̻ŪǤ춦ŪǤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ˤ硤ꤢƤ㤬ɤ١ʸˡפ餷ΤʸˡŪפʤΤȽǤबɬפǤ롥Τ褦ʴꤹ뤳ȤϡʸˡͿ뤳Ȥˤۤʤ餺麤ʲǤ뤳ȤؤʤΤ褦ʴࡤʤѥȤƤϡLehmann ƤŵŪʤΤȤƤ롥ϤΤΡȤƽפǤ롥Hopper and Traugott (31) Lehmann ΥѥΤ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤǡѤ褦Ϣطμ (paradigm) 3طμ (syntagm) 3Ǥ롥
Of relevance on the paradigmatic axis are:
1. the "weight" or size of an element (Lehmann refers to "signs"); weight may be phonological (Lat. ille 'that' has more phonological weight than the French article le that derives from it) or semantic (the motion verb go is thought to be semantically weightier than the future marker go) --- "Grammaticalization rips off the lexical features until only the grammatical features are left" (1995: 129);
2. the degree to which an element enters into a cohesive set or paradigm; e.g., Latin tense is paradigmatically cohesive whereas English tense is not (contrast the Latin with its translation in amo 'I love,' amabo 'I will love,' amavi 'I have loved');
3. the freedom with which an element may be selected; in Swahili if a clause is transitive, an object marker must be obligatorily expressed in the verb (given certain semantic constraints), whereas none is required in English.
Of relevance on the syntagmatic axis are:
4. the scope or structural size of a construction; periphrasis, as in Lat. scribere habeo 'write:INF have:1stSg', is structurally longer and weightier and larger than inflection, as in Ital. scriverò, 'I shall write';
5. the degree of bonding between elements in a construction (there is a scale from clause to word to morpheme to affix boundary, 1995: 154); the degree of bonding is greater in the case of inflection than in that of periphrasis;
6. the degree to which elements of a construction may be moved around; in earlier Latin scribere habeo and habeo scribere could occur in either order, but in later Latin this order became fixed, which allowed the word boundaries to be erased.
Ѹʸˡݤ˾Ȥ餷Ƥߤ褦㤨СѸˡư will ˤ̤פȯãϤɤΤ餤ʸˡŪ#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) 褦ˡˡư will ȯãʸˡŵ1ĤȹͤƤ뤬嵭2鼨̤ꡤѸ will ˤ̤פϢطδ顤ۤ cohesive ȤϤʤ褦ˤפ졤ɤޤǻȤʸˡƥȤưΤ䤬Ĥ롥 Yes/No ǤϤʤ٤ǤꡤץȥŪɬפϤ6ĤΥѥ٤ʻʸˡפȤƤޤȡ¿ȤƤޤȤˤʤ롥
Lehmann, Christian. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. Munich: Lincom Europa, 1995.
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
1020դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ10ε֤ʤ you ϡ֤ʤפǤ⤢֤ʤפǤ⤢Τޤ
ʸǤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡѤʵˤֶä٤Ūطʤơפꡤ̤ơֱѸˤΥʥߥפȻפޤ2;̾ˤĤƤϡޤǤܥ֥ǽƤޤʲ˴ϢؤΥĥޤΤǡɤ
[ ƻ塤Ѽο;̾η ]
#180. űѸο;̾о ([2009-10-24-1])
#181. Chaucer ο;̾ηϡ ([2009-10-25-1])
#196. Ѹο;̾ηϡ ([2009-11-09-1])
#529. ɸѼ2;ʣ̾ ([2010-10-08-1])
#333. Ĥ thou ([2010-03-26-1])
[ ʸˡƤȥե ]
#1449. ˤơס ([2013-04-15-1])
#2853. ˤȿʹ֤ʬե ([2017-02-17-1])
[ ƾΤȷɾΤΩ (t/v_distinction) ]
#167. θ T/V distinction ([2009-10-11-1])
#185. Ѹˤȥɥĸˤˤ T/V distinction ([2009-10-29-1])
#1033. ܸηɸȥ衼åѽ T/V distinction ([2012-02-24-1])
#1059. ϽŻ뤫ְռŻؿܤƤ T/V distinction ([2012-03-21-1])
#1126. 衼åѤμˤ T/V distinction ε ([2012-05-27-1])
#1552. T/V distinction face ([2013-07-27-1])
#2107. ɥĸ T/V distinction άˡ ([2015-02-02-1])
[ thou, ye, you ζ ]
#673. Burnley's you and thou ([2011-03-01-1])
#1127. ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ̲ ([2012-05-28-1])
#1336. ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ̲ (2) ([2012-12-23-1])
#1865. Ф thou ѤΤϤʤ ([2014-06-05-1])
#291. ;̾ thou ξüưؤαƶ ([2010-02-12-1])
#2320. 17 thou ο ([2015-09-03-1])
#800. you ˤ ye ִ phonaesthesia ([2011-07-06-1])
#781. How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1])
[ ɾΤ you ̾Ĥ ]
#440. ˻ĤɾΤ you ([2010-07-11-1])
#1952. Ųפ Your Majesty ˤߤɰա ([2014-08-31-1])
#3095. Your Grace, Your Highness, Your Majesty ([2017-10-17-1])
[ you ȯֻ ]
#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1])
#2234. <you> ֻ ([2015-06-09-1])
ʪ졡ؤˡ٤路ƣ (37) ϡŪưȤƤοؤüȤưʲƤ롥
ʹݤڤФƤŪоݤβưȡ
оݤǧ˴ؤʲ2ˤĤưŪʥ뤳ȡ
ߥŪ¦̡оݤ갷ݤζɽŪήδĴ
ޥŪ¦̡ηΤŪͤȽǤࡥ
ؤξ硤ǽϡֿפȤʪʪǤ뤫Τ褦˰Ȥ롥2ܤˤĤƤϡߥŪ¦̤ȤϷˡˡʤɤؤޥŪ¦̤ȤϿؤˤĤľѤ뿳¸ߴΤ褦ʤΤؤΤ褦ʥޥŪ¦̤ϡˤȤä̵ͣΤǤϤʤषźʸγơäƤȼΡֿؤ餷פб롥
ơŪưνüؿϡ줬ؤ伫ʳذʳˤŬѤ뤳ȤǤ롥ƣ (38--39) ϡ1ȤƴηϤƤ롥
桹Żο顤ȤΤͤμѼڤФ줿٤ŪʳǰŪħǤ뤳ȡƤ¸μɽηΤΤȤƤμĤȤؤ֤ȤǤ롥Τߤʤ餺դ䲾ڤȤäϻˤǼηϤäƤȡƤ줬ºߤγǰȵҴѲȤб§̤ơ¤Բʬδطˤ뤳Ȥ´뤳ȤǤ롥
Ϥˤ̤ơñʤʸȤƤΤߵǽȤΤǤϤʤäʸǤȤȤˡޤͼμ¸ξǤꡤ̤ƤλۤɽǤ뤳ȤǤ šشɴá١ (1978) 159--160ǡ
ϴηϤˤμʳؤǤäȤͺۤʪäƤ롥
ºݤΤȤŪưüϡؤΤߤʤ餺¿γ䵭ηϤ˸ΤǤϤʤʳءˤꡥǤϡȤŪ¸ߤŪǤνȤƼβ롥ޤ͡ʥ٥ǶɽŪ˺ѤʸˡפȸƤФ뵬§ꤵƤ롥ơΤȤ1ĤѤƤ롥
ˡηϼΤŪưʣΤǤȤߤʤȤǤ㤨Сʸˡʡˡ֤ʤɤʸˡ (category) γơ嵭üͭ1ĤŪưǤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ָ餷פθǤϲ䤤Фǽοءˤ¸ߤΤ⤷ʤ
ƣ ʸʪ졡ؤˡ١ҡӡ2009ǯ
