ε#4314. ǽʸϸ2 ([2021-02-17-1]) ˤợŪʥƥȤƤǽ (ergative) ˿줿ѸǽʸǤϤʤгʸǤꡤľܤˤϴطʤȤפ뤫⤷ʤǽ (ergativity) ȤѸľƤߤȡȯ롥ưμ¾̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ뤷ư (passive) ư (middle_voice) Ȥ롥ºݡưμ¾ζ̤ϱѸư乽ʸͤݤŪǴŪʸƤƤ뤬ǽλ鸫ľȡʿѤäƤΤ
Malmkjær (532) "Ergativity" ιΰѤ롥
Complementary to the transitive model of the grammar is the ergative model, an additional property of the system of transivitity, which foregrounds the role of Agency in providing a 'generalised representational structure common to every English clause' (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 281). This system is simultaneous with those of process type and circumstance . . . . Here the key variable is not a model of extension, as in transitivity, but of causation: 'The question at issue is: is the process brought about from within, or from outside?' (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 287). Every process must have one participant central to the actualisation of the process; 'without which there would be no process at all' (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 288). This is the Medium and along with the process forms the nucleus of the clause. The Medium is obligatory and is the only necessary participant, if the process is represented as being self-engendering. If the process is engendered from outside, then there is an additional participant, the Agent. Options in the ergative model of transitivity define the voice, or agency, of the clause. A clause with no feature of 'agency' is neither active nor passive but middle (for example, Europeans arrives). One with agency is non-middle, or effective, in agency (for example, Europeans invaded Australia). An effective clause is then either operative or receptive in voice. In an operative clause, the Subject is the Agent and the process is realised by an active verbal group; in a receptive clause the Subject is the Medium and the process is realised by a passive verbal group (Australia was invaded by Europeans) (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 297).
줿褦ˡνˤгʸ (accusative language) ǽʸ (ergative language) Ȥ2祿פ롥ơ transitivity Żθ ergativity ŻθȸƤ褤ʸˡѤ礭ۤʤ륿פǤϤ뤬°¾ȯۤįƤߤȡƶ롥ɤΤȤʹ֤ɽȤɽˡˤϾΥѥʤɽŪˤϰۤʤäƤ褦ˤߤƤ⡤ϥɲˡ㤨Ƥˤʤɾ뤳ȤǤ
Malmkjær, Kirsten, ed. The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2010.
Halliday, M. A. K. and Matthiessen, C. M. I.M. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 3rd ed. London: Edward Arnold, 2004.
νˤĤơפʳ (case) ΤȤʬहȤѸΤ褦 nominative-accusative פθȡХ䥰른Τ褦 absolutive-ergative פθ礭ʬ롥Ԥгʸ (accusative language)Ԥǽʸ (ergative language) ȸƤФ롥
ѸΤ褦гʸγηϤϡ䤿뤷ƤΤǤꡤۤȤפʤHe opened the door. The door opened. 2ʸˤơơʸƬΩäƤ̾ He The door ̤ (nominative case) ֤ƤΤФ1ʸ the door Ṳ̄г (accusative case) ֤ƤȤ롥
ǽʸˤƤϡ1ʸ2ʸξ the door г (absolutive case) ֤졤2ʸ He ǽ (ergative case) ֤롥ʸǤ⡤˳ïŪ˳Ƥפгʤ֤졤2ʸΤߤƤ롤ξ֤ǽưŪ˰פǽʤ֤Τ
ʤɤǤФиڤǽʸȤΤϡνΤʤǤϵʥפθȻפǤۤɵǤʤ褦гʸ٤аŪʾɤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ2ۤɤϤΥפΤäƶäBlake (121) ˤȡʬۤ˹äƤ롥
Ergative systems are often considered rare and remote, but in fact they make up at least twenty per cent of the world's languages. Ergative systems are to be found in all families of the Caucasian phylum, among the Tibeto-Burman languages, in Austronesian, in most Australian languages, in some languages of the Papuan families, in Zoque and the Mayan languages of Central America and in a number of language families in South America: Jé, Arawak, Tupí-Guaraní, Panoan, Tacanan, Chibchan and Carib. Outside these phyla and families where ergative systems of marking are common, ergativity is also to be found in some other languages including Basque, Hurrian and a number of other extinct languages of the Near East, Burushaski (Kashmir, Tibet), Eskimo, Chukch, and Tsimshian and Chinook (these last two being Penutian languages of British Columbia).
ʤߤˡѸǽʸǤϤʤǵ open(ed) Τ褦˼ưˤ¾ưˤѤưؤǽư (ergative verb) ȸƤ֤Ȥ롥
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ε#4312. ָƳʡפǧ뤫ݤ ([2021-02-15-1]) ˤ褦ˡƳ (vocative) ϡŪʰӸؤǤ1ĤΩʤȤǧƤƥʤɤθŵǤ顤2Ѥ -us ǽñˤΤΩƳʷǧˤʳǤϷŪ˼ʤͻ (syncretism) Ƥ롥ָƳʡפȤּʤθƤӤˡפȹͤۤåꤹȤΤ¤Ǥ롥
Τ褦˸ƳʤŪ˼ʤͻ礷ƤȤǧǡŪǽδָƤӤפȶᤤطˤȤܤִò (exclamation) ˤƤϡषгʤͳ褹֤Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥħ˴ؿƤ롥Poor me! Lucky you! Τ褦ɽǤ롥
ٹ (157--58) ꡤŪ˲餫ξάؤ7Ĥδòʸʸ̾ϷŪˤ̳ʤȤ٤ǽŪˤƤʤСʤгʤ³ơٹβѤ롥
How unlike their Belgic sires of old!---Goldsmith.
Wonderful civility this!---Charlotte Brontë.
A lively lad that!---Lord Lytton.
A theatrical people, the French?---Galsworthy.
Strange institution, the English club.---Albington.
This wish I have, then ten times happy me!---Shakespeare.
κǸ me ϸʸμǤ٤Τɽ魯ΤǤ뤬;ñ̾ϴưʸǤϼʤгʤѤ뤳ȤΤǡˤϼͳ餷ʡ130ȡˤƥθˡޤͤȤ츶Ǥäȸ롥ȤС
Me miserable!---Milton, Paradise Lost, IV. 73.
ƥ Me miserum! (Ovid, Heroides, V. 149) Ȱפ롥
ѺǸΥƥ me miserum ȴϢơBlake γʤ˴ؤ "ungoverned case" ꤹ1ѤƤ (9)
In case languages one sometimes encounters phrases in an oblique case used as interjections, i.e. apart from sentence constructions. Mel'cuk (1986: 46) gives a Russian example Aristokratov na fonar! 'Aristocrats on the street-lamps!' where Aristokratov is accusative. One would guess that some expressions of this type have developed from governed expressions, but that the governor has been lost. A standard Latin example is mē miserum (1SG.ACC miserable.ACC) 'Oh, unhappy me!' As the translation illustrates, English uses the oblique form of pronouns in exclamations, and outside constructions generally.
˵Τ褦ʷʸˤäƤ#4284. ʸϤۤȤ̵ ([2021-01-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ¿ϡŪˤϼư줬ά졤гʤ̾礫ʤäƤΤ
ŪǽδǴϢȤܤƤӤòȤ롼פǤꡤ˷Ū˶̤ƳʡʡгʤȤФ륰롼פ¾Ǥ롥դδطʣˤơ⤷
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ؤǤϡŪ˳ (case) 1ĤȤƳ (vocative) ǧƤ㤨СꥷƥˤƸƳʤϼʤʤɤȰۤʤ̤ʷ֤Ȥ礬 (ex. Quō vādis, domine? domine ʤɡˡǸƳʤȤʤΩΩƤյǤ롥
ε#4311. ʤȤϲ ([2021-02-14-1]) ǷǤʤ֤С"Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads." Ǥ롥ƳʤȤΤϡʸιǤȤƤΩͷΥ¸ߤǤꡤ̤Ǥ˰¸Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤ顤¸ط¸ߤ뤳ȤȤηϤ¦°ƤȤΤ̷Ǥ롥Ƴʤϰ¸ط¸ߤɸΤȤȥåǽ⤷ʤɬ⤹٤ƤθؼԤˤϻäƤʤ¤Ū̩äƼĥؼ Hjelmslev ϳʤȤǧƤʤѸؼ Jespersen ƱͤѸؼԤ Curme ⡤ʤ1ǽȰ֤ŤƤˤʤ
ƳʤεǽǤָƤӤפˤϡΩΤߤʤ餺Ĵÿ롥Ūˤϡ餫ˡ¾Ǥȶ̤ƤɬפΤΤǤ롥СŪʴʤȤƤߤʤɤ̤ˤƤ⡤ǽˡδϥƥƤΤ褵
ָƳʡפˤϸ¤줿üʸ礬Ѥ뷹ȤȤŦƤ̾̾ you²̾Ρι桤̾ŵΤۤˤ (my) darling, dear, honey, love, (my) sweet; old man, fellow; young man; sir, madam; ladies and gentlemen ʤɤ롥
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
(case) ϡŪȤäƤ褤ʸˡƥǤ롥ΰۤʤɤδ֤ˤ⡤ʤˤĤƤϻ褦ʸݤʬ֤ۤѻ뤳Ȥ顤ϸηϤˤΤ˰㤤ʤ
عʸˡǤʡŪʡͭʤʤɤѸ줬˽ФƤۤɤǡ¿γؽԤˤʤ߿ΤǤϤ뤬⤽ʤȤϲʤΤΤ뤳ȤФ Case ȤȥƬ Blake (1) ͿƤѤ
Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads. Traditionally the term refers to inflectional marking, and, typically, case marks the relationship of a noun to a verb at the clause level or of a noun to a preposition, postposition or another noun at the phrase level.
ʸ̮ǤϡμưȤȤˤʤꡤμֻ졤ֻ졤뤤̤̾ȤȤˤʤ롥ʿСʸˡŪ˻ۤ롦δطˤȤۤ¦Ω̾줬ʤɸȤˤʤʤۤ¦ʤɸʥ⤢ˡ
ǻŦƤ褦ˡŪˤгʤȤжޤˤɸĤޤŪʼʤؤƤΤνˤƤϰפʸˡطȤäŪʼʡ뤤ϰ̣Ȥạ̈ŪʼʤؤȤ⤢ΤǡϴñǤϤʤ
ΤʤθؤεΤʤѤֳʡפȤѸλؤΤϡȤηϤȤƤγ (case system) ǤꡤȤ˳ʸʤɤγɸ (case marker) ǤꡤȤ˳ʷ (case form) äꤹ롥ˡȤ̣Ūʥ˥奢ӤӤơŪгʡפʤɤΤ褦Ѥ⤢롥ȤƤϡռƤˤ "case" ʳʡˤȤѸѤ̣ռƤˤ "grammatical relation" ʸˡطˤȤѸѤΤ褤ȹͤƤ롥ԤϡBlake (3) Ƥ˽äѸǤ롥Ԥˤ "case relation" Ȥɽ⤢ΤBlake ϶̤Ƥ롥
It is also necessary to make a further distinction between the cases and the case relations or grammatical relations they express. These terms refer to purely syntactic relations such as subject, direct object and indirect object, each of which encompasses more than one semantic role, and they also refer directly to semantic roles such as source and location, where these are not subsumed by a syntactic relation and where these are separable according to some formal criteria. Of the two competing terms, case relations and grammatical relations, the latter will be adopted in the present text as the term for the set of widely accepted relations that includes subject, object and indirect object and the term case relations will be confined to the theory-particular relations posited in certain frameworks such as Localist Case Grammar . . . and Lexicase . . . .
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
hellog 饸14ϡѸؼԤ줿ѤʵǤ;̾ˤƽͭʤŪʤϤ褽ۤʤ֤Ȥޤñ she ˴ؤƤΤ her ȤƱ֤ѤޤǤϳؤ֤Τ˺𤹤ΤǤϤʤȤ䤫Ȼפޤ
Ʊ֤Ǥʤ2İۤʤ뵡ǽôȤΤϡ츫ȳΤ˺𤷤Ǥºݾ塤Ȥʤ뤳ȤϤۤȤɤޤʤŪʤη֤ǹͤƤߤСyou it Ʊ֤ȤäƤޤǺ𤷤ȤȤʹޤ
⡤Ѹˤ֤äƤߤСۤʤ뵡ǽˤ⤫餺Ʊ֤Ȥ褦ˤʤäȤѲӤǤ㤨иο;̾ΡŪʡפϡȤȤгʤͿʤȤ̡η֡ǽƤΤˤβƱ֤˼̤Ƥޤä̤λѤǤޤŤѸǤ2;̾ñʣȤǷ֤̤ƤޤѸʹߤ you ˹줷ƤޤäȤаޤޤcf. #3099. Ϣ10֤ʤ you ϡ֤ʤפǤ⤢֤ʤפǤ⤢Τס ([2017-10-21-1])ˡ⤷Τ褦Ѳ˿äʤСѸ餱θȤȤˤʤäƤޤޤѸܲǤޤȤ˱ѤƤ褦Ǥ
ɸѸ줫ΥƱѸܤܤС she ˽ͭʡŪʤη֤б er Ѥǧޤcf. #793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])#3502. pronoun exchange ([2018-11-28-1])ˡΤ褦ѤƲʤ褷ƤüԤΤ褦ˤ櫓Ǥ
ʪ¤ŪˤȤ館뽬ΤĤƤ븽ͤˤȤäơηϤǤʾ塤ǽۤʤз֤ۤʤϤ֤ۤʤеǽۤʤϤȹͤΤϼǤˤΤʤʣѲޤĤĸߤλѤˤʤäƤ櫓ǤΤǡɬɽŪˤ줤ʹ¤ƤʤȤ¿ΤǤ
εϡ¤ѤǤʤ⡤¤2000ǯȤĹּǰƬ˥ץ٤Ǥ뤳ȤƤ뵮Ť䤤Ȼפޤ
ȤμդˤĤƤϡ##4080,3099,793,3502εå
Ѹ춵鸽ƤäѤʵǤΤ¾ο;̾ͤȡ٤ƽͭʤŪʤη֤ۤʤäƤޤmy/me, your/you, his/him, its/it, our/us, their/them ΤȤǤ̾ˤĤƤͭʤŪʡʡ̳ʡˤ boy's/boy, Mary's/Mary Τ褦˸§ȤưۤʤޤĤޤꡤ3;νñ̾ she ϡͭʤŪʤη֤ƱȤʤǡ̾ȤΤʤǤߤƤˡ¸ߤʤΤǤɸѤʵϡƼ䤤ȤȤˤʤޤ
䤤˰ʤСȤȤϰۤʤä֤ȤäƤΤβѲη̡ޤƱ˹줷ƤޤäȤȤˤʤޤŤβѲΤʤ虜ȤȤǤ
ǯʾäƤűѸˤΤܤäƤߤޤ礦her ϡǤꡤͭʡΡ°ʡסˤŪʡΡͿʡסˤ hi(e)re ȤƱ֤ƤޤȤȤϡѤʵϱѸˤˤȤɤޤäƤƤϲǤʤȤˤʤޤ
ǡűѸŤʳθξ֤ȿǤƤȤѸָ졤ʤޥɤνͻҤƤߤޤ礦ťŹϥɥĸǤϡ3;νñ̾°ʤ iraͿʤ iru Ǥꡤ̯ʤ֤̤ƤޤťΥɸǤ°ʤ hennar, Ϳʤ henne ȰۤʤäƤޤȸǤƱͤ°ʤ izōs, Ϳʤ izai Ǥ
ĤޤꡤűѸŤʳǤϡ3;νñ̾°ʤͿʤϡ¾̾ξƱͤˡ̤줿֤ȤäƤȹͤޤ̤ƤȤϤζϤʰ㤤ˤäƶ̤Ƥˤʬ夯ȯƤޤС̤ˤǤ⼺ƤޤǽϤǤޤơºݤˤ줬űѸޤǤ˵äƤޤäƤΤǤ
Τ褦ˤߤƤȡѸ my/me your/you դߤ˻̤äƤΤǡȤдΤ⤷ޤºݡ®ȯǤϹ줷Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ礦her ˴ؤƤϡδβǽ¾ᤤʳǸ²Ƥޤäˤޤ̾ΤΤʤǤðۤʡ֤ϤŪ¸ߤȤʤäƤޤޤˤζΤޤΤǤ顤ΤȤͥäƤޤ礦
ɸϡ̿ΥǥȡֱѸˡפŻҷǼĤǤѤʵǤ
with me, for her, against him, between us, among them ʤֻθ˿;̾줬ȤˤŪʤ˳ѤѤޤʤʡʸФηˤѤƳơ *with I, *for she, *against he, *between we, *among they ȤʤʤΤȤǤϤɽʸˡǧʤȤǤˡ
ǤñʲϡֻŪȤʤ뤫פǤưŪ줬;̾ξŪʤη᤹褦ˡֻŪ;̾ŪʤɬפȤȤȤǤưΤˤ¾ưˤˤƤֻˤƤ⡤줬ɽ魯ưطΡоݡפȤʤΤɬľޤΡоݡפɽ魯礬ŪפǤꡤ줬Ρʼˤȶ̤äʷäƤСʸˡεǽܤˤ̤䤹ʤǤ
ʸ¾ưֻ줬ǤСθΤɬŪŪȤȤˤʤꡤäʷɬפϤʤΤǤϤʤȤ䤬ޤºݡʸˡϥ嵭 *with I, *for she, *against he, *between we, *among they Ǥ̣Ϥ褯Ǥޤ¾ưθǤ *Do you love I/he/she/we/they? ʸˡŪ˥ȸƤ⡤¤ϰ̣̤Ƥޤ櫓Ǥ
ǤϡεˤĤƱѸˤλäƤߤޤ礦ǯۤθűѸλˤϡ̾˸¤餺٤Ƥ̾줬ֻθǤŵŪˡͿʡפȸƤФ뤳ȤƤޤֻμˤäƤϡͿʡפǤϤʤгʡפ°ʡפη⤢ޤˤͽ줿ʼʰʳΡ˳ʤηᤵƤΤǤcf. #30. űѸֻȳʡ ([2009-05-28-1])ˡʤʤߤˡѸΡŪʡפϸűѸΡͿʡפгʡפѾΤǤ
̾˴ؤƤϡƤʤ -e դΤͿʤȤʤäƤޤ㤨Сֿϡפ God ǤֿΤˡפ for Gode ȤäǤ³ѸλˤơͿʸ -e ޤäƾäƤäˡξǼʤȶ̤Ǥʤʤ for God ȤʤޤäơѸ for God God ϡλˤäƤϡ-e Ƥǡ¤ͿʤʤΤȸʤȤʤΤǤ
;̾˴ؤƤϡʤȶ̤줿Ϳʤη褯ĤޤűѸǡֿפ;̾Ǽ硤ֿϡפ He ǡֿΤˡפ for Him ȤʤޤξϸǤޤäѤäƤޤ;̾̾Ȱۤʤ٤⤯椨ͿʤΤ -e ʤɤθĤȤñʤѤʤäᡤʤȤζ̤塹ޤݻ䤹äΤǤyou it ˴ؤƤϡˤβ͡ʻФơŪʤʤȹ줷Ƥޤޤ
ѸǤϡưŪˤֻŪˤ衤̾ʤмʤƱäƺѤޤ褦ˤʤäƤꡤäϤʤ櫓Ǥ顤;̾ˤƤ⡤ʤƱäȤϵʤǤ;̾ˤĤƤϲδѤˤꡤޤ with me, for her, against him, between us, among them ʤɤŪʡʤĤƤͿʡˤѤƤΤǤפˡ;̾ϡ̾줬иƤͿʤμʤȤιפȤѲΥԡɤ夤Ƥ줺ˤǤ֤꤫⤷ޤĤ;̾ͿʤĤ˼ʤȹ줹äƤΤǤϤʤǤ礦λˤϡμ줿 with I, for she, against he, between we, among they ʹƤϤǤ
Dumfriesshire Ruthwell Cross ϡűѻ The Dream of the Rood Ҥ롼ʸǹޤ줿ͭ̾Ǥ롥8ƬΤΤȹͤƤ롥˸űѸ쥢ե٥åȤž "kristwæsonrodi" ɤʸ롥ʬ "krist wæs on rodi" (Crist was on the rood) Ȥʤ롥űѸʸˡˤСǸֻ̾ on ˻ۤƤꡤǤͿʷ rode ȤʤϤºݤˤη rodi ѤƤΤǡʸؾȤƤ10 Vercelli Book ˼ƤƱʤбսǤϡ̤ on rode Ȥˡʤ rodi η֤ȤʤäƤ롥
ʸνְ㤤Ħְ㤤Ȥ٤ˤǤϤʤȤո⤢С¾̾쥯饹η֤ǤϤʤȤޤѶŪ˸õȤߤ⤢äƤ夲 Lass ϡ̤γ٤ rodi ʬˤ֤Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤷ε#3994. űѸͿʷε ([2020-04-03-1]) ǤѤ褦ˡLass ϥޥγʤͻ (syncretism) βʣäȹͤƤ롥Ȥ櫓 Ruthwell Cross ˤߤ褦ʺǽθűѸʸˤơθŵŪűѸʸˡͽ¬Ǥʤ֤ȤȤϽʬˤ뤷षʤۤȼĥ롥θԤϡ龯Ǥæ֤ϥ顼ȹͤƤޤޤǤŵ줿űѸʸˡκˤʤäƤꡤ¤θѰۤ¿˻פڤ뤳Ȥ˺ƤޤäƤΤǤϤʤȸĴƤLass (400) Ϥλ "classicism" ȸƤǤˡ˴ؤ Lass (401) ηϼ̤ꡥ
A final verdict then on rodi: not only does it not stand in need of special 'explanation', we ought to be very surprised if it or something like it didn't turn up in the early materials, and probably assume that the paucity of such remains is a function of the paucity of data. The fact that a given declension will show perhaps both -i and -æ datives (or even -i and -æ and -e) in very early inscriptions and glosses is a matter of profound historical interest. We have as it were caught a practicing bricoleur in the act, experimenting with different ways of cobbling together a noun paradigm out of the materials at hand. Morphological change is not neogrammarian, declensions are not stable or water-tight (they leak, as Sapir said of grammars), and --- most important --- the reconstruction of a new system out of the disjecta membra of an old and more complex one is bound to be marked by false starts and afterthoughts, and therefore a certain amount of 'irregularity'. It is also bound to take time, and the shape we encounter will depend on where in its trajectory of change we happen to catch it. Systems in process of reformation will be messy until a final mopping-up can be effected.
εθդ֤С pure Ǥ purist Ǥʤ
Lass, Roger. "On Data and 'Datives': Ruthwell Cross rodi Again." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 92 (1991): 395--403.
ε#3993. Ǥư쥫ƥκ̾ⵯ䤹ä ([2020-04-02-1]) ǡűѸ̾Ϳ (dative) ε˿줿Ϳʡåʡʡ̳ʤȤˤо˴ؤ4Ĥγʤͻ (syncretism) ơʡͿʡפȤޤѤäȤȤäˤĤơLass (Old English 128--29) ˤʹƤߤ褦
The transition from late IE to PGmc involved a collapse and reformation of the case system; nominative, genitive and accusative remained more or less intact, but all the locational/movement cases merged into a single 'fourth case', which is conventionally called 'dative', but in fact often represents an IE locative or instrumental. This codes pretty much all the functions of the original dative, locative, ablative and instrumental. A few WGmc dialects do still have a distinct instrumental sg for some noun classes, e.g. OS dag-u, OHG tag-u for 'day' vs. dat sg dag-e, tag-e; OE has collapsed both into dative (along with locative, instrumental and ablative), though some traces of an instrumental remain in the pronouns . . .
ʤͻä䤳ʤ꤬ʤΤϡͻ礹˶̤ƤʣγʤΤ1Ĥ̾Фơͻ1ĤȤʤäΤ˳Ƥ뷹뤫űѸξˤ⡤Ϳʡåʡʡ̳ʤͻ礷1ĤˤʤäȤΤʬ뤬ʤʳʤϡͿʡפ̾դ뤳ȤˤʤäΤŪˤСͿʷϸŤͿʷʬŪˤϼѤǤ뤬षʷκפǻ
ŪˤСͿʣŵŪʶ -um ζʣͳ褹롥ͿñˤĤƤϡޥįƤߤȡ̾Υ饹ˤäƵʣ褷ƤΤͿʷˤΤܤΤ⤢Сʷ̳ʷˤΤܤΤ⤢롥űѸͿñˤĤƤС褽ͿʷˤΤܤȹͤƤ褵ˤƤⵯ˹äƤ롥
Lass ̤ͤǿͿʤ "local" ("Data" 398) ȤǤƤۤ褤ĤġޥĸʸʣʷаޤäƤƤ ("Data" 399)
. . . all the dialects have generalized an old instrumental in */-m-/ for 'dative' plural (Gothic -am/-om/-im, OE -um, etc. . . ). But the 'dative' singular is a different matter: traces of dative, locative and instrumental morphology remain scattered throughout the existing materials.
פˡűѸ䥲ޥͿʤϡ֤νпȤõʤСִӡפȤäƤ褤ʪǤ롥ӤȤȤǤС#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Dz⤷ be ưξȰۤʤʤbe ư͡ʷ֤⡤4Ĥΰۤʤ캬줿ΤޤƼ佼ˡ (suppletion) ƱͤǤ롥 pure Ǥ purist Ǥʤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Lass, Roger. "On Data and 'Datives': Ruthwell Cross rodi Again." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 92 (1991): 395--403.
ӸؤȰˤߤƤȡʸˡƥ䤽ΥСν̸űѸȤˤǰƬˤƤ⡤Ȥưβη֤ϡˤΰĸˤ봰λ (perfect) ̵ (aorist) η֤ˤΤܤ롥ưλꥫƥˤäȤȤ cf. #2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥȤؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1])ˡ
ۤˤϡĸưεˡ (optative) ³ˡ (subjunctive) ǤϤȤȰۤʤ֤ȤäƤűѸޤǤԤη֤Ԥ߹ɽȤʤäο֤դ줿̾Τ³ˡפ顤䤳cf. #3538. Ѹ subjunctive ֤ϰĸ optative ֤ ([2019-01-03-1])ˡ
̾ˤƱͤθݤߤ롥űѸͿ (dative) ϡͿʡåʡ (instrumental)̳ʤʤɤǽŪ˵ۼΤ־εˤϵ롥űѸηƻ졤졤̾ʤɤˤ鷺˺פĤʤ⡤ŪˤζʤѤΤǤϤʤȤ (Marsh 14) ¤ˤ䤳Τ
Clackson (114) ϡˤư쥫ƥκ̾ⵯ䤹äȤͳϰʲ̤ꡥ
In the documented history of many IE languages, the verbal system has undergone complex restructuring, while the nominal system remains largely unaltered. . . . It appears, in Indo-European languages at least, that verbal systems undergo greater changes than nouns. If this is the case, it is not difficult to see why. Verbs typically refer to processes, actions and events, whereas nouns typically refer to entities. Representations of events are likely to have more salience in discourse, and speakers seek new ways of emphasising different viewpoints of events in discourse.
It is certainly true that . . . the verbal systems of the earliest IE languages are less congruent to each other than the nominal paradigms. The reconstruction of the PIE verb is correspondingly less straightforward, and there is greater room for disagreement. Indeed, there is no general agreement even about what verbal categories should be reconstructed for PIE, let alone the ways in which these categories were expressed in the verbal morphology. The continuing debate over the PIE verb makes it one of the most exciting and fast-moving topics in comparative philology.
ȤȤϡ̣Ūˤư쥫ƥΤۤʣǰȤȤͽۤ줽Τ˰ŪˤäơŪ̾ưŪưΤۤˤȤΤϹ
Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.
Clackson, James. Indo-European Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 2007.
;̾ˤĤơʸˡŪŪʤȤǼʤη֤Ѥ줿ꡤεդäꤹ륱 pronoun exchange ȸƤ֡Ǥͭ̾ʤΤϡ#301. ѤȤѸθˡ Top 10 ([2010-02-22-1]) ǥȥåפ˵ between you and I Ǥ롥ֻ˻֤ۤʤΤ1;̾ˤŪʤ me Ŭʤֻ줫龯ΥƤȤȤ⤢ꡤĤĤ I ȤäƤޤतΡָѡפǤ롥
ѤȤϤäƤ⡤ϵʸˡΩѸʸθѤ˴ŤȯۤǤ롥λˤϡפǤϤʤɽƤƤȤ̣ˤơɽפˤʤäºݡ褯ΤƤ褦 Shakespeare Sweet Bassanio, ... all debts are cleared between you and I if I might but see you at my death. (The Merchant of Venice iii.ii) Τ褦ѤƤΤǤ롥ƱͤˡYes, you have seen Cassio and she together. (Othello iv. ii) ʤɤ⤢롥
ŤѸΤߤʤ餺ɸǤ⡤pronoun exchange Ϥդ줿ݤǤ롥Gramley (196) Ѥ롥
Pronoun exchange, in which case is reversed, is widespread (SW, Wales, East Anglia, the North). This refers to the use of the subject pronoun for the object: They always called I "Willie," see; you couldn't put she [a horse] in a putt.. The converse is also possible. Compare 'er's shakin' up seventy; . . . what did 'em call it?; Us don't think naught about things like that. Subject forms are much more common as objects than the other way around (55% to 20%) . . . . In the North second person thou/thee often shows up as leveled tha in traditional dialects . . ., but not north of the Tyne or in Northumberland . . . . Today pronoun exchange is generally receding.
ѤǿƤ thou/thee ˤĤƤϡϢ 10 ʤ you ϡ֤ʤפǤ⤢֤ʤפǤ⤢ΤϿޤ⻲Ȥ줿Ʊͤˡshe er (< her) pronoun exchange ˤĤƤϡ#793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1]) Ͽޤȡ
ͤƤߤС⤽⸽ɸѸǤ⡤2;Ρʣ̾μʤ you Ūˤ pronoun exchange äΤǤ롥you ϤȤŪʤη֤ˤʤη֤ ye ä you ʤΥåȤˤƤˡ ye ɤФƤޤäȤˤˤĤƤϡ#781. How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1])#800. you ˤ ye ִ phonaesthesia ([2011-07-06-1])#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1]) ȡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ε#2974. 2Ū칽ʸ to ʸء ([2017-06-18-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡޤοȸθ경ϡʸˡˤɽ㡼Ǥ롥˶ޤοबˤäƼ줿ʸˡǽŶ뤿˸夫礬경뤳ȤˤʤäΤ뤤˸礬경η̡פȤʤäޤ夫षϤΤ⤷ϡ3θˤȡξݤΰ̴طϰŪʤΤǤϤʤ줾줬ƶ礤ʤ饹ѥ˿ʹԤƤäΤȤ⤤롥ޤ˥˥ȥǤ롥
ϲ3θ¤ȻפäƤ뤬ϢȤƤ Allen ⤳ιͤǤ롥Allen ϡ2Ū칽ʸˤ2ĤŪθǤʤ°̾Ȥ˽Ȥΰִط˴ؤѸѲˤĤƤĴƤꡤޤοबθ경ͣװǤϤʤȤƳǧƤ롥Allen (220) ۩
The two case studies [= the fixing of the order of two nominal NP/DP objects and the genitives] examined here do not support the view that the fixing of word order in English was driven solely by the loss of case inflections or the assumption that at every stage of English, there was a simple correlation between less inflection and more fixed word order. This is not to say that deflexion did not play an important role in the disappearance of some previously possible word orders. It is reasonable to suggest that although it may have been pragmatic considerations which gave the initial impetus to making certain word orders more dominant than others, deflexion played a role in making these orders increasingly dominant. It seems likely that the two developments worked hand in hand; more fixed word order allowed for less overt case marking, which in turn increased the reliance on word order.
ΰ̴طֶޤοࢪθ경פäȤǽꤳƤʤդΡָθ경ޤοפΰ̴ط椫ƤɤΤȤξݤ˼äƿʹԤȹͤΤǤȷƤ롥ޤξԤδطפƤۤñʴطǤϤʤȤϡѸˤƤʤ˶ޤλĤäƤʤɤǤ⡤űѸθ礬Τޤ¸Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤդ˶ޤषƤƤűѸŪʸ礬¸Ƥ㤬뤳Ȥ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ
Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.
ε#2973. ʤ٤κ ([2017-06-17-1]) ˰³Allen ͤ
2Ū칽ʸֻ to Ѥ빽ʸ֤äƤΤϡѸǤ롥űѸԤ⸫줿ǽưμब¤ʤɤħäѸˤʤȡ٤ƤФ꤫ư¤ʧ褦ˤʤ롥ߥȤƤϳʶޤολȽŤʤꡤ̴طʤ뤬Allen ϡطȤϤʤ⿵ŤʵŸƤ롥ΥƥȤˤƤϡǤʬŪʹʸ夷Ƥեαƶ餢뤳Ȥ⼨ƤꡤñʡʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤФԤäƤ롥Allen (214) Ѥ롥
It can be noted . . . that we do not require deflexion as an explanation for the rapid increase in to-datives in ME. The influence of French, in which the marking of the IO by a preposition was already well advanced, appears to be the best way to explain such text-specific facts as the surprisingly high incidence of to-datives in the Aȝenbite of Inwit. . . . [T]he dative/accusative distinction was well preserved in the Aȝenbite, which might lead us to expect that the to-dative would be infrequent because it was not needed to mark Case, but in fact we find that this work has a significantly higher frequency of this construction than do many texts in which the dative/accusative distinction has disappeared in overt morphology. The puzzle is explained, however, when we realize that the Aȝenbite was a rather slavish translation from French and shows some unmistakable signs of the influence of its French exemplar in its syntax. It is, of course, uncertain how important French influence was in the spoken language, but contact with French would surely have encouraged the use of the to-dative. It should also be remembered that an innovation such as the to-dative typically follows an S-curve, starting slowly and then rapidly increasing, so that no sudden change in another part of the grammar is required to explain the sudden increase of the to-dative.
Allen ϶ޤοȤݤ deflexion ɽƤ뤬ϤդȤƤʤ⡤νѸȤäȤʤäѸ1ĵȤͯΤϡѤκǸΤȤǡto-dative ؤΰܹԤˤĤƸóȻSȤȤڤƤ뤬δŪ˵Ҥ줿ϤΤȤȤޤοȸθ경ȤѸʸˡ˾礭⡤ޤޤ겼褦ꤽ
Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.
Allen (205) ˡʼȤƽѸΥƥȤŪʳɸŪĤäƤ (case-rich texts) ȡŪ̸ (deflexion) ˤꡤۤɻĤäƤʤ (case-impoverished texts) ˤޤʬषƤ롥ƥƥȤˤߤʤΡ١פκϡˤȤ礭¾ƥȤܤ˵Τ⤢Ѹγʤ븦ΩʤΤǡΥƥȤʬƸƤŪʥꥹȤǤϤʤAllen ǥѤƥȤΤߤǺܤƤˤʤΤǡդƤ
| Case-rich texts | Date | Case-impoverished texts | Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| PC I (not very rich) | c.1131 | PC II | c.1155 |
| Kentish Homilies | a.1150, c.1125 | Ormulum (Vol. II) | c.1180 |
| Lambeth Homilies | c.1200, mostly OE | Ancrene Wisse (Parts 1--5) | c.1230, somewhat earlier |
| Poema Morale (Lambeth version) | c.1200, c.1170--90 | Katherine Group | c.1225, 1200--20 |
| Trinity Homilies | a.1225, ?OE | Wohunge | c.1220, post 1200 |
| Brut (C MS) (1st 3,000 lines) | s.xiii2, post 1189 | Cursor Mundi (Vesp. MS, Vol. I) | c.1350 |
| Vices and Virtues | c.1200, a.1225 | Havelok the Dane | c.1300, c.1295--1310 |
| Owl and Nightingale (C MS) | s.xiii2, 1189--1216 | Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle (A MS, Vol. I) | c.1325, c.1300 |
| Kentish Sermons | c.1275, pre-1250 | Genesis and Exodus | a.1325, c.1250 |
| Aȝenbite of Inwit | 1340 | Sir Orfeo and Amis and Amiloun (Auchinleck MS) | c.1330 |
| Early Prose Psalter | c.1350 |
ѸˤϡɸΤ褦˿ñ̤ФʣƻȤʤɽ롥#1766. a three-hour(s)-and-a-half flight ([2014-02-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŵŪˤñ̤̾ʣȤʤ㳰⤢뤬̤ˤ *a six-feet man *a ten-miles drive ȤʤʤʤʣˤʤʤΤ
¤ϡηŪˤʣ°ʤ̾ĤǤ롥äơ衤ʤʣäȤ˲ѲŪñƱ夤ƤޤäȤΤμǤ롥
űѸǤϡΤ褦ɽˤñ̤ɽ魯̾ʣ°ʤ˶ޤ줬̾Ƥfōt mīl ξˤϡΤޤޤñʤη֤ǤϤʤʣ°ʤη֤˶ޤ fōta, mīla ȤȤѸˤʣ°ʤɽ魯 -a /ə/ ؤȿʿ˸ˤϴ˾ṳ̈Ȥơ֤ȤƤϲ⺯פĤȤʤΩäΤʣ°ʤεǽӤӤˡΤΤϷȤƼѤ졤ߤ˻äƤ롥Ѹͽۤʣ *six-feet *ten-miles ˤʤäƤ餺츫Ե§ʸˡˤߤ뤬ϸűѸʸˡܤʤΤǤ롥
űѸ̾γʶޤη֤Τ褦ȤʤäƸѸ˻ĤäƤϡʤ㤨С#380. often <t> ǤϤʤ <n> ⤷ ([2010-05-12-1]) ǿ줿 whilom, seldom, often θΡ첻ɡפαˡĤƤʣͿʸ -um ѷΤ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤalive ʤɤˤϡűѸֻ on līfe ˵§Ūˤߤ줿ñͿʸ -e ʤȤֻĤäƤ롥ۤˤϡLady Chapel ladybird 1 lady ̵Τ褦ˤߤ뤬ĤƤñ°ʸ -e դƤ줬˿ʿüˡŪˤϺפĤƤʤǤ롥
ʾ塤Algeo and Pyles (105) ͤˤƼɮ
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
;ư (impersonal_verb) Ѥ;ιʸ (impersonal construction) ˤĤƤϡ#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) ¾εǼ夲ƤѸʹߡ;ιʸϤͿ;ιʸؤȿܤʹߤˤϤۤȤɸʤʤäΡ;ιʸο;βפϡѸˤˤ礭ȤƤθˤĤƤϡ̾Τ褦Ƥ롥
Ѹ;ư like(n) ˼ưϸǤϡֹפȤ;Ūˡ̣äƤꡤI like thee. Τ褦ˡΤ I ǡоݤгʡŪʡ you ɽ蘆롥ѸˤϡʰϽѸǤˡư;Ūˡ̣äƤ Me liketh thee. Τ褦ˡΤͿ Me ǡоݤг thee ɽ蘆줿ʤСֻˤȤäơʤסֻˤȤäƤϡʤϹޤפۤɤΤ̾Ǥгʤޤˤ줿̾ǤмʤͿʤζ̤ϤǤˤĤʤʤäƤΤǡۣ롥㤨СGod liketh thy requeste, (Chaucer, Second Nun's Tale 239) ǤϡGod ŪˤͿʤäƤȹͤ뤬ʹˤϼʤȤƲ뤫⤷ʤξ硤ʹ liketh ;ưȤƺʬ (reanalysis) Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥;ưΤʤˤϡȤűѸ;ưȤƤѤΤ¿äΤǡ;βΥץΤȤϴʤäΤ⤷ʤShakespeare Ǥϡư like ϤޤξͤѤƤꡤWhether it like me or no, I am a courtier. (The Winters Tale 4.4.730) Ȥ뤫ȻפСI like your work, (Timon of Athens 1.1.160) ߤʰʾ塤ƣp. 106--08 ˡ
ʾ夬;ιʸο;β˴ؤ붵ʽŪŪˡѸʹߤ٤Ƥιʸˤƿ;ιʸ礷ͤɬפ롥 (155--56) 3ĤװŦƤ롥
(a) SVOȤ礬ΩOEư֤֤뤳Ȥ¿äַиԡפɽ魯Ū줬Ȳ褦ˤʤäˤOEǤǤ̾μʤгʤʤꤷФƱǤäȤ¡LOEϤޤäܼοʿˤꡤͿʡгʤȼʤƱȤʤä¤ʤƤ롥;ιʸˤƤϡַиԡפɽŪ줬̾Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤǤξˤŪʡͿʡгʡˤȼʤϷۤʤäƤ뤫顤־ΤޤȤϹͤˤΤǤ;βθǤϤʤǤ
(b) ܼοʿˤꡤưιͿʤʤŪʤΤߤˤʤäȤʤηϤѲäᡥʤ̣ΰ㤤˴ŤƼʡгʡ°ʡͿʤȤʤͿƤΤ٤ʸι¤˴ŤƼʤŪʤͿȤѤäΤַиԡפŪȯŪͿԤȤɽ˳ʤȤʤѤ;ιʸ¤ȤȤԲǽˤʤä
(c) OE¿ư¾ư쵡ǽȯãƤäФͿʡгʡ̾ȼ¾ư;ư⤳¾ư첽Ѳˤäƽ¾ưѲη̤ȤƼ;Τ it ǤϤʤͤޤϤ˽ऺټԼȤ褦ˤʤä
(c) ˤĤƤϡ#2318. Ѹˤˤ¾ưá ([2015-09-01-1]) ⻲ȡ
ƣ ͺرѸ硡ʸˡΥ롼Ĥõ١ҡ2002ǯ106--08.
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
Ƶ̾ oneself ȾǤˡ;̾νͭʷƤƤ뤫 (ex. myself, thyself)ŪʷƤƤ뤫 (ex. himself, themselves) ϡѸˤĹ餯Ƥ1ĤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#47. ͭʤŪʤmyself himself ([2009-06-14-1])#1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1]) ǰäƤ
myself, thyself ǽͭʤѤ뤳ȤˤĤơεǤ self ̾Ȳᤵ줿Ȥȥȸ줫αƶȤҲ𤷤⤦1ͭϤʤΤϡMustanoja (146) ʤɤΤȤͿʷ첻岽Ǥ롥ѸǤϡ12;ΤǤ self ֤Τ3;ΤξƱͤͿʷǤꡤme self, þe self ʤɤɽ蘆Ƥ me þe ܼ (proclitic) Τ褦˵ǽϤȲŪ˼岽e ɽ蘆첻 i ؤѲ13 miself, þiself Ȥʤ˵ڤӡmi, þi ϽͭʤȤơself ̾ȤƤȤƺʬϤ졤12;ʣ˱Ѥ our selve(n), your selve(n) ⸽褦ˤʤäȤܼβ岽ϡbiforen, bitwene ˤ be- > bi- ʤɤˤФдѻ롤褯븽ݤǤ롥
Keenan (344) ⡤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ Mustanoja β岽ٻƤ롥
I claim these forms [= mi + self and þi + self] are just phonologically reduced forms of the procliticized dative pronouns me and þe. The correspondence of Old English long close e to Middle English short i is well attested . . . . Me and þe are the only dative pronouns that consist of a single light syllable. The others are either closed (him, us, hem or disyllabic or diphthongal (hire, eow). So it is natural that phonological reduction takes place first in 1st and 2nd sg. Once reduced we may identify them with possessive adjectives, surely the basis of the Pattern Generalization to your + self and our + self in 1st and 2nd pl (modern spelling) in the mid-1300s, which facilitates interpreting self as a N.
ϡme þi ΤߤñǤȤŦˤơϤ褦˻פ롥ޤ;̾Τ褦ʸˤơ˾塤٤֤ⷫμ岽ȶƤȤϡ#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1]) Ǥ⸫ƤȤǤ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Keenan, Edward. "Explaining the Creation of Reflexive Pronouns in English." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. D. Minkova and R. Stockwell. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 325--54.
3;ʣ̾줬Ѹˡ h- ťΥɸͳȤ th- ؤ֤ƤäȤϡѸˤǤϹΤƤ롥th- ؤִϡʤˤäƥߥۤʤäƤ (see #975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1]), #1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1])) ٤ƤǷ֤줿ѥϡޤʤ°ʤǸ˼гʡͿʤгʤͻ礷Ρˤ th- ذܹԤȤѥ㤨С Ormulum (?c1200) ǤϡǤᤤʳǼʤ þeȝȝ ݤˤʤäƤꡤ°ʤǤ¿ h- Ĥʤʬ þeȝȝre гʤǤϵդ¿ þeȝȝm ʤ hemm ܤǤ롥
ɥǼʤ þei Τ14ǤꡤChaucer Ǥ þei / her(e) / hem ȤѥबѤƤ (#181. Chaucer ο;̾ηϡ ([2009-10-25-1])) 15ˤʤȡ°ʤ their her(e) ȶ礹褦ˤʤꡤˤ Caxton ʤɤ their ¾ͣȤʤ롥them ϺǤ٤Chaucer μ Lydgate Hoccleve Ǥޤ hem ΤߤǤꡤCaxton Ǥ them ΤΡޤ hem Τۤͥä16νˤʤäơ褦䤯 them 夷ɸѸξã뤳Ȥˤʤä (Lass 120; Mustanoja 134--35)
äơ3;ʣΥѥϡˤƤ⡤ǯ夳ۤʤ졤̤ưʲ3ʳФȤˤʤ (Lass 121)
| I | II | III | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | þei | þei | þei |
| Genitive | her(e) | her(e) ? þeir | þeir |
| Oblique | hem | hem | hem ? þem |
Ѹˤˤϡ絬Ϥ¾ư첽 (transitivization) Ĭήǧ롥űѸǤŪ¾ưʤȤѤưˤϼư⾯ʤäѸˤơƤȤ櫓Ѹˤơοä¾ư첽Ȥϡưΰ̣ˡˤ뤳ȤषŪװ礭ͿƤ롥 (100) ˤС3װꤵ롥
1ĤϡѸ˶οबʹԤ̾̾ˤƳʤηŪʶ̤ĤʤʤäȤ롥ˤꡤűѸǤͿŪ°ŪȤäƤư줬γʤȷ־ͻ礷ŪгʤȤ뤳ȤˤʤäĤޤꡤŪϤ٤гʤǤʬϤ졤ư줽ΤΤ¾ưǤǧ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥1200ǯͿʤȤưֹʸ褦ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⡤κʬϤ̩ܤʴطˤȹͤ롥
2ܤȤơűѸưˤФղä줿 ġe- ʤɤƬѸޤǤ˾üȤ롥űѸǤϡ㤨мư restan ʵ٤ˡgrōwan ˤФơƬղä ġerestan ʵ٤ޤˡġegrōwan ߽Фˤ¾ưȤƵǽʤɡܼˤäƼ¾ڤؤ礬äƬüξηṲ̄ȡμưη֤¾ưεǽդä뤳Ȥˤʤä
3ܤˡűѸưˤϸ촴첻ѰۤˤäƼ¾ˡ̤Τäbrinnan / bærnan (burn), springan / sprengan (spring), stincan / stencan (stink) ʤɤǤ롥θѲˤξ줬Ū˰פ˵ڤǡäͣθ¾ξˡô褦ˤʤä
嵭ϡŪѲǡ2Ūưΰ̣ˡѲȤʥꥪư켫ΤŪ˰̣ˡѲȤľŪʥʥꥪäǽǤʤषȵǽξ¦ΰϤˤäơư¾ưƤȹ̵ͤۤϤʤ褦˻פ롥līcian Τ褦;ư (impersonal_verb) ο;βʤɤ⡤ư¾ư첽ȤĬήΤʤ˰֤Ť뤳ȤǤϲ֡졤̣ѤΤ٤Ƥ˴ؤ븽ݤǤꡤװѲΰȤʤꡤϤȤʤäΤ̤뤳ȤưפǤϤʤޤ#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1]) ǿ줿Ѹˤˤ linking verb γȤ⡤ưȤޤѲỌ̇̄ѲȤͻ礷褦褹롥
ˤ衤¾ư첽ĬήѸ˽װ椷ƤȤϸ
ưμ¾žˤĤƤϡư (passive) ȯãƵư (reflexive_pronoun) οϢƤԤˤĤƤϡ#2185. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο ([2015-04-21-1])#2206. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο (2) ([2015-05-12-1])#2207. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο (3) ([2015-05-13-1]) ⻲ȡޤ¾ưȤѸˤĤƤϡ#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1]) Ȥ줿
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
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