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#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ³Ѹ˳ܼơѸ (a history of English) ʬפȤ2ơFennell (2001) ϡܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӻȤƤѸ˳Ǥꡤ˼ҲŪʥץħ롥ɾɤȡ"A Sociolinguistic Approach" ȤγˤϡȤ櫓ŤˤҲŪʰϼ夯ηŪǤʤȤǡǸ3ϡѸʹߤγƾϤǤϼҲŪƶäƤꡤɤͤȤɾ롥⤪褽ɾƱդ롥ƶɤ뤫Ȥɬ¿Ϥʤ⤷ʤλˤĤƤҲŪ˶̣ĤƤꡤҲŪ˱ѸˤįȤɤʤ뤫ȤߤȤƤϤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹŪ˸Ƥ롥ҲشȤϤŪʹ¤ŪʵҤ¿Τǡ¾ɾΤѸ˳1, 2ɤɤΤŬΤǤϤʤΡɤγĤǤ Flash ɤ
1 Introduction
1.1 The Time Periods of English
1.2 Language Change
1.3 Sources of Information on Language Change
1.4 Linguistic Preliminaries
1.5 The Sounds of English, and Symbols Used to Describe Them
1.5.1 Consonants
1.5.2 Vowels
1.5.2.1 Monophthongs
1.5.2.2 Diphthongs
1.6 Structure of the Book
2 The Pre-history of English
Timeline: The Indo-European Period
2.1 The Indo-European Languages and Linguistic Relatedness
2.1.1 The Beginnings
2.1.2 The Development of Historical Linguistics
2.1.3 Genetic Relatedness
2.2 Linguistic Developments: The Indo-European Language Family
2.2.1 Family-Tree Relationships
2.2.2 The Indo-European Family
2.2.2.1 Indo-Iranian
2.2.2.2 Armenian
2.2.2.3 Albanian
2.2.2.4 Balto-Slavonic
2.2.2.5 Hellenic
2.2.2.6 Italic
2.2.2.7 Celtic
2.2.2.8 Germanic
2.3 From Indo-European to Germanic
2.3.1 Prosody
2.3.2 The Consonant System: Sound Shifts
2.3.2.1 Grimm's Law
2.3.2.2 Verner's Law
2.3.2.3 The Second Consonant Shift
2.3.3 The Vowel System
2.3.4 Morphology
2.3.5 Syntax
2.3.6 Lexicon
2.3.7 Semantics
2.3.8 Indo-European/Germanic Texts
2.3.9 Neogrammarians, Structuralists and Contemporary Linguistic Models
2.4 Typological Classification
2.4.1 Universals
2.4.1.1 Syntactic Universals
2.4.2 Morphological Typology
2.5 Sociolinguistic Focus. The Indo-European Tribes and the Spread of Language. Language Contact and Language Change. Archaeological Linguistics
2.5.1 Language Contact
2.5.2 Archaeological Linguistics
2.6 Conclusion
3 Old English
Timeline: The Old English Period
3.1 Social and Political History
3.1.1 Britain before the English
3.1.2 The Anglo-Saxon Invasions
3.1.3 Anglo-Saxon Influence
3.1.4 Scandinavian Influence
3.2 Linguistic Developments: The Sounds, Structure and Typology of Old English
3.2.1 The Structure of Old English
3.2.1.1 OE Consonants
3.2.1.2 Vowels: from Germanic to Old English
3.2.1.3 Old English Gender
3.2.1.4 Inflection in Old English
3.2.1.5 Old English Syntax
3.2.1.6 Old English Vocabulary
3.3 Linguistic and Literary Achievements
3.3.1 Texts
3.3.1.1 Prose
3.3.1.2 Poetry
3.4 The Dialects of Old English
3.5 Sociolinguistic Focus
3.5.1 Language Contact
3.5.1.1 Latin and Celtic
3.5.1.2 The Scandinavians
4 Middle English
Timeline: The Middle English Period
4.1 Social and Political History
4.1.1 Political History: The Norman Conquest to Edward I
4.1.2 Social History
4.1.2.1 The Establishment of Towns and Burghs and the Beginnings of Social Stratification
4.2 Linguistic Developments: Middle English Sounds and Structure, with Particular Emphasis on the Breakdown of the Inflectional System and its Linguistic Typological Implications
4.2.1 Major Changes in the Sound System
4.2.1.1 The Consonants
4.2.1.2 Consonant Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.1.3 Vowels in Stressed Syllables
4.2.1.4 Vowels in Unstressed Syllables
4.2.1.5 Lengthening and Shortening
4.2.1.6 Summary Table of Vowel Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.1.7 The Formation of Middle English Diphthongs
4.2.2 Major Morphological Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.2.1 Loss of Inflections
4.2.2.2 Other Changes in the Morphological System
4.2.2.3 Verbs
4.2.3 Middle English Syntax
4.2.3.1 Word Order
4.2.4 The Lexicon: Loan Words from French
4.2.4.1 Numbers and Parts of the Body
4.2.4.2 Two French Sources
4.3 Middle English Dialects
4.3.1 Linguistic and Literary Achievements
4.3.1.1 Middle English Literature
4.3.2 Language
4.3.3 Genre
4.4 Sociolinguistic Focus: Social Stratification, Multilingualism and Dialect Variation. Language Contact: The Myth of Middle English Creolization
4.4.1 English Re-established
4.4.1.1 Language and the Rise of the Middle Class
4.4.2 The Development of Standard English
4.4.2.1 The Evolution of ME 'Standard' English
4.4.3 Middle English Creolization: Myth?
4.4.3.1 Definitions
4.4.3.2 Pidgins and Creoles in England?
4.5 Conclusion
5 Early Modern English
Timeline: The Early Modern English Period
5.1 Social and Political History
5.1.1 Historical and Political Background
5.1.1.1 Internal Instability and colonial Expansion
5.2 Linguistic Developments: The Variable Character of Early Modern English
5.2.1 Phonology
5.2.1.1 Consonants
5.2.1.2 Vowels
5.2.1.3 The Great Vowel Shift
5.2.2 Morphology
5.2.2.1 Nouns
5.2.2.2 Pronouns
5.2.2.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
5.2.2.4 Verbs
5.2.2.5 The Spread of Northern Forms
5.2.3 Syntax
5.2.3.1 Periphrastic do
5.2.3.2 Progressive Verb Forms
5.2.3.3 Passives
5.2.4 Sample Text
5.2.5 Vocabulary
5.2.6 The Anxious State of English: The Search for Authority
5.2.6.1 Dictionaries and the Question of Linguistic Authority: Swift's and Johnson's View of Language
5.3 Linguistic and Literary Achievement
5.4 Sociolinguistic Focus
5.4.1 Variation in Early Modern English
5.4.2 Standardization
5.4.2.1 The Printing Press
5.4.2.2 The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation
5.4.2.3 English Established
5.4.3 The Great Vowel Shift
5.4.3.1 Phonological Change
5.4.4 Case Study: Power and Solidarity Relations in Early Modern English
5.5 Conclusion
6 Present-Day English
Timeline: Present-Day English
Introduction
6.1 Social and Political History
6.1.1 The Age of Revolutions, Wars and Imperialism
6.1.2 Urbanization, Industrialization and Social Stratification
6.2 Linguistic Developments
6.2.1 Morphology and Syntax
6.2.1.1 Morphology
6.2.1.2 Syntax
6.2.2 The Lexicon
6.2.2.1 Colonialism, Contact and Borrowings
6.2.2.2 Neologisms
6.2.2.3 Illustrative Texts
6.3 Modern English Dialects
6.3.1 Traditional Dialects
6.3.2 Modern Dialects
6.3.3 Received Pronunciation (RP): The Social Background
6.3.3.1 Characteristics of RP
6.3.4 RP, Estuary English and 'the Queen's English'
6.4 Sociolinguistic Focus: English in Scotland, Ireland and Wales --- Multilingualism in Britain
6.4.1 English in the British Isles
6.4.1.1 English in Scotland
6.4.1.2 English in Wales
6.4.1.3 English in Ireland
6.4.2 Immigrant Varieties of English in Britain
6.4.2.1 Immigration to Britain in the PDE Period
6.4.2.2 Colonial Immigration and Language
7 English in the United States
Timeline: America in the Modern Period
7.1 Social and Political History
7.1.1 Settlement and Language
7.1.2 Settlement by Region
7.1.2.1 The Original Thirteen Colonies
7.1.2.2 The Middle West
7.1.2.3 The South and West
7.2 The Development of American English
7.2.1 The Strength and maintenance of Dialect Boundaries
7.2.2 How, Why and When American English Began to Diverge from British English
7.2.2.1 Physical Separation
7.2.2.2 The Different Physical Conditions Encountered by the Settlers
7.2.2.3 Contact with Immigrant Non-Native Speakers of English
7.2.2.4 Developing Political Differences and the Growing American Sense of National Identity
7.3 Language Variation in the United States
7.3.1 Uniformity and Diversity in Early American English
7.3.2 Regional Dialect Divisions in American English
7.3.2.1 The Lexicon
7.3.2.2 Phonology: Consonants
7.3.2.3 Phonology: Vowels
7.3.3 Social and Ethnic Dialects
7.3.3.1 Social Class and Language Change
7.3.3.2 Ethnicity
7.3.3.3 African-American Vernacular English
7.3.3.4 Traditional Dialects and the Resistance to Change
8 World-Wide English
Timeline: World-Wide English
8.1 Social and Political History: The Spread of English across the Globe
8.1.1 British Colonialism
8.1.1.1 Canada
8.1.1.2 The Caribbean
8.1.1.3 Australia
8.1.1.4 New Zealand
8.1.1.5 South Africa
8.1.1.6 South Asia
8.1.1.7 Former Colonial Africa: West Africa
8.1.1.8 East Africa
8.1.1.9 South-East Asia and South Pacific
8.1.2 An Overview of the Use of English throughout the World
8.2 English as a Global language
8.2.1 The Industrial Revolution
8.2.2 American Economic Superiority and Political Leadership
8.2.3 American Technological Domination
8.2.4 The Boom in English language Teaching
8.2.5 The Need for a Global Language
8.2.6 Structural Considerations
8.2.7 Global and at the Same Time Local
8.3 English as a Killer Language
8.3.1 Language Death
8.3.2 Language and Communication Technology
8.4 The Future of English
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
#1029. England θѸʬ (1) ([2012-02-20-1]) ڤӡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) Ǹ奤ɤαѸʬǼΤϤ (Traditional Dialects) Ǥ롥20ȾФˤϤǤ˸षƤꡤ21θߤǤϤθब³ǤäƤȤäƤǤϤʤǡפ븽 (Modern Dialects) ääƼ㤤˱ƶϤڤܤƤꡤȤƤϼήΥפȤʤäƤ롥Υɤ Modern Dialects ϡܸؼԤΰͺִܸĤĤΤȤֿפˡĤӤ졤̣
Trudgill (5--6) ϡTraditional Dialects ֤ΤȤƤ Modern Dialects 뤤 Mainstream Dialects Ȥܤζ̤Τ褦ɽƤˤĤƤϡ[2012-02-20-1]εΰѤȡˡ
Mainstream Dialects, on the other hand, include both the Standard English Dialect and the Modern Nonstandard Dialects. Most native English speakers speak some variety of Mainstream Dialect. These dialects are associated with native speakers outside the British Isles, especially in recently settled areas which speak mixed colonial dialects, such as Australia and most of America and Canada. In Britain, they are particularly associated with those areas of the country from which Standard English originally came --- the southeast of England; with most urban areas; with places which have become English-speaking only relatively recently, such as the Scottish Highlands, much of Wales, and western Cornwall; with the speech of most younger people; and with middle- and upper-class speakers everywhere. The mainstream Modern Nonstandard Dialects differ much less from Standard English and from each other, and are often distinguished much more by the pronunciation --- their accent --- than by their grammar.
ʲ˼ΤϡTrudgill (66--67) ˤ Modern Dialects ζʬǤ롥ΡɤγĤǤ Flash ǤߤΤɤ
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Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Blackwell: Malden, MA: 2000.
ޥؤȯ롤Ҷ饳ƥĤѰդƤΥΤʤˡTimeline of English Language ʤFLASHƥĤȯƤѸǯɽǡޤƳŪŪǤλѤǰƬ֤ΤäμˤϻȤ뤫⤷ʤΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
˴ؤ¾ΥƥĤؤΥϡˤ롥ΤΤʤɤϡ빽⤷
World Language Map
Borrowing Game
ʰǯɽȤȤǤСA brief chronology of English ʤΤĤܥ֥Ǥϡtimeline ȡ
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Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
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٤κϤ졤ʬϸˤȤäŪƱͤ˹ڤȤܤܤߤС褯Ǥ롥ʲϡƣ (167) ޤƸΤǤ롥
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μϡTraditional Dialect ȸƤФΤǡűѸѸ줫ʬαĹˤΤǤ롥Trudgill (5) Ѥ롥
Traditional Dialects are what most people think of when they hear the term dialect. They are spoken by a probably shrinking minority of the English-speaking population of the world, almost all of them in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. They are most easily found, as far as England is concerned, in the more remote and peripheral rural areas of the country, although some urban areas of northern and western England still have many Traditional Dialect speakers. These dialects differ very considerably from Standard English, and from each other, and may be difficult for others to understand when they first encounter them.
England Traditional Dialect Ĵϥ衼åѤ¾ι٤줿Orton, H. et al. Survey of English Dialects: The Basic Material. 4 vols. Leeds: E. J. Arnold, 1962--71. ˤ1950ǯʹߤʬۤ餫ˤƤʲ˼ΤϡʬŪ Survey ˰͵ Trudgill (35) ζʬǤ롥13ؤȶʬƤ롥
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Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Blackwell: Malden, MA: 2000.
ؤμȤDZѸˤˤŪʸѲˤäơФиѲ⤹ɬפΤγغŪʬ˾ǤŬڤʻʤѲܼʤɤȤΤǤϤʤȻפäƤ뤬õ⼫ʬǤޤȤۤüᤤȹͤBussmann θؼŵ "language change" ιȤޥɥޥåפƤߤΡɤĤǤFlashɤ

äƤϡۤ[2010-07-13-1]εָѲθפʤɤȤ椯椯 language_change γƵޤȤơޥɥޥåפβǤꤿȻפäƤ롥̣ǡΥ֥Τ̤ƸѲ˴ؤͻϿȤƤȤΤǡνο
ѸθѲ˴ؤ륦־λȤƤϡRaymond Hickey's Studying the History of English Language change ¤Ƥ롥
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
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Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
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