ˤ (gender) ¸ߤȵˤĤơܥ֥ǤϡѸϤȤ濴ȤơˤƤܵ˷Ǥȡˡ
εϡؼԡóؼԡؼԤ줾Ω줫Ƥ˽Ṳ̄ɸΡ̤ͤΥ˥ߥ˺Ρʹ֤ϤλʪħˤΡŪͤΤʤ͡Τ椯ȤϤƤ餺̤ȸ虜ʤ
Τ褦εˤĤƤԾܤߤζŪʸˡƤȤƤɤΤ褦ˤȤ館뤫ϡޤ̤Ǥ롥¿ξ硤Ūˤϡְ̣ΤʤʬȤߤʤƤΤǤϤʤ (116) ΩΤ褦Ƥ롥
ɤΤȤϸͤλװԤˤȤäƤϡ뤤ϹŪʤΤǤä⤷ʤޤǤʸˡƤΤʤǺǤԹʤΡвƤޤäʸˡηϤΰϤˤʤȹͤ뤳Ȥ¿η̡Ѹڥ륷˸褦ˡӼ˾κǤͭѲǤȹͤΩ줬ޤ롥ϤʤˤäƤ⡤̾ʬˤϤޤäפ⤿餵ʤ۾ζ̤ɽʤȤΤǤ롥ʸˡϼŪζʬбʤʾ塤ʤǤꡤäơϾǤȤƤ⤪ʤȤΤǤ롥
(116--17) ϡƤ븫Τ褦ǡʹ֤θˤʤˤʹ֤ʤˤȤ⸫Ƥ褦
٤Ƥ̾ˤϲ餫βͤޤȤĤƤ롥βͤ˴Ťơ̤̾δǰळȤϿʹŪװԤˤȤäŪǤ뤫˻פ롥ʹ֤ϡʪ̾ΤͿ̿̾ԡʥΥߥʥꥹȡˤȤ뤬ƱˡʪʬषʤǤϤʤʬԡʥΥߥȡˤǤ⤢Ȥ褦פϡʬβͤξ˱ȯ뤫ݤΰ㤤Ǥ롥
ʹ֤ˤϡݤʬऻʤʤˤ롥פˡʹ֤ʬեǤ롥ʤˤ⡤ʬեλʪǤ롥
#1135. ĸʸˡε ([2012-06-05-1])
#1517. ([2013-06-22-1])
#1449. ˤơס ([2013-04-15-1])
#1534. Dyirbal ˤʸˡ ([2013-07-09-1])
#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1])
#1887. ˤͤݤ4Ĥλ ([2014-06-27-1])
̾Υ饹סءظ٥쥯1ظԽԡˡ罤۽Ź2012ǯ115--22ǡ1993ǯ10Ͽ
ܸˤϡֱפμ٤ʬƻؤä˭٤ˤꡤѸˤϡַפɽ魯줬ηƤΤμ˱ƻȤʬʡ#1894. Ѹ͡ʡַסܸ͡ʡֱס ([2014-07-04-1])#1868. Ѹ͡ʡַס ([2014-06-08-1]) ȡˡΤ褦äϡԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˴ؤȤợ⤿롥ºݤˤϡΤ褦ʻ㤬ɤƱμĥʸȸ̩ܤʴطٻΤʤΤΤȽǤ뤳ȤΤȤϡ#364. The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax ([2010-04-26-1])#1337. ְñʸաס ([2012-12-24-1]) ʤɤεմƤ
Ǥ⡤μʹʹۤɤ⤷ȤΤ¤ǤꡤĤɤƤȻפäƤWardhaugh (234--35) ˡźθ줫λ㤬ƤΤǡʲ˰ѤƤ
If language A has a word for a particular concept, then that word makes it easier for speakers of language A to refer to that concept than speakers of language B who lack such a word and are forced to use a circumlocution. Moreover, it is actually easier for speakers of language A to perceive instances of the concept. If a language requires certain distinctions to be made because of its grammatical system, then the speakers of that language become conscious of the kinds of distinctions that must be referred to: for example, gender, time, number, and animacy. These kinds of distinctions may also have an effect on how speakers learn to deal with the world, i.e., they can have consequences for both cognitive and cultural development.
Data such as the following are sometimes cited in support of such claims. The Garo of Assam, India, have dozens of words for different types of baskets, rice, and ants. These are important items in their culture. However, they have no single-word equivalent to the English word ant. Ants are just too important to them to be referred to so casually. German has words like Gemütlichkeit, Weltanschauung, and Weihnachtsbaum; English has no exact equivalent of any one of them, Christmas tree being fairly close in the last case but still lacking the 'magical' German connotations. Both people and bulls have legs in English, but Spanish requires people to have piernas and bulls to have patas. Both people and horse eat in English but in German people essen and horses fressen. Bedouin Arabic has many words for different kinds of camels, just as the Trobriand Islanders of the Pacific have many words for different kinds of yams. Mithun . . . explains how in Yup'ik there is a rich vocabulary for kinds of seals. There are not only distinct words for different species of seals, such as maklak 'bearded seal,' but also terms for particular species at different times of life, such as amirkaq 'young bearded seal,' maklaaq 'bearded seal in its first year,' maklassuk 'bearded seal in its second year,' and qalriq 'large male bearded seal giving its mating call.' There are also terms for seals in different circumstances, such as ugtaq 'seal on an ice-floe' and puga 'surfaced seal.' The Navaho of the Southwest United States, the Shona of Zimbabwe, and the Hanunóo of the Philippines divide the color spectrum differently from each other in the distinctions they make, and English speakers divide it differently again. English has a general cover term animal for various kinds of creatures, but it lacks a term to cover both fruit and nuts; however, Chinese does have such a cover term. French conscience is both English conscience and consciousness. Both German and French have two pronouns corresponding to you, a singular and a plural. Japanese, on the other hand, has an extensive system of honorifics. The equivalent of English stone has a gender in French and German, and the various words must always be either singular or plural in French, German, and English. In Chinese, however, number is expressed only if it is somehow relevant. The Kwakiutl of British Columbia must also indicate whether the stone is visible or not to the speaker at the time of speaking, as well as its position relative to one or another of the speaker, the listener, or possible third party.
֤Ǹΰ̣ʬƤˡۤʤäƤ㤫Ϥޤꡤ;Τʤɤʸˡ (category) κۤ㡤ƷɸηϤΤ褦ʼҲŪʹܤ˴ؤޤǵƤ롥ԥᥦդβƹͤǤΡäμˤʤ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
#2680. deixis ([2016-08-28-1]) ˴ؤʸˡ (category) 1Ĥˡ; (person) 롥ľ deixis ˴طΤϡ1;Ρäˤ2;ΡʹˤΤߤǤꡤ3;ΤȤϤʳΰڤλʪȤŪΤǤ롥ֻפȡ֤ʤפλؼоݤϡäλͿԤѤФ˱ѤΤǤꡤߥ˥ˤȤäơΤ褦Ūʻؼǽ̤12;̾줬Ȥɬפ3;ΤˤĤƤϡŪˤؤ̾ʶˤȤäƤѤȤϤǤ롥㤨̾פפѤˡڡפֻġפ֤̾ѤƺѤޤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥äơο;̾ηϤˤƺǤܼŪʤΤ12;ΤǤꡤ3;ΤϾˤäƤʤǤĤǤ롥
Huang (137) ϡ3;̾礯줬ꤦͳˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Third person is the grammaticalization of reference to persons or entities which are neither speakers nor addressees in the situation of utterance, that is, the 'participant-role' with speaker and addressee exclusion [-S, -A] . . . . Notice that third person is unlike first or second person in that it does not necessarily refer to any specific participant-role in the speech event . . . . Therefore, it can be regarded as the grammatical form of a residual non-deictic category, given that it is closer to non-person than either first or second person . . . . This is why all of the world's languages seem to have first- and second-person pronouns, but some appear to have no third-person pronouns.
Ū Huang 3;̾礯ȤƸڤƤΤϡDyirbal, Hopi, Yéli Dnye, Yidiɲ, ڤӥǤ롥
¤ϡܸˤƤ⡤;̾ɤΤ褦˹ͤ뤫ȤϤ뤬3;̾ˤĤƤϸؼ̾žѤŪǤꡤȼΤΤϤʤäȤäƤ褤1;Τϥ졤졤2;ΤǤϥʡʥ줬ͭθ촴ȤƤäΤФ3;ΤϾʤȤȼθ촴ĤۤɤˤȯãƤʤä
ȤǡܸǤѸǤ⾮ҶʬΤȤ1;̾ǤϤʤͭ̾ǸƤָݤ뤬ŪʤΤθ伫ȯãȴطΤdeixis ϡλΩ֤ǤŪʻؼǽǤ뤫顤ǧǽϤȯãȴطǤϤ롥зɸȤط̣Ǹꡤdeixis Ȥ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
(inflection) ˤϡŪʴߤĸͭ (inherent inflection) ȡŪʴߤʸ̮ (contextual inflection) 2बȤ롥Booij (1) ˤȡ
Inherent inflection is the kind of inflection that is not required by the syntactic context, although it may have syntactic relevance. Examples are the category number for nouns, comparative and superlative degree of the adjective, and tense and aspect for verbs. Other examples of inherent verbal inflection are infinitives and participles. Contextual inflection, on the other hand, is that kind of inflection that is dictated by syntax, such as person and number markers on verbs that agree with subjects and/or objects, agreement markers for adjectives, and structural case markers on nouns.
Τ褦ʶޤ2פζ̤ϡޤǤθǤŦ뤳ȤϤäƥñ urbs ʣ urbes ΰ㤤ϡοΰפˤͿ뤳ȤϤ뤬Ȥựοˤưۤʤ㤤ǤꡤͭޤطƤ롥ʷ urbs гʷ urbem ΰ㤤ϡ̣Ūʰ㤤ͿƤ뤬ȤŪᤵ뺹ۤǤȤǡδͿضȽǤ롥äơǤʸ̮ޤطƤȤ
ѸˤĤƹͤƤ⡤̾οʤɤ˴ؤͭޤϡ̣ŪŪ¦̤äƤ롥бʣΤʤ̾졤бñΤʤ̾pluralia tantum)ñʣŪʰ̣ۤʤʤʤۤʤ2ǤߤСΤȤϼΤǤưʬδ֤ˤδطߤ롥ϡΤ졦ʣδط˶ᤤ
ʸ̮ޤ꿼˴ؤäƤ뤳Ȥϡɸͭޤɸ⳰¦ղä뤳ȤȴͿƤ褦Booij (12) ۩"[C]ontextual inflection tends to be peripheral with respect to inherent inflection. For instance, case is usually external to number, and person and number affixes on verbs are external to tense and aspect morphemes"
콬δ⡤ͭޤʸ̮ޤζ̡äԤԤͥۤȤϻٻ褦ͭޤȼΰ̣Ĥľܤʸ˹뤬ʸ̮ޤΩ⤿ޤŪ˴ŪʰյĤˤʤ
ǤϡѲλˤơ줿褦ʸͭޤʸ̮ޤζ̡ˤԤθԤФͥۤϡɤΤ褦ɽΤѸˤǤߤ褦ˡʸˡŪǽä̾졤ƻ졤ưʤɤζüƤäȤˡεǽ顤ζʬ˾üƤäν餫ˤʤСȾ嵭2ĤζޥפȤϢưشطĴ٤뤳ȤǤ⤷ȡѸƻޤλ㤬Ūˡ餫ƶ⤿餷ƤΤǤϤʤȴƤ롥ѸηƻޤˤĤƤϡilame γƵȤ줿
Booij, Geert. "Inherent versus Contextual Inflection and the Split Morphology Hypothesis." Yearbook of Morphology 1995. Ed. Geert Booij and Jaap van Marle. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1996. 1--16.
ε#2445. ܥˤ̵ռ ([2016-01-06-1]) ǰѤˤ Franz Boaz ˴ؤϤκǸ (p. 98) ˡĹ餯ԻĤ˻פäƤؤθڤä
¿θ줬ñǼƤۤʣǤΤŪʶ̤ƤʤΤϤʤȤʤΤȤƥܥϰѤƤ롥֥ (Viggo Bröndal) ϡŪγѤʣ뤿μʤŪ˹֤Ƥ뷹뤳ȤŦФʬΰĤƤ˴ؤʣǤ¾Ƥ˴ؤƤŪñǤ롥Ρˡ§פˤäơñⴰꤵƤʣϡŪɽäƤ롥
ѸˤǤСϤĤηǸ롥űѸˤơ̾ƻʤˤϡʣñΤۤ¿ʣǤ롥3;̾Ǥ⡤ñǤ hē (he), hēo (she), hit (it) ˱3ΰۤʤ촴̤뤬ʣǤζ̤¤ hīe (they) Τߤȴά롥ưο;θ⡤ñǤϿ;Τˤۤʤ֤Τ̤ʣǤϿ;Τˤ餺1Ĥη֤뤳Ȥ¿ĤޤꡤʸˡƤιΤͭɸʤΤ˴ؤƤϡ餯̣ǽʣǤ뤤ȤơбŪñʤΤޤ롤ȤȤ
ͤƤߤСϸ줬ǽŪηϤǤ뤳ȤȤΤȤ⤷ʤͭɸǤʣηϤϡѼԤôꤹ¸³ΤϤˡ§פϡ١;ѤȤäǽŪʽǰȤط (see #1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1]))
äȤ⡤Ρˡ§פϰŪ˴ѻ뷹Ȥ٤ΤǤꡤ̸ŪˤȿϾʤ餺դ̻ŪѲʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ظؼ?ػˤäŷ͡ۺͤμ?١īǼҡ2010ǯ
ε#2445. ܥˤ̵ռ ([2016-01-06-1]) ǰѤˤ Franz Boaz ˴ؤϤκǸ (p. 98) ˡĹ餯ԻĤ˻פäƤؤθڤä
¿θ줬ñǼƤۤʣǤΤŪʶ̤ƤʤΤϤʤȤʤΤȤƥܥϰѤƤ롥֥ (Viggo Bröndal) ϡŪγѤʣ뤿μʤŪ˹֤Ƥ뷹뤳ȤŦФʬΰĤƤ˴ؤʣǤ¾Ƥ˴ؤƤŪñǤ롥Ρˡ§פˤäơñⴰꤵƤʣϡŪɽäƤ롥
ѸˤǤСϤĤηǸ롥űѸˤơ̾ƻʤˤϡʣñΤۤ¿ʣǤ롥3;̾Ǥ⡤ñǤ hē (he), hēo (she), hit (it) ˱3ΰۤʤ촴̤뤬ʣǤζ̤¤ hīe (they) Τߤȴά롥ưο;θ⡤ñǤϿ;Τˤۤʤ֤Τ̤ʣǤϿ;Τˤ餺1Ĥη֤뤳Ȥ¿ĤޤꡤʸˡƤιΤͭɸʤΤ˴ؤƤϡ餯̣ǽʣǤ뤤ȤơбŪñʤΤޤ롤ȤȤ
ͤƤߤСϸ줬ǽŪηϤǤ뤳ȤȤΤȤ⤷ʤͭɸǤʣηϤϡѼԤôꤹ¸³ΤϤˡ§פϡ١;ѤȤäǽŪʽǰȤط (see #1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1]))
äȤ⡤Ρˡ§פϰŪ˴ѻ뷹Ȥ٤ΤǤꡤ̸ŪˤȿϾʤ餺դ̻ŪѲʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ظؼ?ػˤäŷ͡ۺͤμ?١īǼҡ2010ǯ
Sebeok, Thomas A., ed. Portraits of Linguists. 2 vols. Bloomington, Indiana UP, 1966 ꡤꥫθؼ Franz Boas (1858--1942) ˤĤƾҲ𤷤ʸϤɤǤ롥ǵƤˤ (category) ̵ռ˴ؿä (83--85) Ѥ롥
ܥ Handbook of American Indian Languages 1991ǯˤΤФ餷ˤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤָؤǻäƤ礤ʤϼΤ褦ʻ¤Ǥ롥ʤꤵƤƤϾ˰ռ줺ƤΤˤƤϡ㳲Ȥʤäꤹ褦Ūʤé뤳Ȥ롥ʤΤ褦̱²ؤǤ˰ŪʤΤǤġ
ʸϤϡܥɽǤ٤ǤơŪôͤΰĤȻ䶦ˤϻפ롥¡θ츽ݤռʤȤΤ˸Ū˼갷͡ˤȤä䤬¿ʤǺޤƤ롥塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure) ˤȤäƤ躤ΧȿǤäΰոǤϡΰˤ뤽줾ξ֤϶ξ֤ʤΤʤʤ顤ĿͤϤۤȤɸˡ§ʤɰռƤʤΤ顥ܥϤޤˤƱȯϤδȤʤǰϸ춦ƱΤ䤨ѤƤ뤬̾綠ιΰռˤϤΤܤäƤʤŪʤϡѤβǤ̵ռʾ֤ˤäƱʵפ褦ˤʤäƤȤܥϡʤޤԥ⤳ǤƱƻɤΤˤΤ褦ΰʷƳˡΤäƤĿͤΰռȤΤ̾ʸˡڤӲηȾͤ뤳ȤϤʤäŪʿΤľҤȤϤʤ̱²δŪʽĿͤռŪ˲ᤷľȡνƤˤΤߤʤ餺ηȤޤˤꡤʣˤꤹ뤳Ȥ롥ܥĴƤ褦˸칽¤ηϡθ䤹ˤʤǤʤǸé뤳Ȥ衤餫ˤʤ롥Ūʸνñ̤ǽݤˡñ̤ĿͤΰռˤΤܤäꤹɬפϤʤνñ̤Ϥߤ˸ΩƤ뤳ȤϤۤȤɤʤäƸˤơĿͤΰռߤ˴ĤʤȤطϡθηĸ̩ǴפƤ롥Ĥޤꤹ٤ƤʬäȷӤĤƤΤʤΤФռ失м夤ۤɡȤʤäƤȤ꼰졤ɸಽ졤롥äơ¿ͤʸ칽¤ޤ졤Ȥ櫓ܥο˷֤ݤĤŪʽŪ¸ߤ롥дطŪǽΤʸˡ䲻ǤɬפǤ롥
¿̱ͤ²˴ؤ븽ݤǡβݤषαѤ϶ˤưŪʿ̵ռŪ˼Τ褦ͳǥܥϼĥƤ롥ָβ̵ռȤޤˤθݤ̱²˴ؤ븽ݤΤΤΩġϷڤᤴȤǤʤǤ롥פ¾μҲŪȿȴϢƹͤΡϰ̤̱²˴ؤ¿ͤʽФŰ줷ƶȤؤΰ̣ϡޤǤ̩ۤ˽Ҥ٤줿ȤϤʤäؤϼҲؤ͡ʬ椹͡ˤͤˤʤȦǤ롥
ǽҤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥϡν§ƤϡĿ̵ͤռΤˤä夷ƤΤǤȤȤդ˸СŪѻˤꡤߤ봷ФȤǤСι̵ռͤηͤߤȤȤˤʤ롥ιͤ Humboldt Ρѡ (Weltanschauung) ȶƤꡤΥԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) (linguistic_relativism) ˤĤʤѤǤ롥
ʤ֤٤ƤʬäȷӤĤƤΡפϡʤ Meillet "système où tout se tient" 줿Τ (see #2245. Meillet "tout se tient" --- ηϤȤƤθ ([2015-06-20-1])#2246. Meillet "tout se tient" --- Ҳˤ ([2015-06-21-1]))
³ (90) ϡ (arbitrariness) ˴ؤܥθˤĤơΤ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
桹ϰʲΤȤǤΤäƤġθϳ̤ˤƤ줾ŪǤ뤬ۥåȥˡ䥽塼ˤŪϥܥˤäƤƤܼŪ¤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥¡ǡġθ϶֤뤤ϻ֤ˤ¾θλΤŪǤϸäƤ롥̤ȯãǤʸƤ褦ȡ˴ؤƤϡäˤȤäƤɤΤ褦ʶ̤λŪǤϤʤΤ褦ʶ̤λϸĿͤˤƤ̱²ΤˤƤ⤽ȵŤ̤˷졤ưθդˤä夲롥οääդȸ춦ƱΤοưƳΤ褦˸ȿĤΤߤʤ餺͵ڤӲʳŪˤƶڤܤʸˤƤ⤢뤤ȯãΤΤˤƤ⡤٤ƤθʸˡŪϱʵפŪʤΤǡˤ⤫餺٤ƤθƱʸΤʤɬפˤ⡤ޤͤŪ̲줿ˤ⽼ʬŬ롥νϿɽǡˤϴŪǤʤäΤ˲ͤͿΤǤ롥ʸȸäɽˡϤ˽ʤʸˡѲʤ֤³ȤǤ롥
塼ŪǤΤФܥΤŪǤ롥üԤˤȤäơġθ쵭ŪǤⲿǤʤषɬ˴롥ܸüԤˤȤäơ// ȤǽָפȤ국ȷӤĤƤΤϤޤ˼ǤꡤɬפȤľ롥Ϣơ#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1]) Ȥ줿
Τ褦ˡܥϸƤ̵ռȤˤĤƿ˹ͻؼԤȤƵ٤Ǥ롥
ظؼ?ػˤäŷ͡ۺͤμ?١īǼҡ2010ǯ
2֡#2434. ƻѲޤ -e ѸޤǻĤäͳ ([2015-12-26-1]) ȡ#2435. eurhythmy 뤤 "buffer hypothesis" ŬѲǽ ([2015-12-27-1]) εǡInflectional Levelling of Adjectives in Middle English (ilame) ˤĤƹͻ#2434εˤΤϡ¤ϷƻΡñפμѲޤȤ -e ΤȤǤäơƱ褦 -e ٤ޤǤ褯ݤƤƻΡʣפζޤˤĤƤϿƤʤä#532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1]) ˵ɽʬ褦ˡʣˤƤϡѲȶѲζ̤ʤ§ȤƤĶˤơñƻ -e äΤǤ롥#2435εǰä "eurhythmy" "buffer hypothesis" ϡƻѤĶκۤȤäʣξˤϾ嵭Τ褦ĶȤʤΤǡʤʣޤ -e 褯ݻ줿ΤˤĤƤϡ̤ȤưʤФʤʤ
ФơŪˤϡñʣ̤ (number) Ȥʸˡ (category) ѸθηϤˤƤ褯ݼ餵ƤǤ롤Ƥ̾̾ˤƤϡĸ줫űѸФƸѸ˻ޤǰӤƿζ̤ݤƤưΰ (concord) ˤƤ⡤ȤƤϾ˴ͿŪǤ³ƤƻǤϡŪ˶ѸʹߡɸʤʤäȤϻ¤Ѹη㤷οʿȾüĬήΤʤӡѸޤʣ -e 褯ݤäƤȤȤϡѸθηϤˤƿȤƤ夷ƤȤΤǡϰʲ Minkova (329) θƱդ롥
My analysis assumes that the status of the final -e as a grammatical marker is stable in the plural. Yet in maintaining the syntactically based strong-weak distinction in the singular, it is no longer independently viable. As a plural signal it is still salient, possibly because of the morphological stability of the category of number in all nouns, so that there is phrase-internal number concord within the adjectival NPs. Another argument supporting the survival of plural -e comes from the continuing number agreement between subject NPs and the predicate, in other words the singular-plural opposition continues to be realized across the system.
ǤϡʤѸǤϿȤʸˡƤޤǺĤȤʤƸߤǤĤäƤˤΤϸˤʸˡƤΰŪǤꡤˤȤ٤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤεϡ "Syntactic Agreement" ꤹ6.6 (141--44) ǿƤΤǻȤ줿
Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." Papers from the 5th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Cambridge, 6--9 April 1987. Ed. Sylvia Adamson, Vivien Law, Nigel Vincent, and Susan Wright. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990. 313--36.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Ѹˤ̤ȯãˤĤơ#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) εڤӴŪˡ#2209. ĸˤư̤ޡ ([2015-05-15-1]) εǼ夲will, shall ѤṲ̄ɽޤ졤ijΩȤϡѸˤνװƷ1ĤǤ뤬Ȥδ֤͡ʵ롥ϢơѸ̤¸ߤΤȤʸˡ (category) ˴ؤ礭⤢ꡤɴĤǤ롥
̻ŪķŪʴϡ̤ȤưζޤΤ⺣¸ߤ丽߷ΤˤȤ٤ˤȤ٤٤ʤȤ롥ȤʸˡƤߤ˷ŪӤ뿶ʤФʤʤȤޤ꤬櫓ǤʤŪĵǽŪʴ餹СѸ will, shall Ǽ̤ϡʤƤӤ1ĤǤȤǧƤ褤褦˹ͤƤ롥°桦 (171) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤꡤѸˤ̤ꤷƤ롥
Ѹˤϸ̤λɽϤʤOE ˤƤϸäɽƤPE Ǥϡshall (should) or will (would) + פη̤ɽȤѤ졤 future tense ȸƤǤ롥shall, will ϸߤǤϤθޤäñ̤ɽΤѤ⤢ΤǡñʤǧᡤȤη future tense ȸƤ֤ȤϺ٤ʤ褬üԤοŪ٤ΤѤ줿ưǤꡤߤǤ⤷Ф̤ʳΰ̣Ѥ롥
Ǥϡ will, shall ѤṲ̄ȳΩλϤĤʤΤ̤ˤϤ˨ϸűѸˤߤȸ롥will, shall ʸ̮ˤơˡŪʰ̣ᡤñ̤ɽ魯˻äȽǤǤűѸ㤬ʤʤŦƤ (Mustanoja 489) ̣ɺ (bleaching) ιǤꡤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ŵǤ⤢롥κǽϡθԤˤʸ̮̯ȽǤ˰ѤͤƤꡤλҴŪ˷ꤹ뤳ȤưפǤϤʤѸ줫Ǥ顤¿ξ硤ˡŪʰ̣ɤȤɤ뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥
ѸȡʤȤñ̤θȤ will, shall 㤬Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤褽̻ŪŸϿ䤷̤뤳ȤǤ롥Mustanoja (490) ˤСѸǤ shall Τ̤ۤνưǤꡤwill ϤޤˡŪʰ̣魯¿äʤ will, shall ο;ΤˤȤʬϤȤƸФΤϡ#451. shall will λȤʬ˴ؤ The Wallis Rules ([2010-07-22-1]) ǿ줿褦17ΤȤºݤˤλȤʬٳΩȤ19ʹߤΤȤǤʰ°桦ġp. 171ˡ
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ܥ֥Ǥ3ñ -s (3sp) 3ʣ -s (3pp) ۤѸˤˤưο;θ˴ؤ¿夲Ƥ; (person) Ȥʸˡ (category) ¿θ²˳ǧ졤ѸޤˤƤ⸲ƤȤʤäƤ롥⤽ˤƿ;ΤưζˤɸȤεϲäΤο;Τư줬פʤФʤʤȤϤɤ褿Τ
ˤĤơӸؤǤ͡ʵ깭Ƥ褦ʬŪȤ1 Szemerényi (329) ˤС12;θˤĤƤϡб;̾η֤ޤƤȹͤƺ٤ʤȤ
The question of the origin of the personal endings has always aroused much greater interest. Since Bopp's earliest writings, indeed since the eighteenth century, it has been usual to find in the personal endings the personal pronouns. In spite of frequent dissent this theory is universally accepted; it is, however, also valid for the 1st pl., where the original form of the pronoun was *mes . . ., and for the 1st dual, whose ending -we(s) similarly contains the pronoun. And the principle must be expected to operate in the 2nd person also. This is suggest by many other language families. . . .
3;ΤˤĤƤϡ12;ΤƱͤͿ뤳ȤϤǤñˤäƤϻؼ *so/*to ͳ褷ʣˤäƤư̾ȴطʣʻ褹Ȥ (Szemerényi 330) 줬¤ȤȡŤΰĸüԤϡ12;Τʡֿ;ΡפȤߤơ3;Τ;ΡפȤߤƤΤ⤷ʤȿǤƤѡʤȶʬۡˤϸΰ¿˺פĤƤꡤषѸˤ顤3ñ -s ȤƤäƤ롥
Ǥϡ⤽ˤƿ;ΤȤʸˡƤΤϰ̤ۤƤΤϤʤȤΤϡ¾¿θǤϡ;ΤȤʸˡƤϤ̣⤿ʤ㤨СܸǤϷƻˡˤ;¤ʤɤȤʤ٤ǤꡤƤȤƤο;Τ¸ߴפ;ΤȤѸλؤΤäܶСäΤȤƤΡֻפȡäʹƤ֤ʤפȡȤʤꤦ֤ʳפΰڤǺȤ̤븶ˤۤʤʤ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) ѸǤСäʡ1;Ρˡʹʡ2;Ρˡʪݡʡ3;ΡˤȤʬǤ롥餬ŪʹǤΤ3ĤǤȤȤǤСʤ⡤ζʬɤٳΤʸˡƤȤɸ뤫̤ȤơδŪѤƤϤǤ롥ĸϡŪϤäɸ륿פθäΤ
ʤεϡθ (linguistic universal) ȤǤ롥ܸüԤȤƤϡ;ΤȤʸˡƤľŪˤ褯ʬʤΤ¤Ǥ뤫顤 (linguistic_relativism) Ȥ⤹롥
Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Trans. from Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft. 4th ed. 1990. Oxford: OUP, 1996.
ɸμݤμ䤬줿ΤǡˤĤŪʴͤƤߤѸưˤϡνɽ魯ΤŵŪѤ롥Ʊͤˡߡʤ뤤סˤνŪɽ魯ˤϡưŵŪ˸߷dzѤ롥̤ν˴ؤƤϡư̤Ȥƶޤ褦ˡ¸ߤʤ will, shall, be going to ʤɤΡʽ˽ưѤȤŪˡȤƤ롥ĤޤꡤѸˤṲ̄Ϥˤ衤Ṳ̄ϤʤȤäƤ褤ñˡ̤פȤѸǤϡ졤֤ΤΥ٥ˤַפˤĤƸǽ뤳Ȥ顤ѸʸˡǤϤѸ줬뷹ΤǤϤʤ
ʽ˽ưѤŪ뤤ϱṲ̄ɽϡ餯űѸʹߤ will shall ʤɤŪˡŪʵǽĽư줬ջ֤̳ΰ̣ᡤñ˻֤ȤƤ̤ɽ魯ˡؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ȥˤλˤϡñ̤ɽ魯ΤòɽϡŪˤŪˤʤˡŪʰ̣ȼ鷺̤ɽʤϷ礱ƤȤäƤ褤űѸǤϡŪˤϸ߷ʤ뤤ΤˤˤѤ뤳ȤǸߤΤߤʤ餺̤ΤȤɽ魯ȤǤΤǤꡤƥˤơ丽ߤȶ̤٤ʬȤƤ̤Ȥȯۤϴäθ will ʤɤѤ̤ɽиǤ⡤夫λƥΤȤ館礭Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ̤Ȥʬ⤤Ƥ봶롥Ѹ̤Ȥǰ¸ߤʤȸڤΤϡŪˤϸΤ餤褦˻פ
嵭Τ褦ˡűѸλƥϡŪˤСʤФСָߡפȸƾΤˤ2ʬʤäƤǸѸδ뵿ʤƼºݤ˴줿ˤϡʤűѸǤ̤ʤäΤʤư̤ζޤȯãʤäΤȤ䤤Ǥ롥μľΤϤ䤹ʤŪʳ٤4ŦƤ
ޤμˡߡ̤3ʬˡȤḽŪʻ֤δǰȻפ뤬֤ΤȤ館뤤ϤθؤȿǤǤƥǡɬ⤳ȤƤ褤Ϥʤܿͤޤ¿θͤˤȤäơ3ʬˡλִФ϶ˤƼ˻פ뤬줬ˤȤäƤ̵ͣλִѤǤȤߤʤȤϤǤʤޤ˷3ʬˡλִѤѤ줿ȤƤ⡤3ʬˡ줤ˤΤޤξˡƥȤȿǤΤʤΤɤǤ롥ϥԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˴ؤǤꡤ̤ǤȽҤ٤ˤȤɤƤ
2ܤˡ¾ΰˤ⡤ܸˤߤ褦ˡ̤ɽϡƤջ֤̳ʤɤˡŪʵǽķʸˡ뤳Ȥˤȯ뤳Ȥ¿Ҥ̤ꡤϱѸˤˤƤѻ줿Ǥꡤɤ̸ŪˤߤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥ߡ̤3ʬˡǤϡ̤Ťߤäξˤ֤Ƥ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ뤬⤷ȸ첽ǤξԤνŤߤϡФаۤʤΤ⤷ʤʤȤ⤤ĤμˤȤ¤ꡤ̤ϲ椷ƸȯŪǤꡤŪǤ뤳Ȥ¿
3ܤˡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤ2ʬˡϡʸš˱Ѹ˸¤餺ޥ˶̤פħ1ĤǤ롥ޤƱ²ϸŤҥåȸƱ2ʬˡäƤꡤĸˤƥƷä褷Ƥ롥̤ưĸ̤ȸƤӤΤäΤʤäΤ뤤ϡäȤơŪʤΤʤΤŪΤʤΤĤޤꡤ嵭μϡűѸФ٤ˤȤɤޤ餺ĸФƤ٤Ǥ⤢롥ĸ餫餭줤ʲߡ̤3ʬˡλäƤΤɤȤδ֤褬롥
ǸˡʤȤ뤳Ȥ餬ʲǤȤǡʤȤʤä뤳Ȥ϶ˤΰ̣ǡűѸˤƤʤ̤ȯãʤäΤȤϡ˾ŪʺȼѲŪΩ줫ϡϤפǤϤ롥#2115. ݻȸѲؤ ([2015-02-10-1]) Milroy θѲ˸ڤʤ褦ˡʤѲΤƱͤˤʤѲʤäΤȤ⡤ä٤
ε#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ĸ줫饲ޥĸˤȤؤˤĤơܤ롥ĸΥƥƤ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޥĸˤƻȿΥƥιװȤƤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ζ̤ؤȰܹԤŪʶ̤ݻޤޤˡŬäȤˤʤ롥ޤбγάŪ˼ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(Indo-European) (Germanic) PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT PRETERITE 1 AORIST PRETERITE 2
(i) loss of the (semantic) opposition perfect/aorist; (ii) retention of the diluted semantic content 'past' shared by both (in other words, loss of aspect but retention of distal time-deixis); (iii) retention of the morpho(phono)logical exponents of the old categories perfect and aorist, but divested of their oppositional meaning; (iv) redeployment of the now semantically evacuated exponents as markers of a secondary (concordial) category; in effect re-use of the now 'meaningless' old material to bolster an already existing concordial system, but in quite a new way.
ĸˤ¸ߤʤäƥޥĸˤƿȯ줿Ȥ̣ǡγŬϤޤ "conceptual novelty" λȤ롥
Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.
#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) Ǹڤ褦ˡˡ§̣̾ͤѲΥѥȤΤϤۤȤȯƤʤ˶ŤΤȤƵΤ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) Ρ®ע֤ˡפ䡤#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1]) 䡤εǿ줿 Basic Color Terms (BCTs; ̸ܿ) ˴ؤϡBCTs Ūʸ˾Ƥ롥
Berlin and Kay BCTs θϡŪˡΤˤꡤ̣ (linguistic_relativism)ءǧβʳؤʤɤδϢʬ礭ʾͿƤȽˤ⤵餵ƤϤߤ̣ʬǤְ㤤ʤƶϤΤ븦1ĤȤƿƤ롥̣Ѳˡ§Ȥ Berlin and Kay ȯȡοޤ롥

οޤϡΤˤ뿧̸ȯŸƻڤɽȤ롥̻ŪˤߤȯŸIVIIʳˤɤΤȤ졤Ūˤߤй⼡ʳ㼡ʳްդΤȲᤵ롥Ūˤϡ٤Ƥθ줬 black white Ūʿ̸2ͭ롥⤷̸줬3줢ʤСɲäΤɬ red θǤ롥ʳIIIIVؤǽ뤬green yellow ˲ä롥ʳV blue ʳVI brown νɲäȡǸʳVII4Τ줫ޤäʤ̸äɲä롥ĤޤꡤŪ BCTs ϰʾ11ƥǤꡤ줬νȯãȤΤ Berlin and Kay ȯιҤ
⤷줬¤ǤСǧθŪʴؤδͿȤʤꡤʸ˰¸ʤϤʰ̣Ūˡ§פȸƤǤ٤ʾ塤Williams (208--09) ȤƼɮ
Berlin, Brent and Paul Kay. Basic Color Terms. Berkeley and Los Angeles: U of California P, 1969.
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
(gender) ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ gender gender_difference εǹͻƤΤʤˤϡʸˡ (grammatical gender) Ȥ (category) ΰ (agreement) ;̾ (personal_pronoun) λؼоݤʤɡŪŪ⤢С˴ؤ political_correctnessMiss/Mrs./Ms. ʤɤξι (title) ä˽θѲؤδͿʤɡʸŪҲŪ⤢롥ˤϤΤ褦˹ΰʤäƤ롥
Τ褦˹Ƹ̤ʤʬȤݤäƤΤHellinger and Bussmann Gender across Languages νϤɤǡƬꥢˤʤäΩ (1) įǤ⡤ΰʤϰϤ褽Ǥ褦ʡ줿ȤʤäƤ롥
1. Aims and scope of "Gender across languages"
2. Gender classes as a special case of noun classes
2.1 Classifier languages
2.2 Noun class languages
3. Categories of gender
3.1 Grammatical gender
3.2 Lexical gender
3.3 Referential gender
3.4 "False generics": Generic masculines and male generics
3.5 Social gender
4. Gender-related structures
4.1 Word-formation
4.2 Agreement
4.3 Pronominalization
4.4 Coordination
5. Gender-related messages
5.1 Address terms
5.2 Idiomatic expressions and proverbs
5.3 Female and male discourse
6. Language change and language reform
7. Conclusion
"Gender across languages" ꤹ븦ץȤΰĤȤƽǤ줿ΤΥץȤμ礿ؿ5ˤޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Hellinger and Bussmann 2)
(1) ܤʸˡäƤ뤫äƤʤСס̡̾첽ʤɤˤηŪħϲ
(2) ʸˡʤʤСꡤꡤ뤤οʪؼΤˤɤΤ褦ˡ뤫
(3) ΩŪʸ̮ǿͤؤȤǥեȤǤ褦ɽѤʤɤо뤫
(4) ˴ؤҲʸŪʳؤ䥹ƥ쥪פɽ魯Ѷ硤ȡȤ虜ʤɤ뤫
(5) ȸѰۡѲϤɤΤ褦˴ؤäƤ뤫פˤĤƤϤɤ
ԼԤϡˤϡؾˤȤɤޤ餺ҲŪʴްդΤǤ뤳ȤĥƤ롥礭ʻͿƤɽɤ
Hellinger, Marlis and Hadumod Bussmann, eds. Gender across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001.
ԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ȴϢơʸˤܤݡʸˤθäϺʬ뷹롤Ȥ롥㤨СѸ rice ФܸǤϡ֤ס֤ᤷסơס֤Ϥס֥饤ס֤ߡפʤʣθ줬бȤ㤬褯礤˽Ф롥ܸǤϵ̾ʬƤꡤФδ¿뤳Ȥ⡤ܤεʸˤĤƤʪäƤȤ⤤롥
äκʬθʸθɽ魯ȤȤꤷʤǡ#1337. ְñʸաס ([2012-12-24-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡäκʬΤ٤Ƥ㤬ƱͤʸνľܤθƤ뤫ȤȡϤʤʤʸŪ˸Ȥä˴ʤˤ⤫餺äʬƤȤϤ롥ؼˤĤơ1ñ٥ǤСܸǤϡ֤ס֤ס֤פ3ब̤뤬ѸǤ this that 2ΤߤǤꡤեǤ ce 1ΤߤǤ롥ޤ4ʾ̤ˤ¸ߤ롥κʬ٤ΰ㤤Ϥ줾θȴϢŤʸΤʤˤȿǤƤ롤ȷŤ뤳Ȥϲ̤ƲǽʤΤܸƤ˴ؤä¿ϡʸȴϢŤ뤳ȤŪưפΤ褦˻פ뤬ΤݤΡְܡססֻۡפΤ褦ʽˤĤƤϡɤʸδϢȤϡñˤϽǤʤ
ϡɤθ⡤ʸ˻٤Ƥ뤫ݤ̤Ȥơ餫ǥեƥäƤȹͤƤ롥ؤνѸȤС줴ȤΥƥ (#1449. ˤơס ([2013-04-15-1]) ȡˤꤵƤȤ⤤롥㤨С¿¿ͤʽɸηϤäƤܸϡֿեסַɰեեפǤꡤñʣŪ˶̤Ѹʤ¿ΰڤӤ¾θˤϡʾʤȤܸüԤ鸫ȡˡֿեפǤ롥֤֤ססס֤Ĥפ̤ܸϡwear put on ǻȴѸüԤߤСեפȤǤ⤦ٷ֤θΥե줾ʸбʪˤäƵꤵƤΤɤΤ뤳ȤϡƳʸŪʻ٤ΤʤΥեȤǽ⽽ʬˤΤ
˵Ϥ⡤ѸǤ1ñ̤ܸǤʣñ̤бȤΤФäǤϱѸˤȤäԸʿʤΤǡդȤܸΡ֡ʿ͡ưʪΡ˷פб롤Ѹ¿ͤɽƤߤ褦
a bevy of quails, a cluster of stars, a covey of partridges, a crowd of people, a drove of oxen, a flight of birds, a flock of sheep, a gang of robbers, a group of islands, a herd of deer, a horde of savages, a pack of wolves, a pride of lions, a school of whales, a shoal of fish, a swarm of bees, a throng of ants, a troop of children
¾ˤ±Ѽŵ켭ŵС¿ͤɽФܸǤ켭ŵСַסָסַסֿͷסֿȡסְ췲סֲסֽ͡סֿͻס֥å֡ס֥ޥס罰פʤɤ뤬ưʪηˤĤɽ¿Ϥʤ
úʬ٤ΰ㤤ϡʸ˺ƤΤ⤢ǤʤΤ⤢롥ҤäơȤϥեǤ롤Τ褦ʤΤǤªΤΤǤϤʤ
ѸǼư֤ "passive voice"ǽư֤ "active voice" ȸƤ֤ʤ֡פ "voice" бΤʸˡƤϼŪʤɤʸǤưɽ魯ưȤɤΤ褦˴ؤ뤫ɽ魯ΤǤꡤưλѤͭ͡ʡ֡ˤɸ뵡ǽäƤ롥Τ褦ܸΡ֡פȤѸϤ뤫⤷ʤʤѸǤ "voice" ɽΤǤ롥ǡĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳Ȥˤ
ޤϡOED 顥voice, n. θ13ˤȡʸˡѸȤƤ "voice" ν15ȾǤΦʸǤϽФ16ʤΤǡѸǤλѤΤۤᤤȤˤʤˡǽ2ĵ褦
c1425 in C. R. Bland Teaching Gram. in Late Medieval Eng. (1991) 160 (MED), Þo secund coniugaciun..of passyf wowus, þat as -e- long befor þo -ris indecatyf, as doceris.
a1450 (a1397) Prol. Old Test. in Bible (Wycliffite, L.V.) (Cambr. Mm. II. 15) (1850) xv. 57 A participle of a present tens, either preterit, of actif vois, eithir passif.
MED voice (n.) 6(a) ˤС15ʸˡѸȤơ㤬³ȵ롥̣Ȥˡ̾Ρֳʡ (case) ɽ魯Τ voice ѤƤ㤬롥ޤ OED voice, n. θ14ˤϡѤǤϤ뤬ֿ;Ρ (person) Ȥ⤢롥ĤޤȤvoice ϡˤơФưΡ֡פɽ魯ۤȤˤ̾ưζƤɽ魯ȤǤ餷
Ϣơƥʸˡǡ֡פ "genus" ȸƤФ뤬̾ƤǤ "gender" ȤƱǤ롥Ѹ줬ʻˤ餺ʬŽդ٥ȤƶѤ뤳Ȥ롤⤦1ĤȤƲǤ롥ʸˡѸλȤʸˡȤ°ήɤˤ¸뤿ᡤΰŪѸȸƱꤹˤʸˡˤμɬפȤʤˤϤμϤʤΤǡܺ٤Ω뤳ȤǤʤ
ˤĤơۤ˼꤬Ϥʤȸؼŵ¾äƤߤƹԤäΤճʤȤ Lyons (371--72)
8.3.1 The term 'voice'
The term 'voice' (Latin vox) was originally used by Roman grammarians in two distinguishable, but related, senses: (i) In the sense of 'sound' (as used in the 'pronunciation' of human language: translating the Greek term phōnē, especially of the 'sounds' produced by the vibration of the 'vocal cords': hence the term 'vowel' (from Latin sonus vocalis, 'a sound produced with voice', via Old French vowel). (ii) Of the 'form' of a word (that is, what it 'sounded' like) as opposed to its 'meaning' . . . . the first of these two senses is still current in linguistics in the distinction between voiced and voiceless 'sounds' (whether as phonetic or phonological units . . .). In the second sense, 'voice' has disappeared from modern linguistic theory. Instead, the term has developed a third sense, derived ultimately from (ii) above, in which it refers to the active and passive 'forms' of the verb. (the traditional Latin term for this third sense was species or genus. In the course of time, genus was restricted to the nominal category of 'gender'; and the somewhat artificial classification of the 'forms' of the different parts of speech in terms of genera and species was abandoned.) The traditional Greek term for 'voice' as a category of the verb was diathesis, 'state', 'disposition', 'function', etc.; and some linguists prefer to use 'diathesis', rather than 'voice', in this sense of the term. However, the risk of confusion between the phonetic or phonological sense of 'voice' and its grammatical sense is very small.
voice ˤ衤case ˤ衤gender ˤ衤ʸˡƤѸθ츻̣õäƤ⤢ޤǼ椫ʤΤϡɤΤȤ줾ʸˡƤεǽǤϵҤǤʤʪǤꡤʤСּפַפɽ魯夨ƤޤȤ̾դФˤ٤뤫餫⤷ʤ
ʤΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤ֡פȤʸˡƤɽ魯Τˡvoice Τۤ˥ꥷͳ diathesis ȤѸ줬Ȥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥 dia- (between) + thesis (position) Ȥǡ֡פۤɤθǤ롥
Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 1968.
ؤǤ (category) ȤѸ줬Ѥ롥ȤȤůѸǤꡤܸΡơפϡΡؽС٤Ρֹ϶ơפȤȤФȤˡѸ category ɥĸ Kategorie ȤơůؤΰˡůϺʰˤäΤȤ롥ϥꥷ katēgoríā Ǥꡤư katēgoreîn kata- (against) + agoreúein (to speak in the assembly) 롥ָξǾǧ줦Ūʳǰβߤʤפۤɤθ˴Ťơꥹȥƥ쥹ϡʬκǤŪʵꡤʤǹǰפθȯŸʹߡŪʰŪʸƱΤΤν°ࡦפȯŸƤ
Ѹ category ⡤ޤ16ůѸȤƥƥ줫Ƴ졤17դѸȤƻȤФߤǤϡOALD8 "a group of people or things with particular features in common" ȤꡤﲽѸȹͤƤ褤
ǤϡؤѤơפȤϲѸȤäơŪñʤࡦפθǻȤ櫓ǤϤʤǤϡŪƤζƤߤ褦ʸˡǤʸˡ (grammatical category) ȤȤ뤬㤨п (number) ; (person) (tense) ˡ (mode) ʤɤ롥ư濴ȤŪޤˤƤ (gender or sex) ʤɸŪʤΤ⤢뤷ꡦ (definiteness) (aspect) ʤɤŪʤΤ⤢롥Ƥϱʸˡκܤˤ븶ǤꡤʸˡҤ˷礫ʤǰȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥ褦ʵϤ뤬ǤϡŪƤФȤΤ褷ƤΤϡBloomfield Ǥ롥ʲ˰Ѥ褦
Large form-classes which completely subdivide either the whole lexicon or some important form-class into form-classes of approximately equal size, are called categories. (270)
ʸˡ (gender) ǹͤƤߤȤ狼䤹̾ȤýȤȡ㤨ХեˤϷŪŪʿ˱ơϤ礭ۤʤʤ2ʬ礬̤롥̾̾դ¾̾̾դζ̤δΤȤƤƤ֡Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥
category θŪˡŪˡǤϤʤůŪˡܶᤷƤ뤳ȤϡŪƤΤθͼľ뤷䤹Ǥ롥ˤĤƤ⡤Bloomfield Ф餷
The categories of a language, especially those which affect morphology (book : books, he : she), are so pervasive that anyone who reflects upon his language at all, is sure to notice them. In the ordinary case, this person, knowing only his native language, or perhaps some others closely akin to it, may mistake his categories for universal forms of speech, or of "human thought," or of the universe itself. This is why a good deal of what passes for "logic" or "metaphysics" is merely an incompetent restating of the chief categories of the philosopher's language. A task for linguists of the future will be to compare the categories of different languages and see what features are universal or at least widespread. (270)
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow