hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 ڡ / page 2 (5)

category - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-28 00:27

2024-02-12 Mon

#5404. ̾줫ϤޤäΤư줫ϤޤäΤ [homo_sapiens][origin_of_language][evolution][history_of_linguistics][grammaticalisation][noun][verb][category][name_project][onomastics][naming]

ɸϲ褷褦ΤʤǤϤ뤬ػ (history_of_linguistics) ˤƤϸε (origin_of_language) ᤰΤʤǻڤƤ䤤Ǥ롥
Mufwene (22) 򻲾Ȥơ2ͤԤȤθҲ𤷤ɥĤůؼ Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744--1803) ȥꥫθؼ William Dwight Whitney (1827--94) Ǥ롥

   Herder also speculated that language started with the practice of naming. He claimed that predicates, which denote activities and conditions, were the first names; nouns were derived from them . . . . He thus partly anticipated Heine and Kuteva (2007), who argue that grammar emerged gradually, through the grammaticization of nouns and verbs into grammatical markers, including complementizers, which make it possible to form complex sentences. An issue arising from Herder's position is whether nouns and verbs could not have emerged concurrently. . . .
   On the other hand, as hypothesized by William Dwight Whitney . . . , the original naming practice need not have entailed the distinction between nouns and verbs and the capacity to predicate. At the same time, naming may have amounted to pointing with (pre-)linguistic signs; predication may have started only after hominins were capable of describing states of affairs compositionally, combining word-size units in this case, rather than holophrastically.


Herder ϸ̾դ (naming) μϤޤäȹͤȤ̾դη̤ȤƤΡ̾פǽ̾ǤϤʤҸưäȤդϰճȯۤǶ̣Herder ϡ̾ϸư줫ΤǤȹͤϸʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤȤʸˡƤȯȤͤ˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
Whitney ϡư̾ζ̤Τʤʳǰɽ (holophrasis) ȯΤǤꡤޤǸˤʤäƤ餽ʸˡƤȯãȹͤ
쵯ʸˡϤΤ褦ˤƴطŤΤȴ补

Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-09 Fri

#5401. ʸˡˤĤ60ʬ֤ɼ¶ѤϤޤ [bchel][gender][oe][noun][category][voicy][heldio][notice][hel_education]


26ʲС˸4Ⱦ Voicy heldio ˤ#983. B&C42ʸˡפɼ¶ with 󤵤ȾϽؤǤϤޤBaugh and Cable ˤѸˤθŵŪ̾ A History of the English Language 6ǡˤ򸶽ɤ륷꡼ΰĤǤ̥ȤȤ󤵤ʳءˤϽؤʥեꥹرؤۤˤ򤪾ơɼ¶ѤȤƤϤޤ嵭ϡ̾ۿǥȤƸΤǤ60ʬ֤ĹǤҤ֤ΤȤˤİ
25ʷˤˤϡ hellog ǤͽԤȤʤ뵭#5397. ʸˡΡפͤ --- Baugh and Cable αѸˤ ([2024-02-05-1]) ޤεǤϺܤ42 "Grammatical Gender" θʸǺܤƤޤΤǡįʤ餪İФȻפޤϡѸˤˤ (gender) ܤפʵؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤޤ
᡹ۿİƤäꥹʡ umisio 󤬡ޤȤΡȤäΥڡǸƤޤͽΤȤˤȤ


umisio note 2024028



heldio B&C αѸˤɤ륷꡼ΥХåʥСϡ#5291. heldio ΡֱѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤץ꡼Ĵ˿ʤǤޤ ([2023-10-22-1]) ǤޤȤƤޤ264ᤢܤ42ˤ褦䤯ɤ夤ȤǤΤǡޤޤǤˤϸɤǤޤޤΤǡΥ饤ɥ꡼ˤäСޤʲΥƥꤷƤ


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. ''A History of the English Language''. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.



Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-02-05 Mon

#5397. ʸˡΡפͤ --- Baugh and Cable αѸˤ [bchel][gender][oe][noun][category][voicy][heldio][notice][hel_education][link]

ǯ7꽵12Υڡ Baugh and Cable αѸˤθŵŪ̾ A History of the English Language 6ǡˤ򸶽ɤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ǤΥ꡼ʤƤޤ1200ߤͭۿȤʤäƤޤ1ץ˴ؤƤϤĤǤİĤǤޤȤɤƥȤʤ̵ΰۿԤʤäƤޤޤǤΥХåʥСϡ#5291. heldio ΡֱѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤץ꡼Ĵ˿ʤǤޤ ([2023-10-22-1]) ˤޤȤƤޤΤǡǧ


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. ''A History of the English Language''. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.



ޤǤ41򥫥СƤޤܲűѸ򰷤3ϤäƤޤ夲42 "Grammatical Gender" ϡűѸ̾˳ǧʸˡΡסʤʸˡ (gender) ܤޤʲƱΥƥȤǺܤƤޤʤǤܽꤷƤΤ٥ȤǤˡ

42. Grammatical Gender. As in Indo-European languages generally, the gender of Old English nouns is not dependent on considerations of sex. Although nouns designating males are often masculine, and those indicating females feminine, those indicating neuter objects are not necessarily neuter. Stān (stone) is masculine, and mōna (moon) is masculine, but sunne (sun) is feminine, as in German. In French, the corresponding words have just the opposite genders: pierre (stone) and lune (moon) are feminine, while soleil (sun) is masculine. Often the gender of Old English nouns is quite illogical. Words like mægden (girl), wīf (wife), bearn (child, son), and cild (child), which we should expect to be feminine or masculine, are in fact neuter, while wīfmann (woman) is masculine because the second element of the compound is masculine. The simplicity of Modern English gender has already been pointed out as one of the chief assets of the language. How so desirable a change was brought about will be shown later.


ʸˡ˴ؤ hellog Ǥ gender Υդ¿εǼ夲ƤޤΤʤä˽פʵؤΥ󥯤ʲĥäƤޤ

#25. űѸ̾(1) ([2009-05-23-1])
#26. űѸ̾(2) ([2009-05-24-1])
#28. űѸ˼Ϥʤä ([2009-05-26-1])
#487. ʰʸˡ ([2010-08-27-1])
#1135. ĸʸˡε ([2012-06-05-1])
#2853. ˤȿʹ֤ʬե ([2017-02-17-1])
#3293. űѸ̾ ([2018-05-03-1])
#4039. ˤȤϥեǤ ([2020-05-18-1])
#4040. ָȿǤƤʹ֤ʬեפεåȡ ([2020-05-19-1])
#4182. ָפΥơޤι ([2020-10-08-1])

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-02-09-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2023-03-20 Mon

#5075. ɸθŪħ [discourse_marker][pragmatics][prototype][category]

ε#5074. Ѹɸ43 ([2023-03-19-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ۤΡرѸɸˡŵ٤Ǥϡɸ (discourse_marker) ˤĤƤν¤⤬ͿƤ롥äˡɸˤĤƤδŪʹͤפεͭѤǤ롥
ɸʻʹ⤤٥Υƥ꡼ǤꡤĤΥƥ꡼ϥץȥ (prototype) ȤƲᤵ٤ΤǤ롤ȤϤޤ롥ɸΤΤȤ⡤ɸŪˡ롤Ȥª˶ᤤθˡɸΰŪħפꤹ륳ब³ (333--34) ȤƤ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤǡ˰ѤƤ

ɸ˶̤ǤŪħϡäβ餫ȯðտޤޤõǽƤפȤǤ롥á (discourse) ϹˤȤ館ơɸʸ̮䡤ƥȤȤƶ񸽲ʸ̮Τߤʤ餺ȯþ (utterance situation) ΤޤΤȤ롥ˡȯþ˻Ϳäꡦʹμ䥳ߥ˥νǤɸεǽ˴Ϳ롥ʲĤδɸħޤȤ롥

ڸŪŪħ
(a) 줫ʤΤ¿٥롤٥ΤΤޤޤ롥
(b) ŪñθˤϽǤʤ
(c) ݡȼΩĴ뤳Ȥ¿
(d) õǽ˱ޤޤʲĴȼ
Ūħ
(a) ʸƬ˸뤳Ȥ¿ʸ桤ʸΤ⤢롥
(b) ̿ιǤγ¦롤뤤칽¤ˤ䤫ղä롥
(c) ŪǤ롥
(d) ʣɸ뤳Ȥ롥
(e) ñȤѤ뤳Ȥ롥
ڰ̣Ūħ
(a) 켫Τǡʸοͤ˴ؤ복ǰỤ̄ۤȤɡ뤤ʤΤ¿
(b) ʸοͤ˴ؤ복ǰỤ̄ľˤ⡤ʸ̤ΰ̣ɽ礬¿
ڵǽŪħ
¿ǽŪǡĤå٥ǵǽΤ¿
ڼҲŪʸŪħ
(a) 񤭸դäդѤ礬¿
(b) ʸΤѤΤ¿
(c) ϰŪװ̡ǯ𡤼Ҳء̤ʤɤˤħ롥


͡ʳ٤ʬϤ뤳ȤΤǤοƥ꡼Ǥ뤳Ȥʬε ([2023-03-19-1]) 43ɸפ⤫٤ʤ顤ħǧ줿

ʸҡע ͳˡرѸɸˡŵ43δܥǥޡ١ҡ2015ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-03-26-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-12-17 Sat

#4982. ̾̾ϰۤʤʻ줫ݤ [pos][noun][pronoun][category][sobokunagimon][prototype]

̾ (noun) ̾ (pronoun) 2ĤΰۤʤʻȤߤʤ٤뤤ϸԤԤΰȤȤ館٤ʻʬϤʤʤ̩ˤϤʤΤǤꡤˤäƤϤפȤˤʤ뤳Ȥ¿򺣤ΤĤȤϡץȥ (prototype) ȤƥեªƤΤ褤Ȥ¿ʤäƤΤ⤷ʤǽŪˤϥĤʤȵȻפΤʹ֤Ǥꡤäʥơޤ
Aarts ξرĤεޤȤƤΤǰѤ롥

Ρ̾̾ϰۤʤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥߤʤ٤Ǥ (Aarts, p. 25)

Pronouns show nominative and accusative case distinctions (she/her, we/us, etc.); common nouns do not.
Pronouns show person and gender distinctions; common nouns do not.
Pronouns do not have regular inflectional plurals in Standard English.
Pronouns are more constrained than common nouns in taking dependents.
Noun phrases with common or proper nouns as head can have independent reference, i.e. they can uniquely pick out an individual or entity in the discourse context, whereas the reference of pronouns must be established contextually.


Ρ̾̾ƱΥƥ꡼Ȥߤʤ٤Ǥ (Aarts, p. 26)

Although common nouns indeed do not have nominative and accusative case inflections they do have genitive inflections, as in the doctor's garden, the mayor's expenses, etc., so having case inflections is not a property that is exclusive to pronouns.
Indisputably, only pronouns show person and arguably also gender distinctions, but this is not a sufficient reason to assign them to a different word class. After all, among the verbs in English we distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs, but we would not want to establish two distinct word classes of 'transitive verbs' and 'intransitive verbs'. Instead, it would make more sense to have two subcategories of one and the same word class. If we follow this reasoning we would say that pronouns form a subcategory of nouns that show person and gender distinctions.
It's not entirely true that pronouns do not have regular inflectional plurals in Standard English, because the pronoun one can be pluralized, as in Which ones did you buy? Another consideration here is that there are regional varieties of English that pluralize pronouns (for example, Tyneside English has youse as the plural of you, which is used to address more than one person . . . . And we also have I vs. we, mine vs. ours, etc.
Pronouns do seem to be more constrained in taking dependents. We cannot say e.g. *The she left early or *Crazy they/them jumped off the wall. However, dependents are not excluded altogether. We can say, for example, I'm not the me that I used to be. or Stupid me; I forgot to take a coat. As for PP dependents: some pronouns can be followed by prepositional phrases in the same way as nouns can. Compare: The shop on the corner and one of the students.
Although it's true that noun phrases headed by common or proper nouns can have independent reference, while pronouns cannot, this is a semantic difference between nouns and pronouns, not a grammatical one.


ƤФ塤ơϰۤʤ륫ƥ꡼ɡ뤤Ʊ쥫ƥ꡼ɤΤǤ礦

Aarts, Bas. "Syntactic Argumentation." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of English Grammar. Ed. Bas Aarts, Jill Bowie and Gergana Popova. Oxford: OUP, 2020. 21--39.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-10-25 Tue

#4929. mood modality [mood][modality][category][terminology][subjunctive][auxiliary_verb][inflection]

ɸνѸ mood modality Ϥ褯Ʊ롥ؿ缭ŵ٤ˤ mood ϡ֡ưΡˡˡԤɽư֤ФüԤοŪ٤򼨤ưθѲաסmodality ϡˡˡơԴ˾̿Ꭵ½ʤɼοŪ٤칽¤ˤäɽ뤳ȡפȤ롥ξԤζ̤ˤĤơBybee (165--66) "Mood and modality" ꤹǫ˲⤷ƤΤǡѤ褦

   The working definition of mood used in the survey is that mood is a marker on the verb that signals how the speaker chooses to put the proposition into the discourse context. The main function of this definition is to distinguish mood from tense and aspect, and to group together the well-known moods, indicative, imperative, subjunctive and so on. It was intentionally formulated to be general enough to cover both markers of illocutionary force, such as imperative, and markers of the degree of commitment of the speaker to the truth of the proposition, such as dubitative. What all these markers of the mood category have in common is that they signal what the speaker is doing with the proposition, and they have the whole proposition in their scope. Included under this definition are epistemic modalities, i.e. those that signal the degree of commitment the speaker has to the truth of the proposition. These are usually said to range from certainty to probability to possibility.
   Excluded, however, are the other "modalities", such as the deontic modalities of permission and obligation, because they describe certain conditions on the agent with regard to the main predication. Some of the English modal auxiliaries have both an epistemic and a deontic reading. The following two examples illustrate the deontic functions of obligation and permission respectively:
      Sally must be more polite to her mother.
      The students may use the library at any time.
   The epistemic functions of these same auxiliaries can be seen by putting them in a sentence without an agentive subject:
      It must be raining.
      It may be raining.
   Now the auxiliaries signal the speaker's degree of commitment to the proposition "it is raining". Along with deontic modalities, markers of ability, desire and intention are excluded from the definition of mood since they express conditions pertaining to the agent that are in effect with respect to the main predication. I will refer to obligation, permission, ability, desire and intention as "agent-oriented" modalities.
   The hypothesis implicit in the working definition of mood as an inflectional category is that markers of modalities that designate conditions on the agent of the sentence will not often occur as inflections on verbs, while markers that designate the role the speaker wants the proposition to play in the discourse will often occur as inflections. This hypothesis was overwhelmingly supported by the languages in the sample. Hundreds of inflectional markers that fit the definition of mood were found to occur in the languages of the sample. In fact, such markers are the most common type of inflection on verbs. However, inflectional markers of obligation, permission, ability or intention are extremely rare in the sample, and occur only under specific conditions.


mood ϼȤƷʤտ路ựŪƥ꡼ָ̿modality ϼȤựŪƥ꡼ָ̿ΤȤ⤢й԰ټԻָΤȤ⤢롤ȤȤ館Ƥ褵̣δ餤СԤϸԤݤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Bybee (169) ˤϼ̤ꡥ

The cross-linguistic data suggest, then, the following uses of the terms modality and mood. Modality designates a conceptual domain which may take various types of linguistic expression, while mood designates the inflectional expression of a subdivision of this semantic domain. Since there is much cross-linguistic consistency concerning which modalities are expressed inflectionally, mood can refer both to the form of expression, and to a conceptual domain.


Bybee, Joan. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1985.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-10-17 Mon

#4921. Murray αʸˡ9ʻ [pos][lowth][prescriptive_grammar][history_of_linguistics][category]

ε#4919. Lowth αʸˡ9ʻ ([2022-10-15-1]) ơ Lindley Murray (1745--1826) ʻˤĤơMurray ȤС#2592. Lindley Murray, English Grammar ([2016-06-01-1]) Ǥ夲̤ꡤLowth ʤɤߤˤĤġ18ϱʸˡֱʸˡפǤ롥
1795ǯ English Grammar, adapted to the different classes of learners; With an Appendix, containing Rules and Observations for Promoting Perspicuity in Speaking and Writing ǤȯŪʿ͵ؤꡤ夲1850ǯޤǤ150ʾϿȤƣ (42) ˤȡEnglish Grammar ϡܺǽܳŪʱʸˡפȤʤľˤرʸաʤ֤󤫤ߡˡ (1840--41) ܤȤʤä
Murray αʸˡ Lowth ʤɤѤ9ʻܤȤʤäƤ롥ƣ (45) ʬ򼨤

(1) (Article): Definite/Indefinite
(2) ̾ (Substantive or Noun): Common/Proper
(Number): Singular/Plural
(Case): Nominative/Possessive/Objective
(Gender): Masculine/Feminine/Neuter
(3) ƻ (Adjective)
(Comparison): Positive/Comparative/Superlative
(4) ̾ (Pronoun): Personal1/Relative2/Adjective3
1 ; (Person): First/Second/Third
2 Interrogative ϡRelative pronoun ΰ
3 Adjective: Possessive/Distributive/Demonstrative/Indefinite
(5) ư (Verb): Active (Transitive)/Passive/Neuter (Intransitive)
ˡ (Mood or Mode):
Indicative/Imperative/Potential/Subjunctive/Infinitive
(Tense):
Present/Past (Imperfect)/PerfectʸߴλΤȡ/PluperfectʲλΤȡ/First futureñ̤Τȡ/Second future̤贰λΤȡ
ʬ (Participle)ư (Auxiliary or helping Verbs)
ǽư֡ư (Active voice/Passive voice)
§Ե§ǡư (Regular/Irregular/Defective)
(6) (Adverb):
Number/Order/Place/Time/Quantity/Manner or quality/Doubt/Affirmation/Negation/Interrogation/Comparison
(7) ֻ (Preposition)
(8) ³ (Conjunction): Copulative/Disjunctive
(9) (interjection)


Ʊ9ʻǤ Lowth ζʬȤδ֤˼㴳κۤ롥㤨̾γʤΥƥ꡼ˤĤơMurray Lowth Nominative/Possessive ˲ä Objective ޤƤ롥ޤʬˤĤ Lowth ˡΥƥ꡼˴ޤƤ뤬Murray ư1ȤߤƤ롥
ΤȤ Murray 9ʻϡŪʱʸˡѤˤޤŤƤȤȤǤ

ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-10-15 Sat

#4919. Lowth αʸˡ9ʻ [pos][lowth][prescriptive_grammar][history_of_linguistics][category]

Ǥ̾18εʸˡ Robert Lowth (1710--87) Ȥ A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) ˤĤơhellog Ǥϡ#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1]) lowth γƵǼ夲Ƥε#4918. William Bullokar 8ʻ ([2022-10-14-1]) ơLowth ʻǧƤLowth 9ʻǤƤ롥ʲƣ (26--27) ꡥ

(1) (Article): Definite/Indefinite
(2) ̾ (Substantive, or Noun): Common/Proper
(Number): Singular/Plural
(Case): Nominative/Possessive
(Gender): Masculine/Feminine/Neuter
(3) ̾ (Pronoun):
Personal/Relative/Interrogative/Definitive/Distributive/Reciprocal
; (Person): First/Second/Third
(4) ƻ (Adjective), (5) (Adverb)
(Comparison): Positive/Comparative/Superlative
(6) ư (Verb): Active (Transitive)/Passive/Neuter (Intransitive)
ˡ (Mode): Indicative/Imperative/Subjunctive/Infinitive/Participle
(Tense):
Present/Past/Future
Present Imperfect/Present Perfect/Past Imperfect
Past Perfect/Future Imperfect/Future Perfect
'Imperfect' ϡΡֿʹԷפ
ư (Auxiliary)§Ե§ư (Regular/Irregular)
ǡư (Defective)
(7) ֻ (Preposition)
(8) ³ (Conjunction): Copulative/Disjunctive
(9) (interjection)


Bullokar 8ʻ٤ Lowth 9ʻˤĤܤ٤ϡ (Article) äƤ뤳ȡ̾줫ƻ줬ʬ̤褦ˤʤäƤ뤳ȡʬ줬ư۲1ʬȤƳʲƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ƣ (27) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ΤȤƸСΤˤȤʤ߿ǰ¿ΩƤ뤳Ȥ¤Ǥꡤ줳16³Ժΰãäפ򤹤뤳ȤǤ롥

ƣ 졡ܤΡֱʸˡפǤޤǡ١ҡ2022ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-10-17-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-09-06 Tue

#4880. ưסưפȤѸϤ䤳 [category][verb][finiteness][article][terminology][agreement][tense][number][person][mood][adjective]

Ѹư (verb) ˴ؤ륫ƥ꡼1Ĥ (finiteness) ȤΤ롥ư (finite form) ȤϡI go to school. She goes to school. He went to school. Τ褦ư go Ρޤä׸ؤư (nonfinite form) ȤϡI'm going to school. Going to school is fun. She wants to go to school. He made me go to school. Τ褦ư go ΡޤäƤʤ׸ؤ
פȤѸ줬䤳㤨С(to) go ȤѤ뤳ȤΤʤηʤΤ顤餳פǤϤʤȻפ뤫⤷ʤ̾¤ȤˡפȸΤgoes went ư go Ѳʤؤ󤲡ˤΤȤơˤפ餷ߤ뤬ष餳פʤΤǤ롥
ʬˤ finiteness פȤˤ롥finite θϡŪפȤΤ˸ꤵ줿פǤꡤnonfinite ϡŪפȤΤ˸ꤵƤʤפǤ롥㤨 He () to school yesterday. ȤʸˤƳ̤ go Ŭڤʷ硤ʸˡỌ̇̄δ went ηˤΤդ路դ路Ȥϡʸ̮ˤäƤʳηϵʤȤǡΤ˸ꤵ줿׸ʤΤǤ롥
̤ιͤȤƤϡưˤϤޤ GO GOING Τ褦ŪǥŪʷꡤ줬ºݤʸ̮ˤƤ go, goes, went ʤɤζŪʷȤƸΤȤȤ館Ƥ褤üŪˤ finite ϡֶŪפǡinfinite ϡŪפȤȤ
Ūˤ⤦ǫˤСưȤϡư줬;Ρˡ˱1Ĥη˹ʤޤƤ뤫ݤȤΤȤǤ롥Crystal (224) Ѥ褦

The forms of the verb . . . , and the phrases they are part of, are usually classified into two broad types, based on the kind of contrast in meaning they express. The notion of finiteness is the traditional way of classifying the differences. This term suggests that verbs can be 'limited' in some way, and this is in fact what happens when different kinds of endings are used.
The finite forms are those which limit the verb to a particular number, tense, person, or mood. For example, when the -s form is used, the verb is limited to the third person singular of the present tense, as in goes and runs. If there is a series of verbs in the verb phrase, the finite verb is always the first, as in I was being asked.
The nonfinite forms do not limit the verb in this way. For example, when the -ing form is used, the verb can be referring to any number, tense, person, or mood:

I'm leaving (first person, singular, present)
They're leaving (third person, plural, present)
He was leaving (third person, singular, past)
We might be leaving tomorrow (first person, plural, future, tentative)

As these examples show, a nonfinite form of the verb stays the same in a clause, regardless of the grammatical variation taking place alongside it.


ʤѸˤϴˤꡦȤ̤뤷űѸˤϷƻˤꡦζ̤äΥƥ꡼դ줿٥ "finiteness" ǤϤʤ "definiteness" Ǥ롥γѸϸ򾷤䤹ΤդǤ롥

Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-07-22 Fri

#4834. ӵ顦Ǿ [comparison][category][adjective][adverb][youtube][notice][link][grammaticalisation]

YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ42ƤޤֱѸӵ顦ǾϤʤ¿ͤʤΤꤷơѸӵ顦ǾηˤˤĤƤäƤޤ



ѸޤǤܸȰۤʤꡤƻӵ (comparative degree) Ǿ (superlative degree) Ȥäֵפʸˡƥ꡼ޤӡǾγǰʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤΤǤΤѸǤӤ˴ؤˡ乽ʸ͡ȯãƤޤ
ܤƤ⡤㤨ӵ -er դΡmore ֤Ρbetter worse Τ褦佼ˡ (suppletion) ʤΤʤɡब˭٤Ǥ
Τ褦ˡֵפˤĤƤϱѸˡѸŪ¿Ȥ⤢ꡤhellog ¾Ǥ⤷ФдϢ˿ƤޤʲϤ˴ؿäؤΤᵭǤ깭ɤߤ comparison εɤ

hellog

#3835. ƻʤɤΡӡפֵפȤƤˤĤơ ([2019-10-27-1])
#3843. ʤƻ졦Ρָפ "positive degree" ȸƤФΤ ([2019-11-04-1])
#3844. ӵ4ˡ ([2019-11-05-1])
#4616. ƻθӵ̣ ([2021-12-16-1])

#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1])
#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1])
#2347. Ӥȯãˤե󥹸졤ƥαƶˤĤơ ([2015-09-30-1])
#3032. ӤȶӤζάˡ ([2017-08-15-1])
#3349. ѸˤƻӤζ޷ vs ηװ ([2018-06-28-1])
#3617. -er/-est more/most --- ӵ顦Ǿκ ([2019-03-23-1])
#3618. Johnson ˤӵ顦Ǿκε§ ([2019-03-24-1])
#4234. ʤӵˤ -er ĤΤ more ĤΤȤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-29-1])
#4442. 2ηƻӵ -er more ([2021-06-25-1])
#4495. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ6֤ʤƻӵˤ -er more Ρס ([2021-08-17-1])

heldio & hellog-radio ʢ heldio ȡ

hellog-radio #46. ʤӵˤ -er ĤΤ more ĤΤȤΤǤ
heldio #97. unhappyӵ -er ĤΤȿ§

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-22-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-02-07 Mon

#4669. he she ̤ʤѸѼ [world_englishes][new_englishes][gender][category][variety][personal_pronoun][substratum_theory]

Ѹ (world_englishes) ¿ȤСɸΤ褦ıѸѼ郎äȤƤäʤ3;ñ̾λѤˤƷŪ˽ζ̤ĤʤѼĤޤɸѸΤ褦 he she ʤ itˤζ̤ΤˤĤʤѼ郎ΤǤ롥
㤨С쥢եꥫѸޥ졼ѸǤϡФлؼоݤˤ餺3;ñ̾ѤȤMesthrie and Bhatt (55--56) ꡤطսѤ롥

Gender has proved --- despite its minor role in English --- susceptible to variation in New Englishes. Some varieties use gender in pronouns differently. Platt, Weber and Ho . . . report that in some New Englishes where the background languages do not make a distinction between he, she and it, pronouns 'are often used indiscriminately'. They offer the following examples:

   41. My husband who was in England, she was by then my fiancé. (East Africa)
   42. My mother, he live in kampong. (Malaysia)

Since Bantu languages do not make sex-based distinction with pronouns, and the spoken forms of the Chinese languages of Singapore and Malaysia do not differentiate gender in 3rd person pronouns . . . , substrate influences may well be at work here.


ɸѸΤߤΤäƤԤˤȤäơ϶ä٤ݤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸˤ򸦵椷ƤԤˤȤäƤϡޤää٤ȤǤϤʤѸǤϡˤ뤬Ф he Ȥ3;ñ֤̾ؼ뤫Ǥ롥ˤҤɤʡ˾ˤϡʤʣ;̾Ʊ he ɽ蘆줿ꤹ롥Ѹξˤϡ̣Ūζ̤ξüǤϤʤޤǷŪʹȤˤ̤ĤʤʤäȤȤǤꡤ嵭쥢եꥫѸޥ졼ѸΥȤϻ𤬰ۤʤΤָ World Englishes ϹפȶˡŪʱѸѼޤפȶǤ

Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-01-24 Mon

#4655. ưΡפäƲǤ [aspect][tense][category][sobokunagimon][verb][terminology][perfect][progressive]

¿θˤϡ (time) ˴Ϣ복ǰɸ뵡ǽޤޤܸˤѸˤ⤢äʬ䤹Τ (tense) Ȥ (category) Ǥ͡ߡ̤ȤּΥݥȤ򼨤Ǥ
⤦1ġ褯ʹΤ (aspect) Ǥaspect Ȥñϡֶ̡¦̡֡¡פۤɤ̣Ƥ褵ǤǤʬˤפȤʤäƤΤǺޤ񤷤ʤۤؽѸȤƤ꤬ȤäΤǤ礦͡ޤ괶Ǥޤ󤬡夷ƤޤäΤ̵뤹櫓ˤ⤤ޤΤǡϡפ̤ޤ
ơaspect פˤĤƻͽĴ٤Ƥߤȡ͡⤬󤲤Ƥޤߤ˼ݤ礭ۤʤޤ

ư˴ؤʸˡƤΰĤǡưɽ魯ư֤ΤȤ館Ӥ򼨤ʸˡ򤤤ʡؿѸؼŵ, p. 96


The grammatical category (expressed in verb forms) that refers to a way of looking at the time of a situation: for example, its duration, repetition, completion. Aspect contrasts with tense, the category that refers to the time of the situation with respect to some other time: for example, the moment of speaking or writing. There are two aspects in English: the progressive aspect ('We are eating lunch') and the perfect aspect ('We have eaten lunch'). (McArthur 86)


A grammatical category concerned with the relationship between the action, state or process denoted by a verb, and various temporal meanings, such as duration and level of completion. There are two aspects in English: the progressive and the perfect. (Pearce 18)


ȾǯۤΤȤǤ饤ȤκˡꥺХפäƲǤȤ䤬åȤǴ󤻤ޤΤȤ˼¨ʤβ򤷤ȤפФޤΤǡ˺ƸޤȤȤ⤢ꡤξǤʬ䤹Ż뤷奢ǻŪʲˤϤʤäƤޤäʬ䤹⤷ޤ

꤬Ȥɤ㤦ȤƤǤ礦͡Ȥä񤷤ΤǤ褯Τϡפưɽ魯ư֤ꡤֻפưɽ魯ưγ֤Ȥޤ
㤨 jump ķ֡פγ֤ʬ䤹ơķסķ֡סķ֤פǤ֤͡ȤΤϡķ֡פȰǤäƤ⡤ӤζĥķӻϤ褦ʤȤʳʡˤ⤢СºķӻϤƤȤʳʡˤ⤢뤷ķǤƶˤʳʡˤ⤢Сķӽäʳʡˤ⤢Сķӽääʳʡˤ⤢Ȥ褦ˡǤϾʤȤ5ʳ餤櫓Ǥ⡼βΤɤǻߤ褦ȤäǤκ٤ʳɽ魯ΤפǤ֤ؤäƤǤ϶̤ƤޤֻפȤ̼λ֤ªǤ͡


ˤפγǰΰΤߤĤޤβˤޤ󤬡ͤˤʤС
⤦ܳŪˤϡ#2747. Reichenbach λ ([2016-11-03-1]) ⻲ȡ

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-19-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-01-22 Sat

#4653. Ļ̾ԲĻ̾ζ̤϶Ѹˤ [noun][countability][semantics][sobokunagimon][article][hc][category]

#4649. Ļ̾ԲĻ̾ζ̤Ϥޤ줿Τ ([2022-01-18-1]) εƤȤɼԤϢʸ롤ȤȤǶƤޤβʹˤ¸ʤä Toyota ʸǤؤ󤢤꤬ȤǤ®ɤǤߤޤ
ʸμݤǤToyota (118) Ƭꡤʸ󤷤ƤʸϤѤޤ

Our main question is about how the distinction between mass and count nouns evolved. Earlier English surprisingly has a relatively poor counting system, the distinction between count and mass nouns not being clear. This poor distinction in earlier English has developed into a new systems of considering certain referents as mass nouns, and these referents came to be counted differently from those considered as count nouns. There are various changes involved in this development, and it is possible that factors like language contact caused the change. This view is challenged, asking whether other possibilities, such as a change in human cognition and the world-view of speakers, also affected this development.


ƱʸˤСűѸ줫ѸޤǤϡĻ (countability) ˴ؤ̤ΤˤϤʤäȤȤǤʤμΤ褦ʤΤϤäΤǤˡϡĻζ̤ĤƤʤäȹͤĸħηѾ¸ȹͤƤ褵Ǥ
ȤѸ줫顤Ȥ櫓ѸˤơǡȤƸ̤Ļζ̤Ĥ褦ˤʤäƤޤطʤˤϡǤ˲Ļζ̤Ƥƥե󥹸줫αƶͤޤǤŪûΤʶ̤¤ʬˤǤޤ󡥤ǡܿˤ꿨ȯ줿ǽǧĤĤ⡤ȯŪ˱ѸˤѡסʼˤС̾ʬפۤɤǤ礦ˤѲΤǤϤʤ Toyota Ƥޤ
Helsinki Corpus ˤиŪĴȤܤͤޤȤΩƤ줿ѡפѲ¾ڤˤϥꥢʤФʤʤ꤬ޤ¿褦˻פޤǤ⡤ؤ򤷤䤹ŪʻߤȤɤळȤǤޤ⡤˴ؿͯƤޤ

Toyota, Junichi. "When the Mass Was Counted: English as Classifier and Non-Classifier Language." SKASE Journal of Theoretical Linguistics 6.1 (2009): 118--30. Available online at http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTL13/pdf_doc/07.pdf .

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-01-18 Tue

#4649. Ļ̾ԲĻ̾ζ̤Ϥޤ줿Τ [noun][countability][semantics][sobokunagimon][article][category]

̾βĻ (countability) ϸѸˤפܥ֥ǤޤȤ˰äȤʤäȤ˵Ť#4335. ̾βʬ ([2021-03-10-1])#4214. ʣ (1) ([2020-11-09-1])#4215. ʣ (2) ([2020-11-10-1])#2808. Jackendoff γǰ̣ ([2017-01-03-1]) դǴŪ˿Ƥ٤Ǥ롥伫ȡˤĤŪ˸äȤʤäȤȤ⤢롥
ܸüԤȤƱѸؤǤơʤñԲĻ̾ʤΤȵȤϰ٤٤ǤϤʤ˵󤲤ñϡΤޤ޿줽ǤƱѸǤϿȤȤˤʤäƤꡤ˿ˤϤñ̤ɽ魯Ļ̾Ѥɽ˥ѥե졼ʤФʤʤ㤨 Quirk et al. ʡ5.9ˤˤȼ̤ꡥ

NONCOUNT NOUNCOUNT EQUIVALENT
This is important informationa piece/bit/word of information
Have you any news?a piece/a bit/an item of good news
a lot of abusea term/word of abuse
some good advicea piece/word of good advice
warm applausea round of applause
How's business?a piece/bit of business
There is evidence that . . .a piece of evidence
expensive furniturea piece/an article/a suite of furniture
The interest is only 5 percent.a (low) rate of interest
What (bad/good) luck!a piece of (bad/good) luck


Ѹˤδζ̣ϡĻ̾ԲĻ̾ζ̤ĺޤ줿ΤȤȤǤ롥̣Ūˤϡ̾βĻζ̤ΤΤϸűѸˤ⤢äΤޤǷŪˤС̾βĻ߲ΤϡȤ괧ˡȯãƤΤȤ괧줬̩ˤijΩϵΤȤ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǹ褦ѸʹߤǤ뤳ȤǧƤ褤ʹߤϡ괧줬դȤǤвĻ̾ǤꡤդȤǤʤԲĻ̾ǤȽꤷΤǡĴΤ褦褦˻פ롥Ǥϡ嵭ñϤ餫ԲĻ̾äΤơñ̡ʲĻ̾ȼɽ⤽餫餢äΤ뤤ϡĻԲĻζ̼ΤʹߡȯãƤΤʤΤ
̾βĻθ߲ϡտ魯괧̵ͭˤäȽꤷȽҤ٤ʳηŪȽ⤢뤫⤷ʤ㤨С#2697. few a few ΰ̣κ ([2016-09-14-1])#3051. less + ʣ̾פϥᡩ ([2017-09-03-1])#3052. Τ褦ˡΤ餢ä鲿 ([2017-09-04-1])#2035. Ļ̾ heԲĻ̾ it Ǽ륤󥰥 ([2014-11-22-1]) Ǽ夲褦ʵϢƤΤǤϤʤ
ܳŪĴ٤ȤʤΤǡǻ˸뤳ȤϤʤɤƤߤ褦Ȼפ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-01-22-1] [2022-01-19-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-09-29 Wed

#4538. ͭ̾ϰ [onomastics][toponymy][personal_name][semantics][noun][category][linguistics][semiotics][sign]

ޤˤ⤷ǡФƤޤäȤǤܤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤȤʬޤ͡ˤȤäơϸͭ̾ (onomastics) ǤüŪˤп̾̾Ǥť¤ˤϤޤळȤɬʤΤɬ򤱤ƤΤǤǯ˰١ɬơޤ֤ΤǤؤ󺤤ޤäƤޤۤɡˤȤäƼϤΤǤ
ͭ̾ꡤפˡ̾פۤɡؤˤƼŪǿ򤷤Ƥʤ顤¤ܼŪϤޤ󡥸դ̾˻Ϥޤ̾˽ǽ뤫Ǥ (cf. #1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ǿ줿 "Onymic Reference Default Principle" (ORDP)ˡ
⤽ͭ̾ȤΤϡΰʤΤǤʤΤȤȤ餷ˤʤΤǺޤǤ͡ꤵǤϤޤ󤬡䤬֥ѥꡤ󡤥ޥ륻桤֥르˥פȾʥե󥹸ȯǸȤƤ⡤ե󥹸줬褯äȤȤˤʤޤ󡥤⤽̾ϥե󥹸ʤΤɤʤΤȤ꤬뤫Ǥ (cf. #2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1]
ѸˤΥϥɥ֥åˡCoates ˤͭ̾ؤ˴ؤϤޤƬΡָͭ̾ϰ̡פꤹ1ꡤǽѤޤ (312)

The status of proper names
   Names is a technical term for a subset of the nominal expressions of a language which are used for referring ('identifying or selecting in context') and, in some cases, for addressing a partner in communication. Nominal expressions are in general headed by nouns. According to one of the most ancient distinctions in linguistics, nouns may be common or proper, which has something to do with whether they denote a class or an individual (e.g. queen vs Victoria), where individual means a single-member set of any sort, not just a person. Much discussion has taken place about how this distinction should be refined to be both accurate and useful, for instance by addressing the obvious difficulty that a typical proper noun denoting persons may denote many separate individuals who bear it, and that common nouns may refer to individuals by being constructed into phrases (the queen). I will leave the concept [±proper], applied to nouns, for intuitive or educated recognition before returning to discussion of the inclusive concept of proper names directly. Proper nouns have no inherent semantic content, even when they are homonymous with lexical words (Daisy, Wells), and many, perhaps all, cultures recognise nouns whose sole function is to be proper (Sarah, Ipswich). Typically they have a unique intended referent in a context of utterance. Proper names are the class of such proper nouns included in the class of all expressions which have the properties of being devoid of sense and being used with the intention of achieving unique reference in context. Onomastics is the study of proper names, and concentrates on proper nouns; I shall confine the main subject-matter of this chapter to the institutionalised proper nouns associated with English and, in accordance with ordinary usage, I shall call them proper names or just names. Readers should note that strictly speaking these are a subset of proper names, and from time to time other members of the larger set will be discussed. There is some evidence from aphasiology and cognitive neuropsychology that institutionalised proper nouns --- especially personal names --- form a psychologically real class . . . .


Ǥ⤷ȴϡ֤⤷ޤ󡥤ҾΤɤǤߤƤ

Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-12-09-1] [2022-03-22-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-09-14 Tue

#4523. --- ޸ο򤯤̤ĤäưΥƥ꡼ [inflection][conjugation][ilame][verb][noun][category][tense][mood][person]

űѸʰˤ˻ϤޤѸ򤫤Ƥܴۤ뤷޸οϡѸˤ˾νäȤäƤ褤ˤѸθȤƤ෿Ҥä֤äƤޤäȤäƤǤϤʤȤ櫓̾졤ư졤ƻη絬Ϥʺ;ʤ졤ʻȷӤĤƤʸˡƥ꡼ (category) Ȥؤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
̾ˤĤƤСűѸǤ (gender) (number) (case) 3ƥ꡼λ̰ΤȤ٤ǽƤѸǤϤ褽ȳʤΥƥ꡼岽üˤ餵졤ͥȤʤäƺ˻롥
ưˤĤƤϡűѸǤϿ; (person) (number)ˡ (mood) (tense) ǽŪä޸οιȤ졤ʳΥƥ꡼θ礬ޤä٤ƤΥƥ꡼ޤӤƤȤϤṲ̄ͥΤϻǤ롥
Lass (161) ϡḽѸưΥƥ꡼Ūʶ̤ȤΤ褦˿޼

TENSE  pres.  MOOD  ind.  NUM.  sing.   PERS.   1, 2      -0
                                                                         
                                                                          3     -s
                                                                           
                                                  pl.    
                                                                       
                              subj./imp. 
        
        
         past   -d

ưꤹǽץƥ꡼ȤƻפˤƤˡ̤ʤȤʤäƤ롥Lass (159--61) ˸űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹбޤ⤢롥Ӥȷκ褯ʬ롥

Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-06-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-06-19 Sat

#4436. ƻΥץȥ [comparison][adjective][adverb][category][prototype][pos][comparison]

ʻ (part of speech = pos) ȤΤϡǤ褯ΤƤʸˡ (category) 1ĤǤ롥ƤθѸʤʸˡѸʤϡʸˡƤˤĤ줿٥Ǥ롥졤ʡӡԡ˲ĻʤɤѸ줬ФƤ顤ʸˡƤˤĤƸäƤΤȹͤƤ褤
ѸηƻʤˤȤʻˤĤƹͤ硤 (comparison) ȤʸˡƤ1ĤȤʤ롥ܸʤɤǤϡӡפʸˡƤȤ̰봷Ϥʤʽ֤פˡ1ĤȤ٤²ˤƤϸηϤ˿ޤ줿ʸˡƤȤơ̻뤵뤳ȤˤʤäƤ롥ϤޤˤδФĤƤʤΤѸؤˤȤʸˡƤ̻ŪˤⶦŪˤ׻뤵ƤȤϳΤǤ롥
ϤޤäƷƻʤˤʸˡƤȤȤ줬ƻǤ뤫Ȥäơɬ⤳ƤͿ櫓ǤϤʤ˷ƻ餷ƻӤƤŬ礹뤬ۤɷƻ餷ʤƻӤȤƤʤդ˸Сƻ夲ȤӤƤŬ礹뤫ɤǡƻ餷ƻ줫Ǥʤƻ줫Ƚ롥ϡȤʤƻ˴ؤץȥ (prototype) Ǥ롥
Crystal (92) ƻΥץȥפˤĤʬ䤹ͿƤƤ롥

   The movement from a central core of stable grammatical behaviour to a more irregular periphery has been called gradience. Adjectives display this phenomenon very clearly. Five main criteria are usually used to identify the central class of English adjectives:

(A) they occur after forms of to be, e.g. he's sad;
(B) they occur after articles and before nouns, e.g. the big car;
(C) they occur after very, e.g. very nice;
(D) they occur in the comparative or superlative form e.g. sadder/saddest, more/most impressive; and
(E) they occur before -ly to form adverbs, e.g. quickly.

We can now use these criteria to test how much like an adjective a word is. In the matrix below, candidate words are listed on the left, and the five criteria are along the top. If a word meets a criterion, it is given a +; sad, for example, is clearly an adjective (he's sad, the sad girl, very sad, sadder/saddest, sadly). If a word fails the criterion, it is given a - (as in the case of want, which is nothing like an adjective: *he's want, *the want girl, *very want, *wanter/wantest, *wantly).

 ABCDE
happy+++++
old++++-
top+++--
two++---
asleep+----
want-----


The pattern in the diagram is of course wholly artificial because it depends on the way in which the criteria are placed in sequence; but it does help to show the gradual nature of the changes as one moves away from the central class, represented by happy. Some adjectives, it seems, are more adjective-like than others.


ƻȤʸˡƤˤĤơäˤӤȤʸˡƤˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾ȡ

#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ ([2018-12-29-1])
#3835. ƻʤɤΡӡפֵפȤƤˤĤơ ([2019-10-27-1])
#3843. ʤƻ졦Ρָפ "positive degree" ȸƤФΤ ([2019-11-04-1])
#3844. ӵ4ˡ ([2019-11-05-1])

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: CUP, 1995. 2nd ed. 2003. 3rd ed. 2019.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-08-06-1] [2022-07-25-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-02-14 Sun

#4311. ʤȤϲ [case][terminology][inflection][category][noun][grammar][sobokunagimon][semantic_role]

(case) ϡŪȤäƤ褤ʸˡƥ꡼Ǥ롥ΰۤʤɤδ֤ˤ⡤ʤˤĤƤϻ褦ʸݤʬ֤ۤѻ뤳Ȥ顤ϸηϤˤΤ˰㤤ʤ
عʸˡǤʡŪʡͭʤʤɤѸ줬˽ФƤۤɤǡ¿γؽԤˤʤ߿ΤǤϤ뤬⤽ʤȤϲʤΤΤ뤳Ȥ񤷤Ф Case ȤȥƬ Blake (1) ͿƤѤ

Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads. Traditionally the term refers to inflectional marking, and, typically, case marks the relationship of a noun to a verb at the clause level or of a noun to a preposition, postposition or another noun at the phrase level.


ʸ̮ǤϡμưȤȤˤʤꡤμֻ졤ֻ졤뤤̤̾ȤȤˤʤ롥ʿСʸˡŪ˻ۤ롦δطˤȤۤ¦Ω̾줬ʤɸȤˤʤʤۤ¦ʤɸ⵩ʥ⤢ˡ
ǻŦƤ褦ˡŪˤгʤȤжޤˤɸĤޤŪʼʤؤƤΤνˤƤϰפʸˡطȤäŪʼʡ뤤ϰ̣Ȥạ̈ŪʼʤؤȤ⤢ΤǡϴñǤϤʤ
ΤʤθؤεΤʤѤֳʡפȤѸλؤΤϡȤηϤȤƤγ (case system) ǤꡤȤ˳ʸʤɤγɸ (case marker) ǤꡤȤ˳ʷ (case form) äꤹ롥ˡȤ̣Ūʥ˥奢󥹤ӤӤơŪгʡפʤɤΤ褦Ѥ⤢롥ȤƤϡռƤˤ "case" ʳʡˤȤѸѤ̣ռƤˤ "grammatical relation" ʸˡطˤȤѸѤΤ褤ȹͤƤ롥ԤϡBlake (3) Ƥ˽äѸǤ롥Ԥˤ "case relation" Ȥɽ⤢ΤBlake ϶̤Ƥ롥

It is also necessary to make a further distinction between the cases and the case relations or grammatical relations they express. These terms refer to purely syntactic relations such as subject, direct object and indirect object, each of which encompasses more than one semantic role, and they also refer directly to semantic roles such as source and location, where these are not subsumed by a syntactic relation and where these are separable according to some formal criteria. Of the two competing terms, case relations and grammatical relations, the latter will be adopted in the present text as the term for the set of widely accepted relations that includes subject, object and indirect object and the term case relations will be confined to the theory-particular relations posited in certain frameworks such as Localist Case Grammar . . . and Lexicase . . . .


Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-15-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-01-20 Wed

#4286. пư򤤤äڤǤäκˡ [dual][middle_voice][number][voice][dual][category][greek]

ѸγؽԤˤȤäߤΤʤʸˡƥ꡼ (category) Ҳ𤷤Υƥ꡼ˤп (ξȤ⡨dual number) ֤Υƥ꡼ˤư (ưȤ⡨middle_voice)
Ť˸ΤǡºݡűѸˤ;̾ˤпߤ줿 (cf. #180. űѸο;̾о ([2009-10-24-1])ˡǤ˷ƤϤưѤ hātan "be called" ʤư⤢äѸǤϤϷŪˤϴ˼ƤޤäƤ뤬ǽŪˤбΤϤ롥пˤ you two, a pair of . . ., a couple ʤɤɽб뤷ưˤϼưֹʸƵư칽ʸʤɤб롥
Ѹ줫ϷŪ˼ƤޤäпưξեѤƤ줬奮ꥷǤ롥ůؼԤοˤơˤĤơޤߤˤĤƤȤƤʬ䤹ȯŪʥåäκˡפ񤤤Ƥ (46--47)

ܸϡ̾Ρñפȡʣפζ̤ΤǤʤΤǡѸؤֻ괧 a ĤΤĤʤΤ s ĤΤĤʤΤ¤Ȥˤʤ뤬ꥷˤϡñפȡʣפΤˡˡпפȤΤ롥פˡĤǤҤȤΤΤޤȤ᤿ɽǡ˹碌ưѲ̤ˤ롥ܤ­⤽줾ĤʤΤǡȤȹͤСƱȤʤ롥
Ʊưǽư֡ư֤Ϥ狼䤹ܸΥꥷ춵Ǥϡɤ櫓ȸƤ֡ˡưפȤΤϡǽưȤưȤʤΤǡȤмʬΤȤϤƼʬäƤΤƤΤˡưפȤ롥
¤ϤΡпפȡưפŤʤäƤΤ롥ϡáפǤ롥äϡͤοʹ֤ԤΤǤꡤʣοʹ֤ΤǹԤˤƤ⡤١ͤĤǹԤ롥ơäפȤưϡͤäƤʥǥ쥲ȥˡפΤ褦ˡޤˡпưפѤ롥ĤޤꡤñˡäפΤǤϤʤƱˡäפȤŪʳưʤΤǤ롥
Ƕ޼ƤפʤΤ뤬ϤߤŪˡäפǡäϤäȴƤ褦ʵ롥ơߤʤϡäƤޤ


󡤼ˤؤμȤ⥪饤ǥߥ˥󤬰̹ԤȤʤ뷹Ƥꡤǥ쥲ȥǤƤʤ롥
ʾ塤пư꤬äڤǤ빥Ǥ

ˡäκˡסؿΥ쥷ԡůؤθ١ȽŹ2020ǯ46--47ǡ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-11-10 Tue

#4215. ʣ (2) [plural][intensive_plural][semantics][number][category][noun][terminology][countability][poetry][latin][rhetoric]

ε ([2020-11-09-1]) ˰³ʣ (intensive_plural) ˤĤơѸ Quirk et al. ʤɤˤϼ夲Ƥ餺ɤܤγعʸˡdz̤˸ڤΤΤ褦ǡƤŵ Kruisinga դΤ褦򻲾ȤƤڡ°ԡˤμŵꡤƱѤ (739--40) εμݤ򷫤֤Ȥˤʤ뤬餺

intensive plural ʶʣʷˡˡ̣Ĵ뤿ѤʣΤȡ̸ (mass word) ˸ʣǡʣθʪȤ̣ϴޤޤʸ¿롥ʪɽ̾ξ٤ζȤɽʪɽ̾ξϹꡦѡϢ³ʤɤɽ: the sands of Sahara---[Kruisinga, Handbook] / the waters of the Nile---[Ibid.] / The moon was already in the heavens.---[Zandvoort, 19757] ʷϤǤ˶ǵƤ / I have my doubts.---[Ibid.] ʻϵǰƤ / I have fears that I may cease to be Before my pen has glean'd my teeming brain---J. Keats ʻΥڥ󤬤դФλפ򽦤Ƥޤ˻ǤޤΤǤϤʤȶƤ / pure and clear As are the frosty skies---A Tennyson ƤĤΤ褦ʡ / Mrs. Payson's face broke into smiles of pleasure.---M. Schorer ʥڥ׿ͤϵޤ˴̤Ȥʤä / To think is to be full of sorrow And leaden-eyed despairs---J. Keats ʹͤ뤳Ȥᤷߤȳ赤Τʤܤ򤷤˾뤳ȡ / His hopes to see his own And pace the sacred old familiar fields, Not yet had perished---A. Tennyson ʲ²˲񤤡ʤĤζοϤƧ⤦Ȥ˾ߤϤޤääƤʤä / All the air is blind With rosy foam and pelting blossom and mists of driving vermeil-rain.---G. M. Hopkins ʰ̤絤Ф鿧ˢȷ㤷֤ȼĤĤ뿧αΤǴ⤯ۤɤˤʤ / The cry that streams out into the indifferent spaces, And never stops or slackens---W. H. Auden øʶ֤ήФƤäơ䤨⤷ʤߤ⤷ʤ㤭ˡ


ƱͤˡжԡˤμŵꡤLatinism ιफϢʬ (477) Ѥ롥

(3) ̾ʣѤɽˡ
붯ʣ (Intensive Plural) ΰǤ뤬Ȥ˥ƥɽˡ路16ȾκȤʸϤ¿졤αƶǸǤʸŪʤŪˡȤưݻƤ롥ȤСĤ˸褦 hopes, fears ϡVirgil (70--19 B.C.) Ovid (43 B.C.--A.D. 17?) ˸ƥ amōrēs [L amor love ʣ], metūs [L metus fear ʣ] ˤʤäΤȤߤʤ롥Like a young Squire, in loues and lusty-hed His wanton dayes that ever loosely led, . . . ȵ⤭ȤĤƢʤ㤤ԤΤ褦ʡġ---E. Spenser, Faerie Qveene I. ii. 3 / I will go further then I meant, to plucke all feares out of you. ͽʾΤȤ򤷤ơʤοۤ򤭤줤ˤ̤äƾ夲褦---Sh, Meas. for M. IV. ii. 206--7 / My hopes do shape him for the Governor. ʤɤ餽οͤϤ羭ȸ---Id, Oth. II. i. 55.


ۤۤƥΥȥåȤϡ줬ͥ󥹡󥰥ɤήԤ;ḽѸȤή졥ޤݤ߹᤿롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Kruisinga, E A Handbook of Present-Day English. 4 vols. Groningen, Noordhoff, 1909--11.
ͺ° ̭ԡˡظʸˡŵ١Ʋ1992ǯ
ж ϺԡˡظѸؼŵ١Ʋ1973ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-01-18-1] [2021-11-09-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow