

markedness
The concept of markedness is concerned with the distinction between what is neutral, natural, or expected (= unmarked) and what departs from the neutral (= marked) along some specified parameter. It was introduced in linguistics by the Prague School (L. Trubetzkoy, R. Jakobson) for evaluating the members of an oppositional pair as 'marked' (having some kind of feature) or 'unmarked' (having no features). An example: according to Jakobson (1936), in the opposition nominative vs accusative, the accusative is the marked case, because it indicates the presence of an affected entity (i.e. a direct object) while the nominative does not have this feature, i.e. it signals neither the presence nor the absence of such an entity. Unmarked elements also exhibit many of the following characteristics (see Greenberg 1966; Mayerthaler 1980): they are expressed by simpler means, they occur more frequently in the languages of the world, they are learned earlier in first language acquisition, and are less often the 'target' or 'goal' of processes such as language change. Generative transformation-language change. Generative transformational grammar has contributed much towards a better understanding of the concept of markedness. Chomsky and Halle (1968) evaluate phonological feature descriptions by means of markedness conventions. With the opposition [± rounded], for example, the unmarked feature is [- rounded] for front vowels and [+ rounded] for back vowels. According to this markedness rule, the vowel /y/, a rounded front vowel, is more marked than /u/, a rounded back vowel. On the basis of this convention, phonological systems, word representations, and processes can be compared to one another and evaluated according to their markedness. In syntax, the concept of markedness is applied within recent generative transformational grammar, within natural generative grammar, as well as for syntactic universals (cf. hierarchy universals). In semantics, most of the characteristics mentioned above for unmarked categories hold for prototypes. Markedness asymmetries have been shown to hold not only for binary systems but also for larger sets of elements yielding markedness hierarchies (e.g. nominative < accusative < dative < genitive, see Primus 1987; singular < plural < dual, see Greenberg 1966). An important principle of markedness theory is the iconicity between form units and their corresponding meanings. Mayerthaler (1981) proposes a principle of morphological iconism, according to which semantically unmarked elements are coded morphologically more simply than marked elements. The idea that the markedness of linguistic units corresponds more or less exactly to cognitive-psychological complexity or simplicity can already be found in the first proposals of markedness theory, and is still focal in research on naturalness and markedness.


ʸ˸ڤ븦ԡνϤǤϳ䰦뤬Ѹ켭ŵܹˤϡ¾λʸޤƽפʻΤǡ˼Ȥߤˤϻͤˤʤ
ͭɸϸѲˤ⿼طѸˤεˤ⤷ФнФƤ롥ͤ³ƤɬפΤ륭ɤ

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-05-1]

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2020-07-20 Mon

#4102. ȿդȶ [semantics][antonymy][markedness]

ȿ (antonym) ϡΰ̣ (semantics) ˤ1ĤνפʥȥԥåǤ롥ȿոȤäƤ͡ʥפꡤ#1800. ͡ȿи ([2014-04-01-1]) ǤߤȤǤ롥ޤѸκǤŵŪȿոڥ1Ǥ old young ȤäƤߤƤ⡤How old are you? ̡ʡ̵ɸˤ How young are you? ϤѡʡͭɸˤȤǡХ󥹤μ줿ñȿդǤϤʤǤ뤳Ȥ롥ȿդȤΤϻפä
ŵŪȿդäƤħ1Ĥ polarity ʶˤ롥Ụ̄Ūˤϡ3 polarity ̤롥̡ɾ polarity Allan (130--31)

polarity This is displayed when one term of a binary opposition is described as 'positive' and the other as 'negative'. The most obvious cases are where one term carries a negative affix which the other lacks: possible: impossible, happy: unhappy, obey: disobey, dress: undress, and so on. But other types of opposition are said to have positive and negative terms. The main ones are as follows:

   1. Logical polarity is based on the principle that 'two negatives make a positive'. For instance, It's true that it's true is equivalent to It's true, but It's false that it's false changes polarity and is equivalent to It's true. From this we can conclude that false is the negative term and true is positive.
   2. Quantity polarity applies particularly to antonym pairs, where the positive term indicates 'more of' some property and the negative term 'less of', as with long (positive) and short (negative).
   3. Evaluation polarity is where the positive term expresses approval and the negative term disapproval, as with good: bad, polite: rude.


硦 polarity ȤȤȿաʸˤ˸礦ݤˤϡ3ռȺ𤻤˺Ѥࡥ

Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-04-1]

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2019-07-07 Sun

#3723. ͭɸ [markedness][phonology][typology]

벻ͭɸ (marked) ̵ɸ (unmarked) ꤹװꡤʤͭɸ (markedness) ɸˤĤƤϡǤ͡ʵʤƤŪѤƤɸϡʲΤΤǤʿp. 136ˡ

ͭɸ̵ɸ
Լʣðۡͽ¬ǽñ㡤Ūͽ¬ǽ
ʸˡηϤǤƤʤ¿ʸˡηϤǵƤ
٤
㳲˼㳲Ǥ⼺ˤ
̵ɸʤΤ¸ߤ򼨺ͭɸʤΤˤä¸ߤ򼨺
Ĵ񤷤Ĵư
γŪˤΩγŪΩʤ


ɽ5ܤΡ̵ɸʤΤ¸ߤ򼨺סͭɸʤΤˤä¸ߤ򼨺פ򤷤ˤ⤷ʤΤDz⤷ƤȤв᷿˴ؤ͡ʸ줫򽸤ȡ첻β (V) ȡҲ첻ʤ벻 (CV) ȤǤϡԤԤͭɸǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ȤΤϡۤȤɤθˤ V ɬ CV ⤢뤫դɬ⿿ʤ餺ǤꡤCV 뤫Ȥä V ⤢Ȥϸ¤ʤСV ¸ߤ CV ¸ߤ򼨺뤬CV ¸ߤ V ¸ߤɬ⼨ʤȤȤΤ褦ʴطϴްŪ (implicational universal) ȸƤФ롥
ˤͭɸˤĤƤϡ#550. markedness ([2010-10-29-1])#551. ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§ ([2010-10-30-1]) ǤⰷäΤǡ⻲ȡ

ҡ6ϡŬ׿ ҡԡˡزīоȸإ꡼ 3īҽŹ2014ǯ133--57ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-05-1] [2022-04-24-1]

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2019-07-03 Wed

#3719. ܸϳ졤ѸIJ [typology][syllable][phonology][markedness][japanese]

첻ǽ벻򳫲 (open syllable)Ҳǽ벻IJ (closed syllable) ȸƤ֡⤿ʤϤʤIJ⤿ʤϤꤦΤǡΥפȤƤԤ̵ɸԤͭɸȤȤˤʤ롥
ܸǤ¥ȤȤäIJ⤢ˤϤ뤬ΰŪ¿90%ۤɡˤϳǤۡp. 55ˡפȤƤϡŵŪʳ (open syllable language) ȸƤǤ褤¾γȤƤϡꥢ졤ڥ졤ե졤иʤɤ󤲤롥
ѸIJ᤬¿ΤǡפȤƤIJ (closed syllable language) ȤߤʤƤ褤 (55) ˤȡø850Ǥߤȡ85%IJȤ¾γȤƤϡī줬󤲤롥
̵ɸħĸȤԤͭɸħĸ2ȤƳؽ褦ȤݤˤϡФкȼȤСܸüԤIJԴʤᡤIJǤѸݤ񤷤򴶤
ʤѸIJȤϤäƤ⡤#1440. ٥󥭥󥰡 ([2013-04-06-1]) Ǽ褦ˡΥȡ٤ǤгϷ褷ƾʤʤȤոƤ

Ĥ2ϡȥ⡼׿ ҡԡˡزīоȸإ꡼ 3īҽŹ2014ǯ30--57ǡ

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2016-01-07 Thu

#2446. ˤˡ§ [morphology][category][functionalism][redundancy][information_theory][markedness][category]

ε#2445. ܥˤ̵ռ ([2016-01-06-1]) ǰѤˤ Franz Boaz ˴ؤϤκǸ (p. 98) ˡĹ餯Ի׵Ĥ˻פäƤؤθڤä

¿θ줬ñǼƤۤʣǤΤŪʶ̤򤷤ƤʤΤϤʤȤ򡤲ʤΤȤƥܥϰѤƤ롥֥ (Viggo Bröndal) ϡŪγѤʣ򤱤뤿μʤŪ˹֤Ƥ뷹뤳ȤŦФʬΰĤƤ˴ؤʣǤ¾Ƥ˴ؤƤŪñǤ롥Ρˡ§פˤäơñⴰꤵƤʣϡŪɽäƤ롥


ѸˤǤСϤĤηǸ롥űѸˤơ̾ƻʤˤ޷ϡʣñΤۤ¿ʣǤ롥3;̾Ǥ⡤ñǤ (he), hēo (she), hit (it) ˱3ΰۤʤ촴̤뤬ʣǤζ̤¤ hīe (they) Τߤȴά롥ưο;θ⡤ñǤϿ;Τˤۤʤ֤Τ̤ʣǤϿ;Τˤ餺1Ĥη֤뤳Ȥ¿ĤޤꡤʸˡƤιΤͭɸʤΤ˴ؤƤϡ餯̣ǽʣǤ뤤ȤơбŪñʤΤޤ롤ȤȤ
ͤƤߤСϸ줬ǽŪηϤǤ뤳ȤȤΤȤ⤷ʤͭɸǤʣηϤϡѼԤôꤹ¸³Τ񤷤Ϥˡ§פϡ١;ѤȤäǽŪʽǰȤ⿼ط (see #1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1]))
äȤ⡤Ρˡ§פϰŪ˴ѻ뷹Ȥ٤ΤǤꡤ̸ŪˤȿϾʤ餺դ̻ŪѲʤ櫓ǤϤʤ

ظؼ?ػˤäŷ͡ۺͤμ?١īǼҡ2010ǯ

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2014-04-05 Sat

#1804. gradable antonym ΰ̣ [markedness][antonymy][semantics][pragmatics]

#1800. ͡ȿи ([2014-04-01-1]) εǡäȤŵŪȿиȤ "gradable antonym" ȾΤˤĤƿ줿"contrary" ȤƤФ뤬ŵŪ٤ηƻΥڥפ⤫٤Ф褤good / bad, big / small, hot / cold, old / young, long / short, happy / sad, clean / dirty Ǥ롥줾츫ñʥڥ̣ŪܳŪ˰ȤȡʤʤʣޤǤ롥
ȿոڥˤĤƤ褯ΤƤ븽ݤϡεǤ⿨줿褦ˡڥΤ̵ɸ (unmarked) ǡ¾ͭɸ (marked) Ǥ뤳Ȥ㤨СǯҤͤ뵿ʸǤϡHow old are you? old ѤΤ̤Ǥ롥How young are you? young 򤢤Ѥˤϡ֤ʤ㤤ȤȤϤǤΤäƤ뤬ҤͤΤϤɤ㤤פȤüޤȤʤ롥old ξˤϤΤ褦Ϥʤ̾ΩŪ˻Ȥ롥츫 old young Ϥ줾ƱλʤǥڥʤƤȿոΤ褦˸뤬ºݤˤ old ΩŪƯôäƤ̵ɸǤΤФơyoung ϾˤäƤü׵᤹ͭɸǤ롥old young ˸뤳Τ褦ʺϡŪ˸뺹ǤϤʤ̣Ū˵ꤵƤ뺹Ǥȹͤ졤̣ΰȤ롥
ȿոͭɸ̵ɸΩɽФΤϡ٤Ҥͤ뵿ʸȤʸ̮˸¤ʤ㤨С̾⡤ȿոƻ̵ɸС˴ŤΤ¿long / short бΩŪ̾ length shortness ȤƤޤȡ̣νſûطΩŪǤϤʤƱͤˡdeep / shallow Ф depth strong / weak Ф strength 줾ΩŪ̾
ͭɸ̵ɸΩɽФĶȤƵʸ̾2ǵ󤲤Lehrer (400) Ϥ6Ĥιܤ󤲤ơΩȿոΰ̣˿򲼤Ƥ뤳Ȥ8ܤʲ˼

I Neutralization of an opposition in questions by unmarked member.
II Neutralization of an opposition in nominalizations by unmarked member.
III Only the unmarked member appears in measure phrases of the form Amount Measure Adjective (e.g. three feet tall).
IV If one member of the pair consists of an affix added to the antonym, the affix form is marked.
V Ratios can be used only with the unmarked member (e.g. Twice as old).
VI The unmarked member is evaluatively positive; the marked is negative.
VII The unmarked member denotes more of a quality; the marked denotes less.
VIII If there are asymmetrical entailments, the unmarked member is less likely to be 'biased' or 'committed'. Cf.
   A is better than B. A and B could be bad.
   B is worse than A. B must be bad, and A may be as well.


I II ˤĤƤϤǤ˿줿III ϡfive feet tall, two years old, three metres wide ʤɤñ̤ˤɽ̾ѤΤ̵ɸСȤ롥
IV ϡŵŪƬΤĤСͭɸǤȤȤǡlucky / unlucky, important / unimportant ʤɤ㤬롥impartial / partial unbiased / biased ΥڥǤϡ¾°˾Ȥ餹ȡषƬΤĤԤ̵ɸȤʤꡤȿ롥
V ϡtwice as long as . . ., ten times as heavy as . . . ʤɤܿɽѤС̵ɸȤȤǤ롥
VI ϡݥƥɾôС̵ɸǤȤΤgood, strong, happy, clean ʤɤߤ¤ꡤΤˤη褦˻פ뤬ʸˤɤѤˤѰۤϤȤСclean / dirty ΩˤơݥλԽԤˤȤäƥݥƥɾôΤ dirty Τۤ
VII ϡҴŪ̲ˡ礭ʤ̵ۤɸǤȤΤbig, long, heavy, wide ʤɤˤĤƤϤδϤ褯ƤϤޤ뤬clean / dirty ξ硤ԤԤ٤Ʋ̤礭ΤϤ褯ʬʤ餫äƤ르ߤ̤ǤСdirty Τۤ礭ȤȤˤʤ롥safe / dangerous, sober / drunk, pure / impure, accurate / inaccurate ˤƱ꤬ͤ롥
VIII ϡް (entailment) ˴ؤ붽̣㤨 good / bad ΩˤơThe steak is better than the chicken, but both are bad. ϵƤ뤬* The chicken is worse than the steak, but both are good. ϵƤʤȤϡgood bad ȰۤʤꡤΩŪʰ̣ôȤǤ뤳Ȥɽ魯դˡbad ΩŪǤꡤƤȤȤˤʤ롥bad ΤΤ褦ϡ"committed" ɽ롥ǡhot / cold, happy / sad ʤɤǤξСȤ "committed" Ǥ뤫顤ΥСΤߤ "committed" Ǥ good / bad, long / short Τ褦ʥڥȤۤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
嵭8ܤϡΤȤ gradable antonyms ̵ɸͭɸΩͭ뷹뤳Ȥ򼨤ΤˤȤɤޤꡤ٤ƤΥڥɬ8ܤΤ٤ƤȤȤˤϤʤʤI Ǥ⶯Ϥ°ȤߤʤȤޤǤϤǤ뤬ʳ°ϸġȿոڥ˱줿ʤäȤޤޤ
嵭Ѹʳθˤ⹭ѻ븽ݤʤΤޤ⤽ʤȿոڥ̵ɸͭɸΩΤʤΤȤŪ⤫Ǥ롥ȿոΰ̣ϡʾ˿Ǥ롥

Lehrer, A. "Markedness and Antonymy." Journal of Linguistics 21 (1985): 397--429.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-04-1] [2021-01-25-1]

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2014-04-01 Tue

#1800. ͡ȿи [semantics][markedness][antonymy][lexicology]

ȿи (opposite) ˤȿո졤ȿʤɤθƤ̾뤬Ѹ԰ꤵ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤äȿФȤ뤫ˤĤƤ͡Ǥ롥
ȿФ򤫡ȿФϹȡ֡ˤȤͤΤǤϤʤ֤ȹ٤ȤȤ߹碌⤢뤷浡פ⤫٤֤ġʼºݤοСˤȤΩͤ롥ޤֹ⤤פȿФˤϡ㤤פȡְ¤פ2Ĥ뤬㤤פȿФˤϡֹ⤤1ĤʤȿФ狼뤤ϻФϤޤ夫ФǭФ륤ȿиȤΤhappy ȿФ unhappy Ȥ sad ĹûȻࡤȳ̤פȺʤϡ줾ƱˤäȿиȸƤ٤Τ
̣Ǥϡȿиˤ͡ʼब뤳ȤǧƤ롥ʲ Hofmann (40--46, 57--60) ˵äơɽŪʤΤޤȤ褦

(1) (gradable) antonym
ǤŵŪȿиϡhigh / lowlong / short, old / new, hot / cold Τ褦٤ɽ魯ƻФǤ롥ȿиƻϡѸǤӵǾˤǤ롤very ٤򶯤ʤɤħġ٤Ҥͤ뵿̾˻ѤΤϡФΤ줫Ǥꡤ餬ŪΩŪʰ̣ôȤˤʤ롥㤨Сlong / short Ф˴ؤƤ long ̵ɸȤʤꡤHow long is the train? the length of the train ʤɤ¤̣Ѥ롥ܸǤ֤ɤΤ餤ĹΤפȿҤͤ뤷̾ϡĹפȤǤϡĹûס羮סִȡפʤɤФˤΩŪ٤ɽ魯ȤǤΤ⤷

(2) complementary
on / offtrue / false, finite / infinite, mortal / immortal, single / married ʤɤΧȿФ롥(1) ФȰۤʤꡤvery ʤɤǶ뤳ȤϤǤ٤ȤɽǤʤǥʴطǤ롥ŪˡƬղäƤơɤ餬̵ɸǤ뤫뤳ȤǤʤФΰ (1) ¾ (2ˤĥ⤢롥㤨Сopen / shut, cooked / raw, invisible / visible ϡ줾ΥڥΤԤ gradable Ǥ롥
¾ʻǤϡmale / female, stop / move ʤɤ󤲤롥

(3) antonymous group
black / white / red / blue / green Τ褦ˡȿСפȤʤꤦΤޤäưϢθ췲ʤξˤϿ̸áˤΡȿиȤϡषƱ췲°Ȥ̣ǤȤ٤Ǥ롥ߤƱǤʤ⡤°Ǥϸͭϰ̤Ƥߤ˺ŪǤȤǡˤäƤϡȿиפȤ⤵ˤʤdog cat Ϥ줾ƱǤʤ顤Ʊ°ߤ˰ۤʤäƤΤǡantonymous group ΰʤƤȤ롥ǭܸǤѸǤⴷŪ˥ڥʤΤиȸʤ뤬Ʊ롼פιȤƤϡ͡ڡѡޤ᤿¿ưʪ󤲤뤳ȤǤ롥ƻȤƤϡbig / small Ǥ (1) Ʊͤˤߤ뤬huge / big / small / tiny Ȥ4ʳΤʤǹͤ (3) ˤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ĥޤꡤ(3) ϡ(1) (2) 2ΩȤϰۤʤꡤʣΩȸƤ褤north / south / east / west 4ܤʤɡ˴ؤ¤äƤ褦ʥ롼פ⤢롥
ܸǻȿФϳʤ뤤ˤ̤ꥫǤ mountain ФƤ valley ̤Ǥ롥Τ褦ˡ롼ԥ󥰤ʸŪƶΤ¿

(4) reversative
ưưˤĤơžطɽ魯tie ʷ֡ˤ untie ʤۤɤˡclothe 夻ˤ unclothe æˤʤɡʬƻˤ tied / untied, clothed / unclothed Ωžȡ(1) (2) Ȥʤ롥appear / disappear, enable / disable Ʊ͡

(5) converse
husband / wife, parent / child Τ褦ߤ˵Ǥʤ䤤礦ط"X is the (husband) of Y." ΤȤ"Y is the (wife) of X." Ωġson / father ϾθɬǤʤΤǡ converse Ǥ (ex. "X is the father of Liz")
ϰۤʤ뤬buy / sell, lend / borrow Τ褦ñνȿФδǸΤ䡤above / below, in front of / behind, north of / south of, right / left Τ褦˶Ūִطɽ魯Τ⡤converse Ȥ롥

嵭Τ褦ˤ줤ʬǤʤ褦ʡȿиפ⤢ϤζʬȤƻͤˤʤ

Hofmann, Th. R. Realms of Meaning. Harlow: Longman, 1993.

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2010-10-30 Sat

#551. ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§ [markedness][verb][conjugation]

ε[2010-10-29-1]ͭɸˤϡ鼡Τ褦ʼ䤬äȤͭɸˤĤƲĴ٤ɬפäǤ롥μȤϡͭɸ̵ɸȤΩԵ§§ȤΩƱΤȹͤƤ褤Τ⤷ƱΤǤΤʤСͭɸ̵ɸȤѸФ̣ʤΤǤϤʤפȤΤǤ롥μطʤˤϸѸԵ§ưȵ§ưΩ꤬ꡤͭɸλȤȤʤΤݤȤ䤬ä
Τͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§Ȥǰϸߤ˴ط褦˻פ롥餤 (1) ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§Ωϸߤܤۤʤ롤(2) ͭɸ̵ɸΩ̸ŪռΩǡŪѤ뷹롤ȤȤǤϤʤ
(1) ѸԵ§ư ( ex. sing ) ȵ§ư ( ex. walk ) ˤĤ markedness ˽äƥե饰ΩƤȤСԵ§ư줬ͭɸǡ§ư줬̵ɸȤʤꤽʤȤưפ򤵤ľŪˤäơ§ưΤ̡ۤפǡּפǤ롥Ե§ưȵ§ưΩϡ̾ markedness δ褦ΩȤϰۤʤäƤ롥εǤߤ褦ˡͭɸ̵ɸϤܤΩڥꤢơΰͭɸ¾̵ɸȤ뤳ȤǤ롥sing walk ǤԤԵ§ư졤Ԥ§ưξͭɸδǡΩڥפȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤʤˤͭɸȤΡΩڥפȤϡdog dogsprince princess, sing sang, walk walked Τ褦ʥڥΤȤǤꡤsing walksang walked Τ褦ʥڥΤȤǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥
Ե§§ȤΩܤƤΤϡʬȤ˷Ūͽ¬ǽ ( predictability ) 뤫ݤǤ롥ǡͭɸ̵ɸȤΩܤƤΤϡΥåȤȲʬΥåȤ٤Ȥˤɤ餬̤ǼȤȤǤ롥ǽϰ´ʤʹƤԵ§ư줬ͭɸǡ§ư줬̵ɸפȤΤĤΰۤʤʪѤ̯ɽʤΤǤϤʤ
(2) Ե§§ȤΩϸ̸ηֵ§˴ؤƤΩͭɸ̵ɸȤΩϡɤ餫Ȥ naturalness universality ʤɤȤ̸ŪʳǰȷӤĤ䤹褦˻פ롥ϺεǸ褦ͭɸγǰȯŸƤаޤȤϢƤ褦Ǥ롥ѸȤ̸ưγѤε§ˤˤϡͭɸ̵ɸȤѸȤϤʤޤʤΤǤϤʤ
ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§Ȥ2ĤΩϤȤˡ̤פּפܤȤǶ̤Ƥ뤬Ƥ뤳Ȥ򼨤ƤѸˤȤ̤˴ѤȤΤ⤢ΤǡΤ˻ȤʤȤΤϤʤʤ񤷤ΤǤ롥

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2010-10-29 Fri

#550. markedness [markedness][phonology][semantics]

ؤǤϤФͭɸ ( markedness ) ȤǰѤ롥ܤˤĤơǧˤͭɸ ( marked ) ǧʤˤ̵ɸ ( unmarked ) Ȥ롥̵ͭ˱ƥե饰Ωä겼ꤿꤹ륤᡼
衤markedness γǰϡץϳɤβ ( Prague School phonology ) ( distinctive feature ) ̵ͭ뤿ƻΩƤȤ㤨 /t/ /d/ ȤǤ ( voicing ) ȤߤȡԤ̵ɸԤͭɸȤʤ롥Ǥ markedness γǰϤ˽פʰյĤ˻롥Ǥϡ١ŪѲˤʤɤȤ졤unmarked "natural" "universal" ȤۤƱȤʤ롥ΩΤ̸Ūˤ䤹Τ̵ɸˤΤͭɸȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ȯͭɸγǰϡ˷̣ʤ¾ǤѤ뤳ȤˤʤäǤСΩڥ dog dogs ǤԤ̵ɸǸԤͭɸǤ롥ľŪˤ뤷ζ̤θʤȤ dog ɽȤѤ뤳Ȥν餷Ƥ⡤dog ŪǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥
̣ǤϡŪΩڥˤ "usual, common, typical" ̵ɸȤʤꡤ"unusual, uncommon, atypical" ʤۤͭɸȤʤ롥㤨 goose gander ΥڥˤԤ̵ɸԤͭɸǤ롥goose ϥ祦λĻgander ϥ祦ͺĻɽ魯ä̤ռʤʸ̮ǰ̤˥祦ɽ路Ȥˤ goose Ѥʲ޻ȡˡԤΤ褦ͺˤ餺Ū˥祦ؤ硤goose ˴ؤ̵ɸǤȤ롥Ȥgander Ϥɤʸ̮ǤͺĻǤ뤳ȤɬΤǡ˴ؤƥե饰ΩäƤȹͤ ( Hofmann, pp. 21, 29--30 ) [2009-05-27-1]򻲾ȡ

Gander and Goose

Τۤold young Τ褦٤ɽ魯ƻΩڥˤơԤ̵ɸԤͭɸȤ롥ȤΤϡǯҤͤΤ̾ How old are you? ȸHow young are you? ȤϸʤǤ롥ԤεʸϡǤˡ֤ʤ㤤פȤǤꡤξǤɤΤ餤㤤ΤȤäüʸ̮ǤεʸȤʤ뤫Ǥ롥
ޤȤСǤŪʻȤ򤹤뤬̣ǤľŪʡ֤䤹ס̤סּפǤΩɸ뤿ƻȤƻȤ롥ͭɸ̵ɸΩϤΤ褦˸ؤǤѤƤ롥

Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Hofmann, Th. R. Realms of Meaning. Harlow: Longman, 1993.

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