
9Ϥޤޤ814ε#5588. Mond 5Ѥʵ˲ޤ ([2024-08-14-1]) θ塤8Ⱦμͭӥ Mond ˤ3Ѥʵ (sobokunagimon) 夲ޤǶΤΤ̤äƥĥޤ
(1) ǾѤɽǡamong Ǿפone of ǾפޤȤŬڤɽɤ٤Ǥ礦
(2) disprove dis- ϤɤΤ褦ʰ̣Ǥ礦
(3) 衼åѤθˤ̾̾ʤɤޤ̾뤳ȤϡؾɤΤ褦ʥåȤΤǤ礦
ⶽ̣Ǥޤ (1) ˤĤơܸǤϡֺǤʡפϸ§Ȥ1Ĥʤ뤿ᡤѸΡֺǤʤΤ1ġפȤɽ̣ʤ褯ƤĴˤǤɤͤФ褤ΤȤ䤤Ǥ⤫ĤȤΤǤΤǡ̤äƤߤޤ
(2) Ƭ dis- ¿ǤǽŪˤϡȿСפפȤäƤ͡Ǥ͡ȤʤΤǤԤ¡ʤռ졤⥿ޤ⤷Ȼפޤ
(3) ˤĤƤϡʸˡ (grammatical gender) ˴ؤǡMond Ǥ⤹Ǥ˲٤夲ƤȥԥåǤμϡָŪʵǽϲפȤƧ߹ΤäΤDzƻͤƤߤޤ
ּפΥϤϤ٤ʤΤʤȡ´ޤԤ٤ΡֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפԤƤޤ
Ѳ (language_change) δŪʸưϤ1ĤǤ (analogy) ˴ؤܳŪʸFertig Analogy and Morphological Change ˤĤƤεǼ夲Ƥ
Fertig Ȥcontamination ʺˤȸƤФ륿פѤˤĤƹͤƤߤֺפȤμդθݤΤʬ뤫ɤˤĤƤϵꡤ#5419. blending contamination ([2024-02-27-1]) ǤϢ夲ҤȤޤ contamination ̤ǤΤΤʤ2ĤΥפȤƳsyntagmatic contamination paradigmatic contamination Ǥ롥ȤȤ Fertig δϢսѤ (64)
Paul's initial conception of contamination (1886) involved influence attributable exclusively to paradigmatic (semantic) relations between forms, but he later (1920) recognized that lexical contamination often involves items that are not only semantically related but also frequently occur in close proximity in utterances. The importance of these syntagmatic relationships is emphasized in almost all modern accounts of contamination (Campbell 2004: 118--20 being the only exception that I am aware of). The most frequently cited examples involve adjacent numerals, which often influence each other's phonetic make-up: English eleven < Proto-Gmc. *ainlif under the influence of ten; Latin novem 'nine' instead of expected *noven under the influence of decem 'ten'; Greek dialectal hoktō 'eight' under the influence of hepta 'seven' (Osthoff 1878b; Trask 1996: 111--12; Hock and Joseph 2009: 163). Similar effects are attested in a number of languages among days of the week and months of the year, e.g. post-classical Latin Octember < Octōber under the influence of November and December.
Such contamination attributable to syntagmatic proximity of the affecting and affected items is often characterized as distant assimilation. Some scholars characterize contamination as a kind of assimilation even when it is purely paradigmatically motivated. Anttila calls it 'assimilation . . . toward another word in the semantic field' (1989: 76). Andersen (1980: 16--17) explicitly distinguishes such 'paradigmatic assimilation' from the more familiar 'syntagmatic assimilation'. As an unambiguous example of the latter, he mentions the influence of one word on another within a formulaic expression, such as French au fur et à mesure 'as, in due course' < Old French au feur et mesure (Wackernagel 1926: 49--50). Contamination involving antonyms, such as Late Latin sinexter < sinister 'left' under the influence of dexter 'right' or Vulgar Latin grevis < gravis 'heavy' under the influence of levis 'light', could be both paradigmatically and syntagmatically motivated since antonyms frequently co-occur in close proximity within an utterance, especially in questions: Is that thing heavy or light? Should I turn right or left? Wundt's view of paradigm leveling as a type of assimilation should also be mentioned in this context (Paul 1920: 116n 1).
syntagmatic contamination paradigmatic contamination 2̤ƤȤϡŪˤϽפºŪˤξԤϸߤ˾Ƥꡤʬ̤ΤǤϤʤȻפ롥paradigmatic ʴطˤ2Ԥ syntagmatic ˤ and ʤɤ³ǷФ뤳Ȥ¿դ syntagmatic ˶䤹2Ԥ paradigmatic ˤ̣Ū˶Ǥ˷ӤĤƤΤ̤
ġλ㤬줫Υפ contamination Ǥ뤳ȤǤΤɤ뤤ϤǤȤƤ⡤ȽǤƤ褤ϲȤ꤬ĤäƤ褦˻פ롥
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
ȿиסеסоȸסбפʤɤȾΤ antonym ϡð̣ˤƤؿƤȿи켭ŵतϹǤ褯ΤܸǾѤƤΤȤơȿиоȸ켭ŵǡ٤롥
ȿиȤäƤȿСפΤ͡ǡð̣ǤޤˤȤʤ롥嵭μŵΡ֤ޤ (i--ii) ɤСȤ⤷Ǥ
ñϰİĤФФ¸ߤƤΤǤϤʤޤȤޤХͥåȥʤƤ롥ȤСפȤñϡ֤㤵ס֤䤸ס֥ѥѡפʤɤȸ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡƱΤؤƤ롥δ֤ˤϷɰդ̵ͭ˥奢ΰ㤤ʤɤꡤƱǤȤϤʤƱ˶ᤤطδطˤȤȤǤ롥פФȤơפȤ줬롥ơפˤ֤줵ס֤դס֥ޥޡפȤä褦θ줬¸ߤ롥ޤפȡפξԤޤȤơֿơפꡤֿơפФȤơֻҡפȤ줬롥Τ褦ˡñߤ˴Ϣʣȿ֤Ƥ롥
ȿиϤƱ졦ˤƱΤؤȤäब뤬ȿиξñǤϤʤȿиȤ硤ޤξԤδ֤˶̤̣ʤФʤʤפפȿиˤʤΤϡξԤơȤ̤ΰ̣äƤ뤫Ǥ롥̤̣äƤǤϡȿиˤϤʤʤפפȿиˤʤΤϡǤϤʤǤȤȤˤ롥ĤޤꡤȤफ鸫ȿФΰ̣ˤʤΤǤ롥ȿиξϡ
(1) ̤̣äƤ뤳
(2) ξǡफ鸫ơȿФΰ̣äƤ뤳
ǤȤȤˤʤ
⤦Ĥ褦羡פȿиˤϡԡפȡֿɾפȤ뤬Ԥϡ(1) 纹Ǿ餬ĤȤ(2) 餱Ȥफ鸫ȿФΰ̣äƤꡤԡĤޤֿɾפϡ(1) ĤȤ̤ΰ̣(2) 纹Ȥफ鸫ȿФΰ̣äƤ롥ȿиϡĤȤϸ¤ʤबѤȡĤ¸ߤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ʾΤ褦ȡȿиȽŪưפʤ褦˸뤬ˤĤƶŪ˹ͤƤʤˤʤȡȿФΰ̣ȤϲȤȤˤʤäƤơȽǤ˶줷ळȤ¿
嵭˵Ƥ羡פ˴ؤ뼭ŵοޤȤ褦¤Ūʡ줤ʥޥȥåȤʤ롥
| 纹 | 㾮 | ||
| 㾡 | 羡 | ɾ | |
| ̡ | ԡԡ |
娢 娢ɹ Ш
khelfʷѸ˥եˤؤäǶ̤ǤѸˡѸؾͷӤΤ褦ʤΤȤơ֤Ϥͥ (chiguhagu_channel) Ȥ줳2ǯۤ³Ƥޤγɤ֤ϤפФƤΤǡܳŪʵνȯȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ڤǤޤSlack ȤåȥġΤʤΡ֥ͥסʥʡΤ褦ʤΡˤȤΩƤΤǡ̾ĤƤޤΰյϼ̤ꡥ
'
ȿε17ʸ31ʸɽΤж硤ûΤȤСʱѸˤԾ1~2ԤɽΤ֤ϤͥפǤڤ̣Ǿ餹褷֤Ϥס֤פǾ餹褷Ǿ餹褷ؼԤǿ̤ͤʤƱɶǡֱӤפȤŰͥǤ
ơرԤ֤ϤפƤޤʤرȤϡܲΡرѸ˿ʹ2ԽѰĹ̳ƤƤǤ2𤦤ԡˡ
weakʷˡweakenư
strength̾ˡstrengthenư
ä2ԤǤƱԳѤʻŦäȤʤޤθ塤Ρ֤Ϥפ˥ԥ졼䤫鼡Τ褦ʼݤǡֲΡפޤ
ΤϤ˴ؾ褵Ƥ餤ޤ
shortʷˡshortenư
length̾ˡlengthenư
ͤʤ顤ɤɤȤʤȵλɤäƤʤΤǤư -en ϡΤΤβ֡˳äʡˤȤȤäȻפΤǤ͡ƻ strong long IJ /ŋ/ ǽΤǡ-en ³ʤʤȤ³ǤʤˤȤȤǤϤʤȡäĴ٤ƤߤޤȤפФƤߤޤ
θ塤ŵפФɤ夯ȤǤޤJespersen ǤJespersen pp. 355--56 濴Ȥơư -en ˴ؤܺ٤ʲ⤬ޤ§Ȥ -en ˳ (obstruent) ǽΤˤĤIJ (sonorant) 첻ǽΤˤϤĤʤȤȤǤΤ *strongen *longen ȤϤʤΥ롼ˤʤ̤δΡʺΥǤ̾ strength, lengthˤФ졤 -en ĤȤȤǤ
There are no examples of n-vbs formed from adjs in vowels (or diphthongs): free, blue, low, slow, hight, sly, shy, new; narrow, yellow, steady, holy; nor of such disyllables as able, noble; nor of adjs in m, n, ŋ, r: slim, thin, brown, clean, long, strong; far, poor, near. Note the contrast in Kipling L 135 to see the smoke roll outward, thin and thicken again | Hardy L 147 her hair greyed and whitened | Quincey 295 to soften and refine the feelings.
. . . .
Our rule accounts for the formation of length(en) and strength(en): there are no vbs long or longen 'make or become long, strong or strongen. On the analogy of these we have the rare depthen (17th c.) and breadthen (19th c.); no corresponding vbs without -en.
Adjs in -l generally have no vbs in -en (thus none from small, full, still); the two named above [= dullen and palen] are exceptional and late.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
as ... as ƱӤ꤬ not so ... as Ȥʤ뤳ȤϡعʸˡǤ褯ΤƤ롥ȤƤκǽ as ʸ̮Ǥ so ˤʤȤȤΤȼΤϡŪˤԻĤϤʤ#693. as, so, also ([2011-03-21-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡas ϸ츻Ū so ζĴη֤Ȥ⤤so ... as Ūˤ˳ʤǤⲿǤʤ
̩ˤиѸˤƤ not as ... as ̤˸롥ĤޤꡤΤƤ not as ... as ϡnot so ... as ȸ뤳ȤǽȤˤʤñ٤ǤС¤ not as ... as ΤۤȤƤ¿ΤǤ롥Ӻʤ⡤ BNCweb "not as (_{ADJ} | _{ADV}) as" "not so (_{ADJ} | _{ADV}) as" ǸƤߤȡ줾1,355313ԤŪȤʤ81.24%)
Quirk et al (15.71) ˾ܤnot so ... ä˹ޤΤϡǸ as ʲάȤȤʤĤޤ not so ... as ȤʤʤȤˡʲȡ
He's not as naughty as he was.
He's not so naughty as he was.
He's not so naughty (now).
ޤƱˤСüԤˤäƲϰۤʤ褦not so ... as (presupposition) üʿȤ
Some prefer to use so . . . as with negative clauses. But for some people so tends to carry the absurd implication of a possibility that is then negated, and they therefore find it odd to say:
(?)Her baby is not so old as I thought.
The reason is that for them the sentence implies that a baby can be old. In other words, an unmarked term old . . . cannot be used in this context to cover the whole scale.
ȿոͭɸˤĤƤϡ#1804. gradable antonym ΰ̣ ([2014-04-05-1]) Ȥ줿
ƱӤιʸ˴ؤƤϡϢơ#3346. A is as . . . as B. ϡA Bס ([2018-06-25-1]) ⻲ȡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ȿ (antonym) ϡΰ̣ (semantics) ˤ1ĤνפʥȥԥåǤ롥ȿոȤäƤ͡ʥפꡤ#1800. ͡ȿи ([2014-04-01-1]) ǤߤȤǤ롥ޤѸκǤŵŪȿոڥ1Ǥ old young ȤäƤߤƤ⡤How old are you? ̡ʡ̵ɸˤ How young are you? ϤѡʡͭɸˤȤǡХμ줿ñȿդǤϤʤǤ뤳Ȥ롥ȿդȤΤϻפä
ŵŪȿդäƤħ1Ĥ polarity ʶˤ롥Ụ̄Ūˤϡ3 polarity ̤롥̡ɾ polarity Allan (130--31)
polarity This is displayed when one term of a binary opposition is described as 'positive' and the other as 'negative'. The most obvious cases are where one term carries a negative affix which the other lacks: possible: impossible, happy: unhappy, obey: disobey, dress: undress, and so on. But other types of opposition are said to have positive and negative terms. The main ones are as follows:
1. Logical polarity is based on the principle that 'two negatives make a positive'. For instance, It's true that it's true is equivalent to It's true, but It's false that it's false changes polarity and is equivalent to It's true. From this we can conclude that false is the negative term and true is positive.
2. Quantity polarity applies particularly to antonym pairs, where the positive term indicates 'more of' some property and the negative term 'less of', as with long (positive) and short (negative).
3. Evaluation polarity is where the positive term expresses approval and the negative term disapproval, as with good: bad, polite: rude.
硦 polarity ȤȤȿաʸˤ˸礦ݤˤϡ3ռȺ𤻤˺Ѥࡥ
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
ε#4088. űѸǡǯפ̣ winter ([2020-07-06-1]) Τ˼դĴ٤Ƥ顤ѸΤ⤷ɽ˹Ԥäa girl of eighteen summers ˧18Ф̼ˡa child of ten summers 10ФλҶˡa youth of twenty summers 20ФǯˤʤɤǤ롥
űѸ winter ʣĹǯɽ魯ΤѤΤ̾ä顤an old man of eighty winters ȬϩϷ͡ˤΤ褦ʡϷǯפɽ魯ɽޤƤ櫓Ǥ롥εǤϡǯΤʤ1ǤߡǯפȤʬΤΥȥ˥ߡѤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ǡֿ winter ϷǯפȤե¸ߤ뤳Ȥְ㤤ʤȡŪˡֿ summer ǯפȤեˤޤƤ뤳Ȥ⡤ۤԲIJǤϤʤsummer ϡʬΤΥȥ˥ߡϤΤޤޤˡȤ櫓ǯǯФΥեȤƿΤǤ롥
ºݡOED summer, n.1 and adj. θ4ˤȡǯСפ̣νФϡűѸǤϤʤäȸθѸǤ롥ȤȤ˰Ѥ롥
4. In plural. With a numeral or other quantifier, as two summers, five summers, etc.: used to measure a duration or lapse of time containing the specified number of summers or years; esp. used to denote a person's age. Now chiefly literary and rhetorical.
Frequently applied particularly to younger people, perhaps with intended contrast with WINTER n.1 2, although cf. e.g. quots. 1821, 2002 for application to older people.
c1400 (?c1380) Cleanness (1920) l. 1686 Þus he countes hym a kow þat watz a kyng ryche, Quyle seven syþez were overseyed someres, I trawe.
1573 T. Bedingfield tr. G. Cardano Comforte ii. sig. E.ii Wee maruaile at flees for theyr long life, if they liue two Sommers.
. . . .
a1616 W. Shakespeare Comedy of Errors (1623) i. i. 132 Fiue Sommers haue I spent in farthest Greece.
ǯ summer ˡϡäƸűѸ winter ˡȤĤġեȥȥ˥ߡŪ (correlative analogy) ̤Ѹ˺Ф줿ˡȤȤˤʤŪѤˤĤƤϡ#1918. sharp flat ([2014-07-28-1]) ȡˡ¿Ūʳǰե (conceptual metaphor) Ǥ⤢롥
Ȥǡ summer winter ȤǤȤСȤƤϡֲơפȲᤷƤ褤ΤΤ褦ˤߤ뤬¤ϡֽաפǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ȤΤϡּǯνաפΤۤᤷ䤹#1221. ˡ ([2012-08-30-1])#1438. Sumer is icumen in ([2013-04-04-1]) Ǹ褦ˡŪˤ summer ϲƤФǤʤդؤߤȿ (antonymy) ϲƤʤΤդʤΤʤȤͤǤ롥
ܸ˴ѤƱ줬ޤ뤳Ȥϡ#285. Ѹֻȴζ (2) ([2010-02-06-1])#539. Ʊ۵ ([2010-10-18-1])#717. Ʊ۵˴ؤ ([2011-04-14-1])#2914. ܸ÷ŪʸǤס ([2017-04-19-1]) ˤȤ櫓ΤȤȤʤΤϡƱʸ̮ѤƱǤ롥ΩȻΩкߤߡŷȹŷʤɤϡषȿոȤ⤤٤ƱΥڥǤꡤҥȤȤʤʸ̮ʤ¤ꡤȤʤΤϴΤߤǤ롥ǤϡǥǤμ̤ơǥǤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥ܸ줬֥饸פǤϤʤ֥ƥӷפȾΤʤʡ#1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1]) ȡˡ
¤Ϥ⤦1Ĥˡ롥㤨лΩȻΩΥڥˤĤƤϡɤߤѤơ֤錄ġפȡ֤ġפȲɤʬ뤳ȤǤ롥кߤߡŷȹŷΥڥǤϤΤ褦ɤʬδѤϰäƤʤѤΤ⾯ʤʤǤϡѤ꤬ʤȤС (154--55) ϤϹͤƤʤषΤ褦ʴѤȯãΤȤˤ롤ƥӷƱ¸ߤΤΤǤƤ롥
ȤС֥勵ġʻΩˤγعפȡ֥ġʻΩˤγعס֥⥸ƥʻŵˡפȡ֥ȥХƥʼŵˡפȡ֥ȥƥʻŵˡס֥硼ʹȡˡפȡ֥ޥ硼ʹ۶ȡˡפȡ֥硼ʶȡˡ֥ȥΥˡפȡ֥ߥΥˡס֥勵Υʻơˤȡ֥ߥΥʻơˡ
⤷ΤϡܿͤĤɤ餺षΤˤäƤ뤳Ȥ뤳Ȥޤ路ΤȤ餳ȤФѻߤ褦ȸͤϤäˤʤष虜虜ޤ路Ʊθ餿ˤĤ롥ֻŵסּŵפȤؤ⤦ġֻŵפĤ롥عάֹפǤˤΤˡȹعֹפάΤ롥ӳۡפȤȤФǤˤΤˡҳۡפȤȤФޤĤ롥ǤˡִȡפΤˡˤ⤦ҤȤġֵȡפĤʤȤȡִȡפΰդֵȡפȤʤȤʤΤǤ롥ޤ⤷餿˻ȤȤä˽ƸΤʤ餹Ǥˡ϶ȡפȤ줬ˡޤ路Ʊθ줬դΤΤǤ뤫Τ褦Ǥ롥
ʤǤʸ̡ȤΤܿͤˤȤäƤϡ虜虜ޤǤʤΤȤʤΤǤ롥顤Ʊθ줬ǤƤʿʤΤ
ܸüԤϡܸ줬ƥӷǤ뤳Ȥ졤ˤⵤŤषڤफΤ褦ѤƤ롥¿οͤϡŦޤǵˤȤʤΤˡ϶ä٤ðۤʸ콬Ǥ롥
ˡشܿ͡١ʸ麽սҡ2001ǯ
98դǷǼĤɸ˴ؤ䤬줿̤ˤϡ괧Τʤ few ϲĻ̾ˤĤơ֤ۤȤɤʤפŪʴްդäѤ졤괧դ a few ϡ־פȹŪʰ̣ͭȤ롥Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤܸˤʤ⡤ѱѼŵˤͤˤޤ褦˻פ롥㤨 OALD8 ˤСfew "used with plural nouns and a plural verb to mean 'not many'" Ȥꡤ a few "used with plural nouns and a plural verb to mean 'a small number', 'some'" Ȥ롥Ĥޤꡤfew many ꡦеȤƤΰ֤Ťa few some ƱȤƤΰ֤ŤǤ롥 few Ū˷a few ϹŪ˷ȤȯΤȹͤ롥
ˤ̤äƤߤ褦few ȤϡűѸ fēawa, fēawe, fēa ʤɤηǡ§ȤʣηƻȤơʤޤ̾Ūˤ̤ѤƤΰ̣Ϥޤ many ¿; OE maniġˤеȤƤΡ־ʤפǤꡤѸ괧ʤ few ƱǤ롥
a few ɽˤĤƤϡűѸǤ괧̤ȯãäˡ⤽ΩƤʤäĤޤꡤΤ褦 few a few ΩϤޤ¸ߤƤʤäΤǤ롥Ѹꡤ괧줬ȯãƤȡ褦䤯 "a small number of" ۤɤΰ̣ a few Ƥ롥OED Ǥν1297ǯ "1297 R. Gloucester's Chron. (1724) 18 Þe kyng with a fewe men hym~self flew at þe laste." Ƥ롥
ϡʤΤ褦ʰ̣ζ̤ȤȤǤ롥 few ˤĤƤϡűѸ many еȤơĤޤ "not many" ȤƤΰ֤ŤʹߡߤޤϢʤȼѤ줿ȹͤФ褤a few ˤĤƤϡ괧Ūʡ֡ʹŪ¸ߡפδްդ few դä줿ȹͤΤǤϤʤ#86. one ȯ ([2009-07-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ괧 a(n) εϿ ān (one) Ǥ롥ơθ꼭 ne ղääΤnān (< ne + ān) Ǥꡤ줬 none ˤ no ؤȯã롥Ĥޤꡤ괧 a(n) ϡȤƤ1ѶŪ˼Ȥϡ no ֤Ȥǡ¸ߤδްդ
ʾޤȤȡfew ΤΤ many Ȥư֤Ť졤ȤŪʴްդäƤ뤬a ղä줿 a few 괧ΤĹꡦ¸ߤδްդӤӤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤȤǤϤʤƱȤϡԲĻ̤̾ɽ魯 little a little ˤĤƤ롥Ԥ much ȤơԤϤ a դȤǹŪʴްդĤȤˤʤäȹͤ롥
ͤޤǤ OED few, adj. 1Ƥ
1. Not many; amounting to a small number. Often preceded by but, full, so, too, very, well.
Without prefixed word, few usually implies antithesis with 'many', while in a few, some few the antithesis is with 'none at all'. Cf. 'few, or perhaps none', 'a few, or perhaps many'.
Ūʰ̣Ǥϡΰ̣̣ʬ뤤ϰ̣θ (semantic components or primitives) ؤʬʬʬ (componential_analysis) μˡΤƤϡˤֲǤ«ǤפȤͤΰ̣ˤѤΤǤ롥
̣ʬϡǤˤƱͤˡѳ̤ˤäɽʤФ + - դΩȤɽ蘆뤬ʲǤϤĤƤʤˡȤơȿ˻Ҥɽ魯 bachelor ʬʬϤ
bachelor [MALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED]
Ǥϡbachelor γǰỤ̄4ĤʬȤ߹碌ȤƼƤ롥Ȥ߹碌ʤ bachelor ΤΤǤȲ᤹ΤפǤ롥षȤ߹碌ˤäƴϢ¾θȤθỤ̄ŪطΤˤʤȤǡʬʬϤͭѤʤΤǤ롥㤨СȿȽɽ魯 spinster ϡΤ褦ʬʬϤ
spinster [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED]
4ĤʬȤ߹碌 spinster ΤΤǤȤϡbachelor ʬʬϤӤȤߴطΤˤʤȤ礭ʤbachelor spinster ϤȤ [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED] ȤǤ϶̤뤬[MALE] [FEMALE] 1ˤ㤤ˤäơΤȤеطȤʤ뤳ȤƤ롥spinster ȴϢơwoman wife ʬʬϤ⼨
woman [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN]
wife [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [MARRIED]
spinster woman ϡԤ [UNMARRIED] ȤʬͿʤȤ1ˤưۤʤäƤꡤΤȤԤԤξ̸ (hypernym) Ǥ뤳ȤȽ롥ޤspinster wife δطˤĤƤϡ[UNMARRIED] [MARRIED] Ȥ1ˤΩеȤȤˤʤ롥ˡ*The man is a wife. ΰ̣Ū̷⡤줬 [MALE] ʬޤǤΤˡҸƤʤ [FEMALE] ʬޤǤ뤳ȤˤǤ롥ʬʬϤκŦȡäˤȿдط (antonymy)ݴط (hyponymy)̷طʤɳƼδطŪɽǤ褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥ۤˤ⡤ʬʬϤϡŪŪ (selection restriction) εҤˤϤȯʤɡͭǧƤ롥
Katz Fodor ʤɤ̣ԤϡʬʬϤιͤȯŸơ㤨С#1801. homonymy polysemy ζ ([2014-04-02-1]) 褦ʬϤʤɤޤǤ⥢ꥹȥƥ쥹Ūʬˡǰ̣ȤʬʬϤμˡˤϡǰȽƤŪ꤬ŦƤ⤤뤬̣ʬϤͭϤˡ1ĤȤơޤ˱ƶϤäƤʤ
ʾ塤Saeed (259--66) ȤƼɮ
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
sharp flat ʹСڤˤȾ⤤ŵʢˤȾ㤤ѵʢˤפ⤫֡ڤǤϸߤȿոȤ⤤ط⤷Ȥ˱ѸǤϡ֤äꡤΤˡפȤ̣ͭƤ롥ܸǤ flat ϡ10åեåȤפʤɤȤ뤬ѸǤ sharp ֤äꡤΤˡפ̣ȤѤ롥ʲˡξΰ̣ǤȤѤʸ褦
We're meeting at one thirty sharp.
Please be here at seven o'clock sharp.
She planned to unlock the store at 8.00 sharp this morning.
He ran 100 yards in 10 seconds flat!
You're sitting behind an engine that'll move you from 0 to 60mph in six seconds flat.
I fell asleep in five seconds flat!
sharp ϻɽ魯Τˡflat ϻַ¬ѤȤ㤤Ϥ뤬֤äꡤΤˡפȤ̣ΰפ϶̣ϤɤΤ褦ͳˤΤ
sharp ϡֱԤפθ顤֡ʻ֤ˡ˸ʤʡפͳơ֤äꡤΤˡפؤỌ̇̄Ѳpunctual ʻָΡˤθ촴ƥ punctumʤԤڤ point Ǥ뤳ȤӤ줿
flat ϸʿפ餯̤ˤ֤꤭פͳơ֤äꡤΤˡפؤỌ̇̄ѲΤǤϤʤȹͤ롤顤äѤ¬Ѥͳ狼롥
Ĥޤꡤ֤äꡤΤˡפθγ˴ؤƤϡsharp flat δ֤ˤľܤˤܤˤطʤȹͤƤ褤줾ȼΥ롼ȤФơޤ褦ʸȯãȹͤ롥
ѸȤƤξΩϡޤ̤äǤ롥sharp ϡιù⤵αԤȤƤȤ館 (synaesthesia) λʪǤꡤ֡ʥˤĤơȾ⤤פθޤ줿Ф flat ϡShakespeare The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1. 2. 90) ˤƽФ֤ĤפθѤ줿 sharp ("No, madam, 'tis too sharp.") ؤŪȤơʿޤʡĤޤʤפ̣ȿոȤ flat ("Nay, you are too flat.") Ѥ줿Ȥͳ褹롥γݤ礤ȿմطεҤȤƤѤ졤Ⱦ⤤פsharp ȤǡȾ㤤פ flat ޤ줿Τ褦˴ŪǤϤ뤬flat ΤۤⶦФʤ̤ȤƤοȤȤˤʤ̤θС"correlative analogy" (Stern 218--20) ˤȿոηȤ롥
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
#1800. ͡ȿи ([2014-04-01-1]) εǡäȤŵŪȿиȤ "gradable antonym" ȾΤˤĤƿ줿"contrary" ȤƤФ뤬ŵŪ٤ηƻΥڥפ⤫٤Ф褤good / bad, big / small, hot / cold, old / young, long / short, happy / sad, clean / dirty Ǥ롥줾츫ñʥڥ̣ŪܳŪ˰ȤȡʤʤʣޤǤ롥
ȿոڥˤĤƤ褯ΤƤ븽ݤϡεǤ줿褦ˡڥΤ̵ɸ (unmarked) ǡ¾ͭɸ (marked) Ǥ뤳Ȥ㤨СǯҤͤ뵿ʸǤϡHow old are you? old ѤΤ̤Ǥ롥How young are you? young Ѥˤϡ֤ʤ㤤ȤȤϤǤΤäƤ뤬ҤͤΤϤɤ㤤פȤüޤȤʤ롥old ξˤϤΤ褦Ϥʤ̾ΩŪ˻Ȥ롥츫 old young Ϥ줾ƱλʤǥڥʤƤȿոΤ褦˸뤬ºݤˤ old ΩŪƯôäƤ̵ɸǤΤФơyoung ϾˤäƤü᤹ͭɸǤ롥old young ˸뤳Τ褦ʺϡŪ˸뺹ǤϤʤ̣Ū˵ꤵƤ뺹Ǥȹͤ졤̣ΰȤ롥
ȿոͭɸ̵ɸΩɽФΤϡ٤Ҥͤ뵿ʸȤʸ̮˸¤ʤ㤨С̾⡤ȿոƻ̵ɸС˴ŤΤ¿long / short бΩŪ̾ length shortness ȤƤޤȡ̣νſûطΩŪǤϤʤƱͤˡdeep / shallow Ф depth strong / weak Ф strength 줾ΩŪ̾
ͭɸ̵ɸΩɽФĶȤƵʸ̾2ǵLehrer (400) Ϥ6ĤιܤơΩȿոΰ̣˿Ƥ뤳Ȥ8ܤʲ˼
I Neutralization of an opposition in questions by unmarked member.
II Neutralization of an opposition in nominalizations by unmarked member.
III Only the unmarked member appears in measure phrases of the form Amount Measure Adjective (e.g. three feet tall).
IV If one member of the pair consists of an affix added to the antonym, the affix form is marked.
V Ratios can be used only with the unmarked member (e.g. Twice as old).
VI The unmarked member is evaluatively positive; the marked is negative.
VII The unmarked member denotes more of a quality; the marked denotes less.
VIII If there are asymmetrical entailments, the unmarked member is less likely to be 'biased' or 'committed'. Cf.
A is better than B. A and B could be bad.
B is worse than A. B must be bad, and A may be as well.
I II ˤĤƤϤǤ˿줿III ϡfive feet tall, two years old, three metres wide ʤɤñ̤ˤɽ̾ѤΤ̵ɸСȤ롥
IV ϡŵŪƬΤĤСͭɸǤȤȤǡlucky / unlucky, important / unimportant ʤɤ㤬롥impartial / partial unbiased / biased ΥڥǤϡ¾°˾Ȥ餹ȡषƬΤĤԤ̵ɸȤʤꡤȿ롥
V ϡtwice as long as . . ., ten times as heavy as . . . ʤɤܿɽѤС̵ɸȤȤǤ롥
VI ϡݥƥɾôС̵ɸǤȤΤgood, strong, happy, clean ʤɤߤ¤ꡤΤˤη褦˻פ뤬ʸˤɤѤˤѰۤϤȤСclean / dirty ΩˤơݥλԽԤˤȤäƥݥƥɾôΤ dirty Τۤ
VII ϡҴŪ̲ˡ礭ʤ̵ۤɸǤȤΤbig, long, heavy, wide ʤɤˤĤƤϤδϤ褯ƤϤޤ뤬clean / dirty ξ硤ԤԤ٤Ʋ̤礭ΤϤ褯ʬʤ餫äƤ르ߤ̤ǤСdirty Τۤ礭ȤȤˤʤ롥safe / dangerous, sober / drunk, pure / impure, accurate / inaccurate ˤƱ꤬ͤ롥
VIII ϡް (entailment) ˴ؤ붽̣㤨 good / bad ΩˤơThe steak is better than the chicken, but both are bad. ϵƤ뤬* The chicken is worse than the steak, but both are good. ϵƤʤȤϡgood bad ȰۤʤꡤΩŪʰ̣ôȤǤ뤳Ȥɽ魯դˡbad ΩŪǤꡤƤȤȤˤʤ롥bad ΤΤ褦ϡ"committed" ɽ롥ǡhot / cold, happy / sad ʤɤǤξСȤ "committed" Ǥ뤫顤ΥСΤߤ "committed" Ǥ good / bad, long / short Τ褦ʥڥȤۤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
嵭8ܤϡΤȤ gradable antonyms ̵ɸͭɸΩͭ뷹뤳ȤΤˤȤɤޤꡤ٤ƤΥڥɬ8ܤΤ٤ƤȤȤˤϤʤʤI ǤϤ°ȤߤʤȤޤǤϤǤ뤬ʳ°ϸġȿոڥ˱줿ʤäȤޤޤ
嵭Ѹʳθˤѻ븽ݤʤΤޤ⤽ʤȿոڥ̵ɸͭɸΩΤʤΤȤŪ⤫Ǥ롥ȿոΰ̣ϡʾ˿Ǥ롥
Lehrer, A. "Markedness and Antonymy." Journal of Linguistics 21 (1985): 397--429.
ȿи (opposite) ˤȿո졤ȿʤɤθƤ̾뤬Ѹꤵ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤äȿФȤ뤫ˤĤƤ͡Ǥ롥
ȿФȿФϹȡ֡ˤȤͤΤǤϤʤ֤ȹ٤ȤȤ߹碌⤢뤷浡פ⤫٤֤ġʼºݤοСˤȤΩͤ롥ޤֹ⤤פȿФˤϡ㤤פȡְ¤פ2Ĥ뤬㤤פȿФˤϡֹ⤤1ĤʤȿФ狼뤤ϻФϤޤ夫ФǭФ륤ȿиȤΤhappy ȿФ unhappy Ȥ sad ĹûȻࡤȳ̤פȺʤϡ줾ƱˤäȿиȸƤ٤Τ
̣Ǥϡȿиˤ͡ʼब뤳ȤǧƤ롥ʲ Hofmann (40--46, 57--60) ˵äơɽŪʤΤޤȤ褦
(1) (gradable) antonym
ǤŵŪȿиϡhigh / lowlong / short, old / new, hot / cold Τ褦٤ɽ魯ƻФǤ롥ȿиƻϡѸǤӵǾˤǤ롤very ٤ʤɤħġ٤Ҥͤ뵿̾˻ѤΤϡФΤ줫Ǥꡤ餬ŪΩŪʰ̣ôȤˤʤ롥㤨Сlong / short Ф˴ؤƤ long ̵ɸȤʤꡤHow long is the train? the length of the train ʤɤ¤̣Ѥ롥ܸǤ֤ɤΤ餤ĹΤפȿҤͤ뤷̾ϡĹפȤǤϡĹûס羮סִȡפʤɤФˤΩŪ٤ɽ魯ȤǤΤ⤷
(2) complementary
on / offtrue / false, finite / infinite, mortal / immortal, single / married ʤɤΧȿФ롥(1) ФȰۤʤꡤvery ʤɤǶ뤳ȤϤǤ٤ȤɽǤʤǥʴطǤ롥ŪˡƬղäƤơɤ餬̵ɸǤ뤫뤳ȤǤʤФΰ (1) ¾ (2ˤĥ⤢롥㤨Сopen / shut, cooked / raw, invisible / visible ϡ줾ΥڥΤԤ gradable Ǥ롥
¾ʻǤϡmale / female, stop / move ʤɤ롥
(3) antonymous group
black / white / red / blue / green Τ褦ˡȿСפȤʤꤦΤޤäưϢθ췲ʤξˤϿ̸áˤΡȿиȤϡषƱ췲°Ȥ̣ǤȤ٤Ǥ롥ߤƱǤʤ⡤°Ǥϸͭϰ̤Ƥߤ˺ŪǤȤǡˤäƤϡȿиפȤ⤵ˤʤdog cat Ϥ줾ƱǤʤ顤Ʊ°ߤ˰ۤʤäƤΤǡantonymous group ΰʤƤȤ롥ǭܸǤѸǤⴷŪ˥ڥʤΤиȸʤ뤬Ʊ롼פιȤƤϡ͡ڡѡޤ¿ưʪ뤳ȤǤ롥ƻȤƤϡbig / small Ǥ (1) Ʊͤˤߤ뤬huge / big / small / tiny Ȥ4ʳΤʤǹͤ (3) ˤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ĥޤꡤ(3) ϡ(1) (2) 2ΩȤϰۤʤꡤʣΩȸƤ褤north / south / east / west 4ܤʤɡ˴ؤ¤äƤ褦ʥ롼פ⤢롥
ܸǻȿФϳʤ뤤ˤ̤ꥫǤ mountain ФƤ valley ̤Ǥ롥Τ褦ˡ롼ԥʸŪƶΤ¿
(4) reversative
ưưˤĤơžطɽ魯tie ʷ֡ˤ untie ʤۤɤˡclothe 夻ˤ unclothe æˤʤɡʬƻˤ tied / untied, clothed / unclothed Ωžȡ(1) (2) Ȥʤ롥appear / disappear, enable / disable Ʊ͡
(5) converse
husband / wife, parent / child Τ褦ߤ˵Ǥʤ䤤礦ط"X is the (husband) of Y." ΤȤ"Y is the (wife) of X." Ωġson / father ϾθɬǤʤΤǡ converse Ǥ (ex. "X is the father of Liz")
ϰۤʤ뤬buy / sell, lend / borrow Τ褦ñνȿФδǸΤ䡤above / below, in front of / behind, north of / south of, right / left Τ褦˶Ūִطɽ魯Τ⡤converse Ȥ롥
嵭Τ褦ˤ줤ʬǤʤ褦ʡȿиפ⤢ϤζʬȤƻͤˤʤ
Hofmann, Th. R. Realms of Meaning. Harlow: Longman, 1993.
츫ȿ1Ĥθ줬ȿ2Ĥθľ礬롥Τ褦ʸ contronym ȸƤФ졤ϡ#566. contronym ([2010-11-14-1]) #755. contronym ȤƤ literally ([2011-05-22-1]) #1308. learn Ρֶפθ ([2012-11-25-1]) ǵ⤦1ĤȤơư spare Ȥʤ뤫⤷ʤʸɤμȤǡΤ褦ʸ˽Ф路
But she does not spare us the information that it was drafted by a 'Marxist', even though there is nothing Marxist in the reasoning of the letter.
ʸ̮ȤȡϤ줬ޥ륯Ԥˤäƽ줿Ȥ桹˱ʤפȲ᤹٤Ȥ狼ꡤäƤǤ spare ϡͿʤǤפθȤ狼Τˤ spare ˤϡͿפθ⤢뤫狼ˤȻŦʤۤɡư spare ¼ŵǰȡˡͿ롤äƤ䤯פȤäȻפȡ̤θǤϡͿʤǤĤΤ줵פȤ롥ˡξȤ˺Τ褦 SVOO ʸǽǤꡤ츫ȤŪξʬʤϤʤ
Τ褦ʾˤϡܸǹͤˡѱѼŵѤƱѸˤðǰɤ߲Τ褤㤨 OALD8 ˤȡܸͿפΤϰʲθǤ롥
TIME/MONEY/ROOM/THOUGHT, ETC.
1 to make sth such as time or money available to sb or for sth, especially when it requires an effort for you to do this
. . . .
? sb sth Surely you can spare me a few minutes?
θǤϡľŪȤʤ̾礬̣Ū˸ꤵƤ뤳Ȥդ֡⡤ڡʤɤλǤ롥Ūɽ蘆ʪˤȤäơֳݡפ뤳ȤåȤȤʤ롥ˡͿʤǤפߤ褦
SAVE SB PAIN/TROUBLE
2 to save sb/yourself from having to go through an unpleasant experience
? sb/yourself sth He wanted to spare his mother any anxiety.
Please spare me (= do not tell me) the gruesome details.
You could have spared yourself an unnecessary trip by phoning in advance.
θǤϡľŪȤʤ̾ϡԲʷиפɽ魯Ǥ롥Ūɽ蘆ʪˤȤäơֲפ뤳ȤåȤȤʤ롥
2Ĥθͤ碌ȡspare 濴Ūʰ̣ϡ֡ʴŪɽ蘆˿ʪˤȤäƥåȤȤʤ褦ˡľŪɽʪפȤȤˤʤ롥ŪʽϡοʪˤʪͿסʳݡˤȤȤ⤷ʤͿʤǤסʲˤȤȤ⤷ʤΤ줫ϡľŪɽ蘆ʪȤȤˤʤ롥
ֻѤعʸƤߤȡShe was spared from the ordeal of appearing in court. ʤɤǡfrom ˤäơͿʤǤסʲˤθ졤ξζ̤߲Ƥ롤2Ū칽ʸǤϤζ̤Ū¤ƤޤȤȤ
ܸ𤹤 spare contronym Ǥ뤫Τ褦˸뤬ѸȤƤϰӤǧΤǤ롥ʤƻ sparing ΡּǤʡʡפȡִʡιפθ⻲ȡ
learn ˤϡԸšɸŪդȤꤵ줿Ѱʤֶ롤狼餻פθ롥He learned me how to skate. I'll learn you. ʻפΤ餻Ƥ뤾ˤʤɤʸ롥[2011-09-12-1]εǾҲ𤷤 EDD Online beta-version ˤСlearn θ4Ȥ "To teach, instruct; freq. used ironically as a threat of punishment." Ȥꡤ¾θ˭٤ʸäƤ롥
ֳؤ֡פȡֶפϻ180ٰۤʤꡤȿդȤߤʤ뤬줬 learn ȤΤʤ˶¸Ƥ롥[2010-11-14-1]εǾҲ𤷤#566. contronymפΤ⤦Ḥ̂Ȥˡξ碌ĸϡ leren ե apprendre ˤߤ롥
츻ɤȡ촴 *leis- "track, furrow" ̤롥Ф *laisjan 顤Gmc *liznōjan ˻ꡤ OE leornian "to learn" ȯŸGmc *liznōjan Ȥ OE (ġe)lǣran "to teach" ̤˴طƤꡤlore ʶƳμˤ⤽Ǥ롥"track, furrow" 촴θǤȤȤϡlearn ΰ̣κϡƻƳդˤꤽ
űѸǤϡleornian "learn" (ġe)lǣran "to teach" ̤ƤѸˤʤꡤlernen "teach" θӤӤ褦ˤʤäOED MED ˤȡϡ1200ǯ餤 Ormulum Ǥ롥
Uss birþþ itt [the Gospel] þurth sekenn, To lokenn watt itt lernet uss Off sawle nede. (19613)
ֶפθǺƵ̾ȤȤѤСѸ teach oneself Ʊͤˡֳؤ֡ؤפΰ̣Ȥʤ롥Sir Orfeo BlissǡAuchinleck MS, ll. 30--33ˤ l. 31 ǤϡƵ̾϶դǤϤʤʸ̤Ƶl. 33 lerned ϡֳؤ֡פǤ롥
Him-self he lerned for-to harp,
& leyd þer-on his wittes scharp;
He lerned so, þer no-þing was
A better harpour in no plas.
Ϣơƻ learned ʳؼΤ롤ؤʡˤ1300ǯ餤Фΰ̣ϡֶäפǤꡤlearn ΡֶפθβʬǤ롥12ѤƤ lered ӥɥĸ gelehrt ƱǤ롥
Bliss, A. J., ed. Sir Orfeo. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.
contronym ˤĤ[2010-11-14-1]εˤ1Ĥ literally 롥Ѹλä The Web of Language ε "A literal paradox" ȤƤ⤷Ҳ𤵤Ƥ롥literally ȤϤƤ "figuratively" ѤȤ
ʤۤɡΤ˼Τ褦ʸǤϡΤʪŪȯȲ᤹ʸ̤פɤߤ̤Ūˡַ㹷פɤߤʤ
When I told him the news he literally exploded.
¿μǤϡΤ褦Ūʰ̣Ǥ literally ˡϸѤʤȤɸŪˡȤƤ롥㤨 OED Ǥϡliterally 3b θ˼Τ褦ˤ롥
b. Used to indicate that the following word or phrase must be taken in its literal sense.
Now often improperly used to indicate that some conventional metaphorical or hyperbolical phrase is to be taken in the strongest admissible sense.
ؽѱѱѼǤϵŪ٤ζ٤ϤޤޤΤ褦ǡϷޤ Oxford Longman ǤϤˡϸΤۤθǿƤŪŪʼ갷Ū Cobuild, Cambridge, Macmillan Ǥ1Ȥ硹Ūˡʡ˼夲Ƥ롥
literally ΤˡϵŪˤȤ뤬٤Ȥ19ȾǧƤꡤߤθǤϹѤƤ롥¾Ƥߤ褦
- It literally rained cats and dogs.
- I literally jumped out of my skin.
- The views are literally breath-taking.
- I was literally bowled over by the news.
- Steam was literally coming out of his ears.
ʸΤˤƤʸ̤ˡפǤ뤳Ȥʬ褦ˡܸΡʸ̤ˡפ literally Ʊͤΰ̣ۣ椵ʸ̤ˡפʸ̤Ѥ뤳ȤϤޤʤŪѤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤ롥
Ѹ literally ǤܸΡʸ̤ˡפǤ⡤ɽ letter ʥƥ littera ͳˡʸפȷӤĤƤΤ⤷äդ˴Ťȯ̤ˡפָˤ̤ˡפǤϤʤդ˴Ťʸ̤ˡפȤɽȤʤäƤΤ϶ΰפ
䡤϶ǤϤޤ̤ʸļҲǤϡդäդ֤餤פΤȸʤƤ[2011-05-15-1]εäפȡˡͳ1Ĥϡʸդ줿Τϱ³ȴ뤫ʸΤˤꡤʸդ줿ˤ̵ɵͳȤä餬ޤȤĤüԤϤɽʸ̤ˡפȤǸꤹ뤳ȤˤäơɽΤỊ̇ν褵äԡ뤷ƤΤǤϤʤǡȯ̤ˡפȸꤷƤ⡤ۤɤϤ⤿ʤΤǤϤʤ
literally Τ褦ʷаޤȯŸƤǤΤʤС literally ΰ̣ʸ̤ΰ̣ǤʤʤäƤƤȤΤϡȤʰ̣ѲǤ롥
[2010-10-18-1], [2010-11-07-1]ˤƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ȴϢ뤬줬ȿ2ΰ̣Ʊͭ뤳Ȥ롥Τ褦ʸ contronym 뤤 Janus-faced word ȸƤ֡
ѸܶȤơout 롥"Stars are out tonight." ǤϡָƤפΰ̣"The lights are all out." Ǥϡ־äƤפ줾ɽ魯̤ŵŪ contronym sanction 롥θϡǧġġפθ ( ex. "without the sanction of Parliament" ) ¤ǡۡȳ ( ex. "US sanctions against Cuba" ) θġ fast ˤϡ֤äȡꤹ̣ ( ex. "make a boat fast" ) ȡ̣ ( ex. "run fast" ) ȤߤƤ롥quinquennial ˤϡ5ǯ³פȡ5ǯ1١פθ ( Bryson, pp. 63--64 )
ǯѤȤˤ "infer" contronym ȹͤinfer ֿ¬פ̣뤬άˤ imply ְżפƱˤѤ롥äAżΤʹB¬Ȥ̴طʤΤξϷӤĤѤȤƤȿФǤ롥OALD8 θˡǤϡʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
infer / imply
Infer and imply have opposite meanings. The two words can describe the same event, but from different points of view. If a speaker or writer implies something, they suggest it without saying it directly: The article implied that the pilot was responsible for the accident. If you infer something from what a speaker or writer says, you come to the conclusion that this is what he or she means: I inferred from the article that the pilot was responsible for the accident.
??? Infer is now often used with the same meaning as imply. However, many people consider that a sentence such as Are you inferring that I???m a liar? is incorrect, although it is fairly common in speech.
Trudgill (5--6) infer ˤĤ⤷Ƥ̤ꡤŪʸ̮ŪʴĶʶֻ줬 to from ʤɡˤǤΰ̣ѤƤ뤫Ƚ̤Ǥ礬ۤȤɤǡۤɺƱϵʤȤϤäƤ⡤contronym ˤŪ˸ζ줬ΤϳΤǤꡤinfer Τ褦ʸ̵̤ͭˤƤ⡤줫ΰ̣Ƥ椯ưŤ䰵Ϥϡcontronym Ǥʤ٤礭ȹͤƤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
Bryson, Bill. Mother Tongue: The Story of the English Language. London: Penguin, 1990.
Trudgill, Peter. "The Meaning of Words Should Not be Allowed to Vary or Change." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 1--8.
10ϱư䥤٥ȤηǤ롥Ūʥ٥Ȥή줿ꤹȡ椬ȤնǤϰ⥢ʥĮˤޤ롥īϥƥΤפߤȤʤޤפή줿ǤͤùΤϡֹŷפֹŷפɤäʸ̮ȸŪȽǤºݤˤϸ뤳ȤϤʤƬΥʥˤŬʤϸʤȻפäĤƤϡֹŷפƥֹŷפ復ƥȲ̾ξǤϰۤʤäƤȯƱʤΤƱȿոȤ롥
ȤʬˡʤȽǥʥή줿ΤǤ롥ϰŷΤפߤȤʤޤפơ˿ʬˤϡĹˤ밭ŷΤפߤȤʤޤפȺƤѲɤɤʬ䤹ʤäƤǤϤʤ˶ää뤤ϸƤɤ߾夲ƤƲʤʬˤȻפäΤˤ衤Ǻפ˻äͽäˤ褯ʬåȤʤä
ơ¾˸䤹ƱδϸȤƤϡкߡפȡߡפפĤѴκݤդפϸ켭ŵ٤ˤȡ
ؤкߡ̾ѡˤä¸ߤ뤳ȡԻˡס٤Ρ
ؤߡ̾ѡ椭錄ä¸ߤ뤳ȡܳϤˡ
ܸʤȻפ碌뤬Ʊ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ȸƤФ븽ݤϱѸˤ⸫롥Ѹˤ̾ϡqueen ֽ ( < OE cwēn ) quean ֤Фء ( < OE cwene ) Ǥ롥ξԤϷŪˤ̣Ūˤ̤ƤѸ첻ͻ礷̡Ū˶̤Ĥʤʤạ̈ŪˤȿոȤͤǽ⤤ɡԤ18ȾФ˿ष
gate ( < OE geat ) gait ƻ ( < ME gate < ON gata ) ƱͤǡȿոȤޤǤϸʤʸ̮ˤäƤϸǽʬˤڥʤΤǡԤΡƻϩפθϿषξˤ gait Ȥ켫ΤäƤޤȤϤʤ⤭פȤò뤳ȤˤäĤä
ܸǤѸǤƱ۵줬¸㤬ǧȤϤ¿Ϥʤ٤λ֤Ϥ뤬ǽŪ˥ڥΤɤ餫ޤǸѲʤȤȤ¿Ʊ۵ͤβѲθưϤȹͤ뵡ǽŪʸ ( functionalism ) ϡŪŪ ( teleological ) Ǥ뤳ȤϤ뤬ΡֹŷפΥʥʹƤȡ⤢ʤƱդʤ롥
ֹŷפ褦ˤʤäƤ椯ȤܸɽϤϼ岽ȹͤ⤢Сߥ˥βȤߤ⤢ˡʤȤäƤϱѸˤȤǤʤΤ˾λ㤫ȽǤȡĹܤǸСʤȤäդˤơֹŷפֹŷפΤɤ餫ѤʤʤäƤ椯ǽ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
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