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semantics - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2021-09-29 Wed

#4538. ͭ̾ϰ [onomastics][toponymy][personal_name][semantics][noun][category][linguistics][semiotics][sign]

ޤˤ⤷ǡФƤޤäȤǤܤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤȤʬޤ͡ˤȤäơϸͭ̾ (onomastics) ǤüŪˤп̾̾Ǥť¤ˤϤޤळȤɬʤΤɬ򤱤ƤΤǤǯ˰١ɬơޤ֤ΤǤؤ󺤤ޤäƤޤۤɡˤȤäƼϤΤǤ
ͭ̾ꡤפˡ̾פۤɡؤˤƼŪǿ򤷤Ƥʤ顤¤ܼŪϤޤ󡥸դ̾˻Ϥޤ̾˽ǽ뤫Ǥ (cf. #1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ǿ줿 "Onymic Reference Default Principle" (ORDP)ˡ
⤽ͭ̾ȤΤϡΰʤΤǤʤΤȤȤ餷ˤʤΤǺޤǤ͡ꤵǤϤޤ󤬡䤬֥ѥꡤ󡤥ޥ륻桤֥르˥פȾʥե󥹸ȯǸȤƤ⡤ե󥹸줬褯äȤȤˤʤޤ󡥤⤽̾ϥե󥹸ʤΤɤʤΤȤ꤬뤫Ǥ (cf. #2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1]
ѸˤΥϥɥ֥åˡCoates ˤͭ̾ؤ˴ؤϤޤƬΡָͭ̾ϰ̡פꤹ1ꡤǽѤޤ (312)

The status of proper names
   Names is a technical term for a subset of the nominal expressions of a language which are used for referring ('identifying or selecting in context') and, in some cases, for addressing a partner in communication. Nominal expressions are in general headed by nouns. According to one of the most ancient distinctions in linguistics, nouns may be common or proper, which has something to do with whether they denote a class or an individual (e.g. queen vs Victoria), where individual means a single-member set of any sort, not just a person. Much discussion has taken place about how this distinction should be refined to be both accurate and useful, for instance by addressing the obvious difficulty that a typical proper noun denoting persons may denote many separate individuals who bear it, and that common nouns may refer to individuals by being constructed into phrases (the queen). I will leave the concept [±proper], applied to nouns, for intuitive or educated recognition before returning to discussion of the inclusive concept of proper names directly. Proper nouns have no inherent semantic content, even when they are homonymous with lexical words (Daisy, Wells), and many, perhaps all, cultures recognise nouns whose sole function is to be proper (Sarah, Ipswich). Typically they have a unique intended referent in a context of utterance. Proper names are the class of such proper nouns included in the class of all expressions which have the properties of being devoid of sense and being used with the intention of achieving unique reference in context. Onomastics is the study of proper names, and concentrates on proper nouns; I shall confine the main subject-matter of this chapter to the institutionalised proper nouns associated with English and, in accordance with ordinary usage, I shall call them proper names or just names. Readers should note that strictly speaking these are a subset of proper names, and from time to time other members of the larger set will be discussed. There is some evidence from aphasiology and cognitive neuropsychology that institutionalised proper nouns --- especially personal names --- form a psychologically real class . . . .


Ǥ⤷ȴϡ֤⤷ޤ󡥤ҾΤɤǤߤƤ

Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-12-09-1] [2022-03-22-1]

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2021-09-01 Wed

#4510. §Ȥ¾ưǤʤŪά륱 [verb][syntax][semantics][reflexive_pronoun][ellipsis]

§Ȥ¾ưȤѤư줬Ūȼʤޤޤ롥ʸ̮Ū줬餫ʾ礬¿ˡ̤ˤʤȡϤָ§Ȥ¾ưפȤ٥Ķơּưˡ⤢פذܹԤȤȤ館ۤʾ⤢դϾήưŪǤ롥
Quirk ʡ10.4) ꡤŵŪ¾ưȤѤưˤŪ줬ά4פ󤲤褦

(1) A specific object is recoverable from the preceding linguistic context:

   A: Show me your essay. B: I'll show you later.
   Let's do the dishes. I'll wash and you dry.

In such instances the verb may be analysed as genuinely transitive with ellipsis of the direct object.

(2) A specific object is understood from the situational context:

   Keep off [sign on grass]
   Shake well before use.
   Watch!
   Don't touch.
   The tie doesn't fit.

(3) A specific reflexive object is understood when the verb allows such an object . . . .:

   I'm shaving.
   They're dressing.

Some verbs allow omission of either a reflexive or a nonreflexive object: She's washing (herself or the clothes).

(4) A nonspecific object is semantically entailed . . .:

   Are you eating again?
   Do you drink?
   He teaches.
   I don't want to catch you smoking again.
   They can't spell.
   I can't come now, because I'm cleaning.
   I don't want to read.

The range of understood nonspecific objects is restricted with some verbs when they are used intransitively. For example, Do you drink? refers to the drinking of alcoholic drinks, I'm cleaning refers to domestic cleaning and not (say) to cleaning teeth or cleaning a pipe, and to catch you smoking again normally excludes (say) smoking fish.


Τ褦ʿ񤤤򼨤Ū¾ưˤϡŪʸ줬¿ȤդŪǤФɤפȤä鲿ɤΤŵŪʤΤְפȤä鲿ΤŵŪʤΤȤҲŪʥե졼䥹ץȤƱ춦ƱǼΤΤȤƶͭƤ뤫դ˸СɤŪ줬άƤ뤫Ĵ̤ơҲΥץȥŪʹư򤢤֤Ф뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2021-06-20 Sun

#4437. ̾ʬפʤʣƻ [adjective][participle][compound][word_formation][syntax][semantics][morphology]

ɸ breath-taking man-made तʣƻؤ2ǤȤƸʬȤN + V-ing פȲʬȤN + V-ed פ2ब롥̾ʬˤʤäƤưȤ̣ŪطˤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤΤ (100--01) 򻲾ȤơηˤĤ󤲤롥碌ơOED ǯդ

ΡN + V-ing

(1) N V ŪȤʤ
breath-taking (1840), man-eating (1607), fact-finding (1833), habit-forming (1899), time-consuming (1600), English-speaking (1798); self-defeating (1812), self-sacrificing (1654), self-respecting (1597)

(2) N ɽ̲ƤʤֻŪȤʤʰʲǤϴͿֻ䤦
ocean-going [across] (1854), fist-fighting [with] (1950), law-abiding [by] (1839)

ΡN + V-ed

(3) "V-ed by [at, in, with] N" ȥѥե졼ǤطʰʲǤϴͿֻ䤦
moth-eaten [by] (c1400), self-taught [by] (1586), man-made [by] (1845), home-made [at] (1547), country-bred [in] (1620), star-spangled [with] (1600)

įƤߤȡʣƻǤȤʤ̾ưʬˤŪطϡˤ¿ͤǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥СʣƻϡŪŸ줿ե졼٤ȡǴ֤ΰ̣طŪǤʤȤ⤤褦󡤤Τ褦¿ˤĤķȤƤΥѥȤƤ뤳Ȥʣƻ¸߰յʤΤȤϻפ
夲פʣƻŪȯ˴ؤƤϡ嵭νǯį¤ꡤѸΤΤۤȤɤǤ롥ᤤѸѤƤϤɤΤõƤߤʤä

ط١ҡ1988ǯ

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2021-06-11 Fri

#4428. hedge prototype δط [hedge][prototype][semantics][pragmatics][logic]

Ϣ#4426. hedge ([2021-06-09-1]) ȡ#4427. ͡ hedge ӴϢɽ ([2021-06-10-1]) Τ褦 hedge 夲Ƥ롥 Lakoff ʸ򻲾Ȥƹͻ³
ʸɤ hedge ѤäƤεκǸǤҤ٤ñʤ֤ܤաפǤϤʤ֤̿򿿤餷ˤꡦ¤άפ򤹤٤ʤȤ Lakoff ιͤ hedge ϤΤ褦ʤΤ餷ȡɬŪ˰̣̤˹äƤȤˤʤ̣˴ؤ븡ڼȤůؤˤĤʤäƤ
hedge prototype οط餫ˤʤä㤨Сsort of Ȥ hedge ϡץȥפ龯æΤƤ˺Ѥ̣ΡִؿפȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ºݡLakoff ϥե󾧤 Lofti Zadeh θꥤ󥹥ԥ졼ءŪʴؿѤ tall, very tall, sort of tall, pretty tall, rather tall ΰ̣ʬϤԤʤäƤ롥Lakoff ʸ (482) ꡤʲοޤ򸫤Ƥ餤

Lakoff's Hedges

οޤθϼ̤֤ͤ tall, very tall, sort of tall, pretty tall, rather tall ǤפȤ꤬̿硤ºݤˤɤ줯餤ؤι⤵ǤС̿ϿǤȹͤ뤫ˤĤ¿οͤ˥󥱡Ȥä̤Υޥ꡼ɤ롥Ĥޤꡤ5'3" 5ե3160cmˤ tall ȤߤʤԤϤۤ0%6'3" 6ե3190cmˤǤФۤ100%βԤ tall ʷƻȤߤʤ6'3" ǤСvery tall Ǥ100%˶ᤤ⤤ͤ򼨤rather tall 6'3" ФƤϡäŬڤɽȽǤ
פˡ5ɽФ줿ƶηɽ hedge ȤƤθ̤Ǥ롤ȲǤ롥϶Ǥ뤫顤ŪˤϴؿȤɽǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥 Lakoff ȤƲ餫Ϳ̩ʰ̣ǤδؿΩܻؤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤhedge prototype δط褯ʬͤǤϤ롥
ˤĤ Lakoff Ȥ (492--93) ѤƤ

6.5. Algebraic Functions Play a Role in the Semantics of Certain Hedges

Hedges like SORT OF, RATHER, PRETTY, and VERY change distribution curves in a regular way. Zadeh has proposed that such changes can be described by simple combinations of a small number of algebraic functions. Whether or not Zadeh's proposals are correct in all detail, it seems like something of the sort is necessary. . . .

6.6. Perceptual Finiteness Depends on an Underlying Continuum of Values

Since people can perceive, for each category, only a finite number of gradations in any given context, one might be tempted to suggest that fuzzy logic be limited to a relatively small finite number of values. But the study of hedges like SORT OF, VERY, PRETTY, and RATHER, whose effect seems to be characterizable at least in part by algebraic functions, indicates that the number and distribution of perceived values is a surface matter, determined by the shape of underlying continuous functions. For this reason, it seems best not to restrict fuzzy logic to any fixed finite number of values. Instead, it seems preferable to attempt to account for the perceptual phenomena by trying to figure out how, in a perceptual model, the shape of underlying continuous functions determines the number and distribution of perceived values.


Ĥδ֤ˤեȤȴʤʤΰˤޤãƤޤä⤽ hedge ֤ܤʸաˡפȤǧϤޤä櫓ʤΤǡΥƤʤ褦ˤפƤ

Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

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2021-06-10 Thu

#4427. ͡ hedge ӴϢɽ [hedge][prototype][semantics][pragmatics][intensifier]

εǡ#4426. hedge ([2021-06-09-1]) 夲ѸˤĤƤ sort of hedge ɽȤƵ󤲤뤳Ȥ¿ºݤΤȤ hedge μ¿ͤǤ롥
ΰʸǿ줿 Lakoff ʸɤp. 472 "SOME HEDGES AND RELATED PHENOMENA" ꤹɽǤƤ롥Ѹ hedge ʴϢɽζȤơʲ˷ǺܤƤ

sort of
kind of
loosely speaking
more or less
on the _____ side (tall, fat, etc.)
roughly
pretty (much)
relatively
somewhat
rather
mostly
technically
strictly speaking
essentially
in essence
basically
principally
particularly
par excellence
largely
for the most part
very
especially
exceptionally
quintessential(ly)
literally
often
more of a _____ than anything else
almost
typically/typical

as it were
in a sense
in one sense
in a real sense
in an important sense
in a way
mutatis mutandis
in a manner of speaking
details aside
so to say
a veritable
a true
a real
a regular
virtually
all but technically
practically
all but a
anything but a
a self-styled
nominally
he calls himself a ...
in name only
actually
really
(he as much as ...
-like
-ish
can be looked upon as
can be viewed as
pseudo-
crypto-
(he's) another (Caruso/Lincoln/ Babe Ruth/...)
_____ is the _____ of _____ (e,g., America is the Roman Empire of the modern world. Chomsky is the DeGaulle of Linguistics. etc.)


ʬ褦ˡ#4236. intensifier ʬ ([2020-12-01-1]) ǵ󤲤̣Ǥζո (intensifier) ϡ hedge ΰȤߤʤȤǤ롥ޤ hedge ñˡ֤ܤաפ餤ǧƤǤʤȤʬäƤ̿򿿤餷ˤꡦ¤ά򤷤ƤΤ褵

Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-11-1]

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2021-06-09 Wed

#4426. hedge [hedge][pragmatics][terminology][cooperative_principle][prototype][sociolinguistics][cognitive_linguistics][semantics]

hedge (hedge) ϡѸ졦ǰȤƹΤƤ롥ѸȤƤϡֳפ̣ñžơ֤ܤաפ̣롥ܸյΤȤȸäۤʬ䤹
إ˥¼ŵ٤ˤȡ֡ʸȤʤΡˤϤ餫ȯܤ硨̸͸Ĵ¤餲աإåԢI wonder, sort of ʤɡաפȤ롥
ޤCruse ΰ̣Ѹ콸Ƥߤȡؤʬ䤹ͿƤ

hedge An expression which weakens a speaker's commitment to some aspect of an assertion:
   She was wearing a sort of turban.
   To all intents and purposes, the matter was decided yesterday.
   I've more or less finished the job.
   As far as I can see, the plan will never succeed.
   She's quite shy, in a way.


Ҥ٤Ƥ̿˴ؤơ줬ȤʤΤϤβˤƤǤ롤Ⱦդ򤷤ƤȽΤͽɤ뤿θάȤäƤ褤̤ˤϡ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1]) ˤäƥҤ٤櫓ˤ⤤ʤǸդȤˤäơͿʤDzؤ˺ѤޤƤȤάǤ롥ϻ䤿Ū˹ԤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤꡤܸ˸¤餺ɤθˤƤ⤽Τμʤ͡ѰդƤ롥
hedge ȤѸ嵭Τ褦ʸŪʰ̣򤷤ƤѸȤƤ hedge ϤȤǧΰ̣ʸ̮Ȥ櫓 prototype ʸ̮Ѥ줿Τ餷Bussmann Ѹ콸 (205)

hedge
Term introduced by Lakoff (1973). Hedges provide a means for indicating in what sense a member belongs to its particular category. The need for hedges is based on the fact that certain members are considered to be better or more typical examples of the category, depending on the given cultural background ( prototype). For example, in the central European language area, sparrows are certainly more typical examples of birds than penguins. For that reason, of these two actually true sentences, A sparrow is a bird and A penguin is a bird, only the former can be modified by the hedge typical or par excellence, while the latter can be modified only by the hedges in the strictest sense or technically speaking.


θѸ켫ΤȾδ̣֡礤ѤʤȯŸƤȤȤΤ褦ȤǡĿŪˤ hedge ȤѸϤɤ⤷äꤳʤʤֳס

Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-11-1] [2021-06-10-1]

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2021-06-08 Tue

#4425. ջ̤ǤϤʤñ̤ɽ魯̤ʹԷ [aspect][tense][future][progressive][semantics][verb][functionalism][bleaching][grammaticalisation][auxiliary_verb]

will be doing ηɽ蘆̤ʹԷ (future progressive) ˡˤĤơǤ̤λȤϡ̤ΤˤƿʹνɽȤΤǤ롥߿ʹԷλ߻ǤꡤʹԷλǤΤȤޤäʿŪˡ̤ξѤΤ̤ʹԷȤȤWe'll be waiting for you at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning. When you reach the end of the bridge, I'll be waiting there to show you the way. Τ褦ʸǤ롥ˡ礭褷ʤ
̤ʹԷΤ⤦1ĤˡϡŪñ̤ʡԤ̤סˤˡǤ롥ñ̤ will do η̤ˤäƤɽǤ뤬Ȱջ̤ɤߤȶ̤ĤʤʤȤ롥㤨 I'll talk to him soon. ǤϡüԤΰջ֤ΤäֶᤤäĤפΰ̣ñʤԤΡֶᤤä뤳Ȥˤʤפۤɤΰ̣ʸ̮λ٤ʤ¤ξŪȤʤ롥Τ褦ʾ I'll be talking to him soon. ̤ʹԷˤ뤳ȤˤꡤԤɤߤŪ˼ȤǤ롥
Ʊͤ Will you come to the party tonight? ϡ֤ʤեѡƥʤפȤͶΰ̣ʤΤ֤ʤեѡƥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤ͡פۤɤνʵ䤢뤤ϳǧΰ̣ʤΤξŪȤʤꤦ롥Ԥΰ̣Ūɽ路ˤϡWill you be coming to the party tonight? Ѥ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ūˤ will do ̤ɽϡ˾ջ֤ɽ路ư줬ΰ̣ɺ (bleaching) ɽ魯νưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ΤȤcf. #2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1])#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])ˡνư will ȤƤäñ̤פɺ򤷤櫓ǤϤʤ򤢤ٻĤְջ̤פʿԤƹԤʤƤ롥ʸˡˤФز (layering) λǤ롥زη̡ξŪȤʤäƤޤä櫓ʤΤǡΰ̣Ƥǡ̤򻲾ȤʹԷפȤȯãƤ will be doing η򡤡ñ̤פΤˤήѤȤȯۤޤ줿ʸˡζͤΤ褦ʤȤäƤ褦Ƕ̣
嵭Τ褦ʻ𤬤뤿ᡤ̾ϸߡʹԷȤʤư줬̤ʹԷȤƤѤǽФƤ롥He'll be owning his own house next year. Τ褦ʸ򻲾ȡ
ʾ塤Ȥ Quirk et al. (4.46) 򻲾ȤƼɮʤ̤ʹԷȯã19ʹߤŪݤǤ롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2021-05-30 Sun

#4416. ȥαѸʸ --- Ѹ˸ [taboo][euphemism][khelf_hel_intro_2021][thesaurus][dictionary][lexicology][htoed][semantics][synonym][slang][hel_education][bibliography][link]

45ϤޤäƤֱѸƳ2021ΥƥľҲ𵭻ϡǺǽȤʤޤoffice, john, House of Lords --- ȥθƤǤȥơޤǤ͡ȥαѸʸˤ뤤ϱѸʸȤ٤ƤǡHistorical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary (= HTOED) ѤƤʤˤ⤷ĴǤΤȶƤ륳ƥĤǤƥοޤɤäƤǡȥͪפιڤळȤǤޤ
֡ (taboo)նɽ (euphemism) (synonym) Ȥä (lexicology) ϡѸˤ´ʸʤɤǤ͵ΥơޤǤѸ˸˴ؿä顤Υդ hellog εɤǤߤƤޤʲ˺ΥƥĤȴˤϢҲ𤷤Ƥޤ

#470. toilet ˭٤նɽ ([2010-08-10-1])
#471. toilet ˭٤նɽ WordNet Visuwords Ǥߤ ([2010-08-11-1])
#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1])
#1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1])
#3885. رѸ춵٤Ϣ10֤ʤѸˤ줬¿Τס ([2019-12-16-1])
#3392. Ʊ ([2018-08-10-1])
#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1])

#4395. ѸˤĤĴ٤Ȼפä ([2021-05-09-1])
#3159. HTOED ([2017-12-20-1])
#847. Oxford Learner's Thesaurus ([2011-08-22-1])
#4334. նʸˡ (euphemism) ˤĤƤν ([2021-03-09-1])
#1270. ͥåȥβĻ벽ġ켭 ([2012-10-18-1])
#1432. ⤦1ĤͥåȥinstaGrokפϢ۸ġ ([2013-03-29-1])

#4092. shit, ordure, excrement --- ä3ع¤κǶ ([2020-07-10-1])
#4041. ָˤ륿֡פεåȡ ([2020-05-20-1])

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2021-05-26 Wed

#4412. "SEEING IS UNDERSTANDING" --- Фγǰ᥿ե [semantic_change][metaphor][conceptual_metaphor][cognitive_linguistics][semantics]

ֱѸƳ2021⽪פ˺ݤäƤޤҲ𤹤륳ƥĤֻɽΰ̣Ѳ --- ظ٤Ȥϡ٤뤳ȡǤLakoff and Johnson ϡǧΤλˤɽˤ衤Ȥβˤϻ䤿פäƤʾ¿᥿ե (metaphor) Ǥ뤳ȤˤäޤΥƥĤϡָפȡ򤹤פ̣ñ˾ơLakoff and Johnson ǧθŪʥΤθפҲ𤷤ΤǤ
ʹ֤ϻФ褯ȯãưʪǤФäƤ̤ξ󤳤ǧγưʬ٤Ƥȹͤޤȡָפ̣줬᥿եˤ򤹤פΰ̣˱ѤΤ⼫˻פޤ⤷ƶΥΤ褦ĶȤΤǤưʪȯƤȤ顤षʹפ̣줬򤹤פ˱ѤƤ⤷ޤ󡥤ޤ̳Фͥ줿ưʪä顤̤פ򤹤פΰ̣ѤƤȤǤ礦
ʹ֤ϼ¤İФⰭϤʤΤǡʹפ򤹤פ˥᥿եŪ˱ѤϤޤİ򤹤פˤ Listen carefully. ˤ衤٤˴ؤɽǤʹ֤Ū夤̳ФˤĤƤϤɤǤ礦̤פΡ򤹤פؤžϤǤ礦ܸΡ̤Ĥס̤ʬפˤ⡤ε̣äƤȸ뤫⤷ޤ󤬡⤷ȤƤָפʹפñʼΤ褦˴ޤ̣СФˤĤƤϤɤǤ礦
ΥƥĤǡ֡ظ٤Ȥϡ٤뤳ȡפȤ󼨤줿Υ᥿եϡǰ᥿ե (conceptual_metaphor) ȸƤФƤޤñȯΥ᥿եǤϤʤηŪʥ᥿եȤǧΤζˤޤǹԤϤäƤΤȤȤĥ뤿˺줿ѸǤդ˴ؿäϡҰʲεɤߤ

#2187. ΰ̣᥿եǤ ([2015-04-23-1])
#2548. ǰ᥿ե ([2016-04-18-1])
#2551. ǰ᥿ե򤤤Ĥɲá ([2016-04-21-1])
#2568. dead metaphor (1) ([2016-05-08-1])
#2569. dead metaphor (2) ([2016-05-09-1])
#2593. 졤׹͡¡ʸĤʤΤȤƤΥ᥿ե ([2016-06-02-1])
#2616. Ūʰ̣礤복ǰ᥿ե ([2016-06-25-1])

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.

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2021-05-23 Sun

#4409. ɱ --- fair θ촶 [khelf_hel_intro_2021][adjective][synonym][semantics][semantic_change][lexical_stratification][bnc][collocation][etymology]

ֱѸƳ2021꺣Ҳ𤹤륳ƥĤϡɽ줿֤ǰ֡פΤïǤǥˡDz Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ʡɱ١ˤ "Magic mirror on the wall, who is the fairest one of all?" ѤƤƻ fair ΰ̣Ѳ˾ƤѸƳƥĤȤʤäƤޤ
פȤФޤ beautiful פ⤫ӤޤʤǤ fair ʤΤǤ礦ޤƥĤǤ⤵Ƥ̤ fair ˤϡֿΡפȤ⤢ޤΤǡSnow White ȤΤ褤Ȥޤˡbeautiful ƻѤƤΤòƤ봶ΤФfair ˤϡָʡʿʡפθޤƻŪʴްդޤ (cf. fair trading, fair share, fair play) ɱƤΤˤԤäȤ櫓Ǥ
fair ϸűѸѤƤѸǡŤ˭ʶޤbeautiful ϡ14˸ťե󥹸̾ beute Ѥˡ15˱Ѹ¦ -ful ղäƺäѸǤե󥹼ѸΤˤϡȾץե󥹼ѸˤŪˤäΩŪ̵ƩζĤȤ¿ΤǤbeautiful ˤĤƤгΤ fair ٤ƻŪŪʿߤϴޤ󡥡ʥƥѸ attractive ȹ碌 fair -- beautiful -- attractive 31 (triset) ȳơλѰ (register) ˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
fair beautiful Τ褦ΰ̣ˡΰ㤤ˤĤƾܤΤꤿˤϡ䥳ѥʸ򤸤äįᡤɤΤ褦ʸȶ (collocation) Ƥ뤫ѻ뤳Ȥᤷޤ1줫ʤ륤ꥹѸ쥳ѥ BNCweb ξζɽĴ٤ƤߤޤǤϿʪƻѤƤ붦˸¤äƾҲ𤷤ޤfair ȥåȤߤ䤹Τ hair lady Ǥbeautiful ȥåȤȤƤ woman, girl, young, hair, face, eyes, looks ʤɤ󤬤äƤޤʤ򴶤 fair lady ФơޤƻѤɤɽ魯Ȥò beautiful woman/girl ȤΩ¤⤫Ӿ夬äƤޤɱˤϤϤ fair դ路ΤǤ礦͡
fair ˸򤵤ȸηӤĤϡcandid Ȥƻˤ⸫ޤcandid ˡΨľʡפ̣ޤʤָʿʡפθޤŤϡ򤤡פθ⤢ޤȤȤθ츻ϥƥ candidus ǡޤˡ򤤡פ̣ޤǮƵƤפǡcandle ʥˤȤ캬ͭƤޤޤcandidate ʸԡˤϡޤǸԤ򤤥ȡ뽬路äȤͳ褷ޤʤߤܸǤַסֹס֥ʡ̵ˡפʤɤ򤵤ȸδطָޤ͡

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2021-05-09 Sun

#4395. ѸˤĤĴ٤Ȼפä [khelf_hel_intro_2021][thesaurus][dictionary][lexicology][htoed][semantics][synonym][corpus][methodology]

Ѹؤ־ǡ (synonym) ȤΤǤȤƤƱʤΤˡºݤˤϥ˥奢󥹤ΰ㤤ȤΤ֤ޤ̤˸ˤƴƱϤʤȤޤ̣̯˰ۤʤȤΤϡפäƤʾ¿¸ߤޤ
ܸǹͤƤߤС¿ˤϤ˵ŤǤ礦פ󤲤Ƥߤޤ礦֤Ӥס֤Фס֤ؤФס֤ؤФס֥åס֥ХƤסϫסֺहס֤ؤȤؤȤˤʤס֤դդˤʤסڤפʤɡ줾äΥΥơ󤬤ޤ͡
Ѹǡ줿פȤС tired פ⤫Ӥޤ¾ exhausted, drained, weary, worn out, shattered, pooped, fatigued ʤɤ⤢ޤؽˤǤơȼΥΥơäƤ¸߰յ褦ǤֱѸƳ2021ΤΥƥĤϡˤ֡줿פäɽ¿ʤǤ⤴
Τ褦˴ؿä顤ޤ٤ϳؽѤαѱѼŵǤ㤨 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (= LDOCE) ʤɤǤϡƤפʸФ㤨 tiredˤΤȤˡTHESAURUS Ȥ쥳ʡߤƤꡤλȤʬʷ˵Ƥޤ
thesaurus ȤΤϡФ켭ŵΤȡȤС켭ŵΤΤΤᤤȤᤤǤ͡㤨СOxford Learner's Thesaurus ˤСΥ˥奢󥹡㡤󤬺٤⤵ƤޤʲΤ褦ˡɤɤ󵭽Ҥ³Ƥޤ椤Ȥ˼꤬ϤŵǤ͡

Synonyms of

˾ܤĴ٤ΤǤС줬ѤƤָפλ¿ʬϤ뤳ȤɬפˤʤޤʤȥѥѤͭѤǤޤϡꥹѸȥꥫѸγơˤĤơBNCweb COCA ȤѥäƤߤΤǤ
ֱѸƳ2021γȤȤǡʤ٤ʸġʤŪ켭ŵʤξҲ𤷤Ƥޤ礦Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary (= HTOED) Ǥܺ٤ϡ#3159. HTOED ([2017-12-20-1]) ɤ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-30-1]

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2021-03-09 Tue

#4334. նʸˡ (euphemism) ˤĤƤν [euphemism][bibliography][semantics][lexicology][taboo][slang][swearing][sociolinguistics][thesaurus][terminology][hel_education]

Ѹθạ̈Ȥơնʸˡ (euphemism) ϳˤ˿͵ΤơޤǤ롥ΰȤ taboo, swearing, slang ΥơޤȤؤꡤҲشθäȤƹ̣ΤΤ褦
euphemism Ȥϲޤ Cruse Ѹ켭ŵͿ褦 (57--58)

euphemism An expression that refers to something that people hesitate to mention lest it cause offence, but which lessens the offensiveness by referring indirectly in some way. The most common topics for which we use euphemisms are sexual activity and sex organs, and bodily functions such as defecation and urination, but euphemisms can also be found in reference to death, aspects of religion and money. The main strategies of indirectness are metonymy, generalisation, metaphor and phonological deformation.

   Sex:
   intercoursego to bed with (metonymy), do it (generalisation)
   penisHis member was clearly visible (generalisation)
   Bodily function:
   defecatego to the toilet (metonymy), use the toilet (generalisation)
   Death:
   diepass away (metaphor), He's no longer with us (generalisation)
   Religion:
   Godgosh, golly (phonological deformation)
   Jesusgee whiz (phonological deformation)
   Hellheck (phonological deformation)


μ˴ؿä顤ޤܥ֥#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1])#470. toilet ˭٤նɽ ([2010-08-10-1])#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) ϤȤ (euphemism) ε줫 taboo εˤ⹭ܤ̤Ƥ餤
θ塤ʲγγʬȤ褤

Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975. pp. 198--203.
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. pp. 43--49.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006. pp. 80--81.

ҥ٥ȤƤϡBussmann (157) McArthur (387) λʸꥹȤꡤʲǤ롥

Allan, K. and K. Burridge. Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used as a Shield and Weapon. New York: OUP, 1991.
Ayto, J. Euphemisms: Over 3,000 Ways to Avoid Being Rude or Giving Offence. London: 1993.
Enright, D. J., ed. Fair of Speech: The Uses of Euphemism. Oxford: OUP, 1985.
Holder, R. W. A Dictionary of American and British Euphemisms: The Language of Evasion, Hypocrisy, Prudery and Deceit. Rev. ed. London: 1989. Bath: Bath UP, 1985.
Lawrence, J. Unmentionable and Other Euphemisms. London: 1973.
Rawson, Hugh. A Dictionary of Euphemisms & Other Doubletalk. New York: Crown, 1981.

ŪʸĴˤäƤϡ OEDƼ켭ŵ (thesaurus)Room θΰ̣Ѳμŵʤɤ򤪤˳ѤƤ餤

Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-30-1]

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2021-02-02 Tue

#4299. Trier Ρְ̣ξפŪ³ [semantics][semantic_field][prototype][cognitive_linguistics]

#4293. Trier Ρְ̣ξפθػ˾ΰյ (1) ([2021-01-27-1])#4294. Trier Ρְ̣ξפθػ˾ΰյ (2) ([2021-01-28-1]) Trier Ρְ̣ξפˤĤƾҲ𤷤ƤԤεκǸǡTrier ι¤Ūʡ־פޤۼŪǤꡤ¤θäˤ줤ŬѤǤΤǤϤʤȤɾ˿줿
ºݡỴ̈ʬʬ (componential analysis) ϡTrier Ρְ̣ξפΥ줷ǰǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ΰ̣ȤϡΤ˹¤Ū¦̤⤢뤬ʳˤ¿ͤ¦̤äƤΤ
Trier Ū³Ŧɾ򡤡ؿѸؼŵ٤ field ιѤ (434)

¤˴ؤƤϡκϡTrier ͭ̾ʡ֥⥶͡פΤȤˤ⸫褦ˡޤäǰʬĤθ줬֤ʤޤŤʤʤʤäƤȤäƤΤ褦ʥ᥸ϡ Trier Ȥޤ졤äơġθϤΰ̣μǤ¾θΰ̣ϰϤȤνʣ򺹤ꡤĤξ켫ΤζΤȤƤǤϤʤ¾ܤؤδˤ䤫ʰܹԤȤǼ褦ˤʤäޤΰ̣Ϥ˰֤Ť뤳ȤˤäƤΤߤ狼ȤǤμĥ䡤줫餢줬줿ꡤ줬ؿäƤ硤ξ°뤹٤Ƥθ줬αƶȤ褦ʹͤ⸽ߤǤϤŪˤȤƤ롥ˡϤνѸ줫줬ʤ褦ʿŪʹ¤ͭƤΤߤȤϸ¤餺㤨п²Ѹʤɤ˾Ȥ餷Ƥ餫ʤ褦ˡĤΩμ˴Ť¿Ūʹ¤ͭƤȤˤĤƤոΰפƤ褦Ǥ롥̣ʬʬ (COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS) θ椬ʤˤĤơδŪʡ־פγǰ˿ƻΤͽۤ롥


ȤϤTrier üȯ빽¤Ūʸạ́ʬϤϡѸˤѸؤֵǤϤޤޤ夲뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤϤʤ޼ŪǤ줤ǤΤǡΤȻפ롥ΰ̣Ȥ櫓ǧΰ̣Ǥϡष̣ζȤƤʤȤȤ prototype θήǤꡤTrier ήΥι¤Ụ̄ϸȤäơŪˤСTrier Ρְ̣ξפŪ³餫
Ǥ⡤ػŪˤߤСʤե prototype Фϡι¤Ūʡְ̣ξפΤۤäʬ䤹äΤ¤Ǥ롥ޤäꤷ褬ȤƤꡤθ塤¤ϤäȥեʤΤʤΤȺƲ¥롤ȤǶ줿ۤۤ򤷤䤹ΤǤ롥ϤꡤTrier Ρְ̣ξפ礭ʳػŪʰյͭȻפ

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ

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2021-01-29 Fri

#4295. Porzig Ρְ̣ξ [semantics][semantic_field][collocation][cognitive_linguistics][terminology]

Ⱥε#4292. Trier Ρְ̣ξפθػ˾ΰյ (1) ([2021-01-27-1]) ȡ#4293. Trier Ρְ̣ξפθػ˾ΰյ (2) ([2021-01-28-1]) ǤϡTrier Ρְ̣ξ (semantic_field) γػŪطʤߤϡTrier ƱˤʤۤʤΡְ̣ξפ󵯤 Porzig ܤƤߤȤʸϺƱ Öhman Ǥ롥
Trier Ρְ̣ξפ paradigmatic ʻΤΤǤΤФPorzig Ρְ̣ξפ syntagmatic Ǥ롥νѸǤиζ (collocation)뤤϶¤ȯۤ˶ᤤޤTrier ϡְ̣ξפΤ̾Ż뤹뤬Porzig ưƻʤɤνҸŪʸäŻ뤹롥

The field concept of Porzig is of quite a different type than Trier's. Porzig finds certain "essential semantic relationships" between verbs and nouns or between adjectives and nouns. 'To go' presupposes 'the feet', 'to grasp' presupposes 'the hand', and 'blond' (in German and English) presupposes 'the hair'. These relationships form the basic articulations of the meaning system and therefore Porzig calls them "elementary semantic fields" (elementare Bedeutungsfelder). The nucleus of such a semantic field can only consist of a verb or an adjective, because these classes of words have a predicative function and are therefore less ambiguous than nouns. One can grasp with the hand only, but one can do many things with the hand. (129)


ξԤΤ⤦1Ĥ礭ʰ㤤ϡTrier Ρְ̣ξפǽŪˤϰ̣äΤʤ繽¤ȤƤΤФơPorzig ΤϴŪǶŪʾ˼礿ؿȤԤˤϸǧΰ̣Ụ̄ⴶ롥

Trier protests against Porzig's use of the term "field" in this new sense. Trier based his theory on the entire vocabulary, dividing it into large field units, and subdividing these until he reached the smallest entities---single words. Porzig's field, on the other hand, is conceived as primitive concrete situations linguistically designated. By means of it the speech community succeeds in grasping higher and more abstract spheres.


ߤθؤǤְ̣ξפγǰѸϡʤˤΤȤѤƤ褦˸롥δˤطʤ򤹤Τ˳ػˤ򿶤֤äƤߤ뤳Ȥפȡ󴶤

Öhman, Suzanne. "Theories of 'the Linguistic Field'." Word 9 (1953): 123--34.

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2021-01-28 Thu

#4294. Trier Ρְ̣ξפθػ˾ΰյ (2) [history_of_linguistics][semantics][semantic_field][saussure][terminology]

ε˰³Trier ˵ְ̣ξפˤĤơ˶Ƥä Öhman ˤϢʸɤΡ־ (Feld, or field) ػˤΤ褯ޤȤޤäƤٶˤʤä
Humboldt üȯ20Ⱦ Ipsen, Trier, Jolles, Porzig ؤȤĤʤɥĤ濴Ȥسˤơ͡ʡ־פªƤ뤳Ȥˤʤäطʤˤϡ奿ȿؤαƶȤ (Öhman 124) ạ̈ġι򸶻ŪįƤǤԽʬǤꡤνĤΤȤƤȤ館ɬפǤȤ줿Сġι⹽¤Τʤ򤹤ɬפȤȤǤꡤϤޤ˥塼ϻϤ¤θѤˤۤʤʤ
ˡ־פȤäƤ⡤Ipsen, Trier, Porzig Ρ־פªϤ줾ۤʤäƤ롥Öhman ʸǤϳơβɾʤƤ뤬Ǥϸ˻ޤǶƶϤ³Ƥ Trier Ρְ̣ξܤ
Ǥϡְ̣ξ (semantic_field) ϡָäξ (lexical field) ȤۤƱѤƤꡤ㴳֤ΰ㤤СΤ˶̤Ƥʤ褦˸롥Trier ϡξԤϸߤ˴طΤΡ2Ĥΰۤʤ־פǤȹͤƤ

Trier investigates language as ergon or, in the Saussurean terminology, as langue rather than parole. His (sic) distinguishes conceptual and lexical fields. The conceptual field exists independently of, or at least beside, the lexical fields. The lexical field is formed by a word and its conceptual cognates and corresponds to the entirety of the conceptual field. The latter is divided into parts by the word mosaic (Wortdecke) of the lexical field. A word alone has not meaning but acquires one only through the opposition between it and neighboring words in the pattern. For instance, in the grading of examination results as excellent, good, fair, poor, very poor, the word poor acquires a meaning only when one knows that the scale of grading consists of five degrees and that poor lies in the lower half between fair and very poor. (Öhman 126--27)


ޤTrier ϡξˤĤƤ⡤ʣξ줬ޤäơ礭ʾ夲ǽŪˤ줬ɽ魯̣äΤˤɤ夯ȤʾηϤͤƤ

The linguistic field, Trier stresses, is no isolated sphere in the vocabulary, even if this at first appears to be the case. Just as sections of a lexical field border on one another and form a whole, corresponding to the conceptual field, so do the lexical as well as the conceptual fields, according to Trier's theory, join together to form in turn fields of higher orders, until finally the entire vocabulary is included. The fields of lower order "articulate" (ergliedern sich) to form those of higher order, while the fields of higher order "resolve" (gliedern sich aus) into those of lower order. In treating his field as a closed unit, Trier uses a working hypothesis which is necessary to make the analysis at all possible. (Öhman 127)


ˤ⹽¤ŪʸѤǤϤ롥ΰ̣椬餫ˤƤ褦ˡºݤΰ̣ˤäˤ衤ϳ餵ŪʾηϤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤषŤʤ礤ưŪǤ⤢ʣηϤʤΤǤϡTrier ΰ̣ξ⡤ˤ³äȸ虜ʤȤϤ̣γػ˾塤פž1ĤǤäȤɾǤ

Öhman, Suzanne. "Theories of 'the Linguistic Field'." Word 9 (1953): 123--34.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-02-1] [2021-01-29-1]

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2021-01-27 Wed

#4293. Trier Ρְ̣ξפθػ˾ΰյ (1) [history_of_linguistics][semantics][semantic_field][terminology]

塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure; 1857--1913) ȯ빽¤ؤήΤʤǡð̣ΰǡ־ (Feld, or field) γǰΩΤϥɥĤʸؼ Jost Trier (1894--1970) Ǥ롥1931ǯ Der deutsche Wortschatz im Sinnbezirk des Verstandes: Die Geschichte eines sprachlichen Feldes (Heidelberg: Carl Winter) ˤ־סäˡָפ (Wortfeldtheorie) Ͼ
Trier ϡְ̣ξ (Bedeutungsfeld, or semantic_field) γΩԤȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ΤˤСѸΩ Ipsen ΤΤǤ롥Ipsen, Porzig, Weisgerber Trier ȤοǶƯơ־פγǰؤ˹ƤäȸФ褤
ָξ (sprachliche Felder) ȤϰŪѸǤꡤβ̶ʬ Wordfelder ʤˤβ morphologische Felder syntagmatische Felderˤ Gedankenfelder (ˤβ Begriffsfelder Kontextfelderˤ롥ϡߴطˤäƷӤĤΤޤȤޤʤ褦ʸνؤθäϤΤ褦ʽγȿȤΩƤȸʤפȲ⤵ʻۤp. 24ˡ
ְ̣ξפϤȤ־פγǰळȤˤä Trier 餬߽ФӤϡΰ̣̣ѲʬϤˤơġθܤΤǤϤʤ콸Ǥ־פñ̤ȤʬϤδפ󶡤Ȥˤ롥ȤʤäƤʤ餫ʬˤָ췲ñ̤ˤäự򸦵椹Ȥˡηϲ줿Τäȯۤ˰͵򤷤ơñΰ̣ѲȤΤñȤƤǤϤʤϢ췲־פؤ (Umgliederung der Wortfelder) Ȥư褦ˤʤäΤ˹ͻ٤ñ̡פꤵ줿Ȥǡػ˾ΰյͭ롥
äΤʤĤ֥åȤȤƤΡְ̣ξפϡϰϤꤵƤ˸椷䤹Ȥ⤤롥줬ʤ򼨤ΤȤ⤢뤳ȤϻŦƤ

˰졤 塤 ŵ ԡˡذ̣١ұѸʸꡡ7ҡ2005ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-02-1] [2021-01-29-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-01-23 Sat

#4289. ñΰ̣ѲỌ̇̄򸦵椷褦Ȼפäݤμóݤ [semantics][semantic_change][bibliography]

ɸʬ˴ؿijȶƤΤǡܵǼóݤν󶡤ñΰ̣Ѳ̣ˤĤ´ԤʤȻפΤǤСޤΰ̣ѲζȡΥѥΤɬפ롥Ĥޤ̻Ūʰ̣Ѳפ򲡤ɬפ롥ξǡ⤽̣Ȥϲ̣ȤϸŪˤɤФΤȤŪ䤤ؿʤȤ褤ԤϡֶŪʰ̣פγؽǤ롥
̾ϱñΰ̣˴ؤơֶŪʴؿ̻ŪʴؿءפȿʤΤʤ⤷ʤΤǤС˥ɥåʽϩȻפ뤬ȶʥ߳ˤ̻ŪŪʴؿԤƤͤ⤤Τǡष̻ŪʴؿʶŪؿءפȽ¤٤Ƥ

Ρ̻ŪʴؿΤ --- ñΰ̣ѲˤĤƤΤ

߷ ⡡رñ --- ¿Ọ̇̄Ѳ鸫١ҡӡ2016ǯ.
δ졡8ϡ̣ѲѲס˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡ3 ԡˡīҽŹ2018ǯ151--69ǡʼ̣Ǥcf. #3283. ˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡϤǤޤ ([2018-04-23-1])
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.ʤ긵ˤƤcf. #4243. ñΰ̣Ѳμŵ --- NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings ([2020-12-08-1])
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975. ܽ p. 191ʹߤ褯񤱤̣ѲȤʤäƤ

ΡŪʴؿΤ --- ̣Ȥϲؤ֤Τ

졼̡ ءοǡϰ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ2013ǯ
ԡˡذ̣١īҽŹ2012ǯ
ԥ롦 ƣ ذ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ1990ǯ
Hofmann, Th. R. Realms of Meaning. Harlow: Longman, 1993.
Ogden, C. K. and I. A. Richards. The Meaning of Meaning. 1923. San Diego, New York, and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989.
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
Ullmann, Stephen. The Principles of Semantics. 2nd ed. Glasgow: Jackson, 1957.

伫ȤδؿФ꤫顤嵭ǧθŪʰ̣ȤȤŪʰ̣˴ؤȤʤäƤʤ餺ˡ̣ˤĤƹηŪ˳ؤӤϡһ¾ԡˤθұѸʸ7ذ̣٤򻲾Ȥ줿

˰졤 塤 ŵ ԡˡذ̣١ұѸʸꡡ7ҡ2005ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-10-05-1]

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2020-12-12 Sat

#4247. quite Ρִˡפ֤פؤΰ̣Ѳ [semantic_change][intensifier][adverb][semantics]

quite ̣ŪǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ#4233. ʤ quite a few ֤ʤΡΡפΰ̣ˤʤΤ ([2020-11-28-1])#4235. quite a few ϡ¤餲ʤǸǵž ([2020-11-30-1])#4236. intensifier ʬ ([2020-12-01-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥˤϡִˡ (fully, absolutely) ΰ̣ǡ̤ξˤϡ֤ (fairly, rather) ΰ̣Ѥ뤫ո෿ǤСMaximizer ȤƤ Compromizer ȤƤѤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤɬǤ롥
quite Maximizer ȤơִˡפΤߤ̣Ƥ19 Compromizer ȤƤΡ֤פθȯãOED quite, adv., adj., and int. ƤߤȡʬIII˸Ԥ夲ƤꡤФ1805ǯȤʤäƤ롥
Room μŵˡΰ̣ѲȤεˤĤƼΤ褦ʲ⤬äΤǡѤ롥

quite (fully, absolutely; fairly, rather)
This word is notoriously tricky for foreign learners of English, who find it difficult to decide which sense to use, or which is meant. 'I was quite alone' means that I was absolutely alone, but 'I am quite tired' means that I am fairly tired, not very. And if she is 'quite ill', is she very ill or only slightly indisposed? The original meaning of 'quite' in English was the 'absolutely' one, which dates from the fourteenth century. As John Skelton wrote in his charming poem Phyllyp Sparowe (1529):

   Comfort had he none
   For she was quyte gone.

And as Robert K. Douglas wrote in his Non-Christian Religious Systems (1879): 'A man should be quite certain what he knows and what he does not know'. Quite. Yet it was in the nineteenth century that the now common sense of 'fairly' for 'quite' arose. It developed out of a special usage of the word, from the eighteenth century, that meant 'actually', 'really', implying that what the writer or speaker said was really so. For example, Fielding, in Tom Jones (1749), wrote that a certain widow was 'quite charmed with her new lodger', meaning that she really was charmed (not simply satisfied), and in one of his essays (1848), the astronomer Sir John Herschel wrote that: 'A ship sailing northwards passes quite suddenly from cold into hot water', meaning that the change really was sudden, not gradual, as one might expect. So when Thoreau, in his narrative account Walden (1854), wrote: 'Perhaps I have owed to this employment and to hunting, when quite young, my closest acquaintance with Nature', which did he mean, 'surprisingly young' (as in the earlier sense) or 'fairly young' (as in the new sense)? It is not always so easy! What has actually happened is that the earlier use of 'quite' (meaning 'really') has come to be associated with certain adjectives, such as 'different', 'separate', 'right', 'wrong', 'sure' and so on, while with other, less 'definite' adjectives the modern sense is the commoner. But it is still quite difficult to determine on occasions, and one needs to be quite certain which of the two senses is meant.


ˤʤäƤ quite a few 19ȾνФäquite ξ嵭ΰ̣ѲȴطƤΤʤΤ

Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-09-1]

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2020-12-03 Thu

#4238. oddly enough, interestingly enough ʤɤɽˤ enough (1) [adverb][semantics][bnc][corpus][collocation][eurhythmy]

Ի׵Ĥ˻פäƤɽ롥enough ȤܶѤɽʤΤŵŪ -ly enough ֤졤ʸƬ֤뤤ȤΤߤΤᤤBNCweb 󤲤Ƥߤ褦ζϥåΤˤƤˡʤˤ "*ly_{ADV} enough" Ϥ

Oddly enough, many parliaments expect to modify government plans, which takes time.
Her large grin and knotted black curls were, strangely enough, more memorable.
I had a dream last night funnily enough about Leeds (I dont normally --- honest!).
Interestingly enough, even hens and rats have been found to consume more calories when they are offered a varied diet than when they are fed `the same old thing' all the time.
Naturally enough, those who commit crimes will tend to conceal their actions and protect themselves.

줾̯ʤȤˡסִ̯ʤȤˡסֳΤʤȤˡסֶ̣ȤˡסΤȤˡפ̣롤ʸǤ롥ʸǤ뤫顤ŪˤʸƬ˸줿ꡤŪѤ줿ꤹ뤳ȤԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ򤷤ͤΤϡenough Ǥ롥ʤֽʬˡפźƤΤenough ά줿Ȥǡ֤ƤñΤǤʸȤƱ褦˵ǽΤñΤǤϤ䤷졤ĴȤʤʤ enough ź뤳Ȥǥꥺɤ٤θ (eurhythmy) Ϥꤽ
enough ֤뤳Ȥ¿μȤƤϡҥåȿ¿20Ĥ󤲤 oddly, quickly, strangely, funnily, interestingly, early, easily, naturally, curiously, clearly, appropriately, only, seriously, barely, ironically, nearly, surprisingly, badly, reasonably, hardly Ȥʤ롥quickly, early, easily ʤɤϡܤˡȤƤǤϤʤʤĤޤֽʬ᤯פʤɤ̾ˡˤˤä٤⤯ʤäƤˤʤܤˡǸǤŵŪ10٤Сoddly, strangely, funnily, interestingly, naturally, curiously, appropriately, ironically, surprisingly, reasonably Ȥʤ롥
ˡʬۤդȡ񤭸դˤäդˤ⸽Ƥꡤǥˤ㤤ϤʤȤäƤ褤ʤ 18 wpm ١ˡѼԤ˽庹ǤߤƤ⡤äΩäʬ۾ħϤϤʤƥȥפȤƤ Fiction and verse Ū˹⤤ (27.01 wpm) 򼨤ΩäƤ櫓Ǥʤ¿ΰۤʤ쥸ѤƤΤ֤Ǥ롥
enough ΰ̣Ω enough ϰ̣ŪˤϤʤΤȸ虜ʤºݡإ˥缭ŵ٤ˤС enough ˤϡֽʬˡפΰ̣Ϥۤɤɤʤݡڤ롥ޤOED enough, adj., pron., and n., and adv. C. adv. 2 ˤ "With the idea of satisfying a requirement reduced or absent." ȤꡤΤˡֽʬʡפΤˤĤơֲפʤäƤޤäΩƤƤ롥β̶ʬ (b) ȤͿƤΤޤ˺ˤƤˡǡΤ褦롥

(b) With a sentence adverb, as in aptly enough.

   See also funnily enough at FUNNILY adv. 2, oddly enough at ODDLY adv. 5b.

1704 W. Nicolson Diary 22 Nov. in London Diaries (1985) 231 The Text of the Book (whimsically enough) in Vermilion-Letters, instead of an Italic Character.
1783 Ld. Hailes Disquis. Antiq. Christian Church ii. 15 Which, aptly enough, might be denominated the journals of the senate.
1912 E. V. Baxter & L. J. Rintoul Rep. Sc. Ornithol. 3 Curiously enough, both the Common Nightingale .. and the Northern Nightingale .. were added in spring to the Scottish list.
2015 H. Scales Spirals in Time ix. 249 A mollusc named, appropriately enough, the Windowpane Oyster.


ˡǤν㤬1704ǯȤʤäƤΤǡϤФűѸ geōg ˤΤܤŻȤϤ̤֤ɽϡʤʤ餷

Referrer (Inside): [2020-12-05-1] [2020-12-04-1]

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2020-12-01 Tue

#4236. intensifier ʬ [intensifier][adverb][semantics][terminology]

intensifier ֶ̾ոפ뤬Ū˹ˤϡ̣δ¡ĤޤޥʥΡֶաפޤѸȤƤȤ館Ƥɬפ롥Quirk et al. (8.104--115) ˤȡintensifier ϰ̣δʲΤ褦˲̶ʬ롥

INTENSIFIERS
AMPLIFIERS
Maximizers: absolutely, altogether, completely, entirely, extremely, fully, perfectly, quite, thoroughly, totally, utterly, in all respects, most
Boosters: badly, bitterly, deeply, enormously, far, greatly, heartily, highly, intensely, much, severely, so, strongly, terribly, violently, well, a great deal, a good deal, a lot, by far, very much
DOWNTONERS
Approximators: almost, nearly, practically, virtually, as good as, all but
Compromisers: kind of, sort of, quite, rather, enough, sufficiently, more or less
Diminishers: mildly, partially, partly, quite, slightly, somewhat, in part, in some respects, to some extent, a bit, a little, least (of all), only, merely, simply, just, but
Minimizers: barely, hardly, little, scarcely, in the least, in the slightest, at all, a bit

ο֤ˡ#4233. ʤ quite a few ֤ʤΡΡפΰ̣ˤʤΤ ([2020-11-28-1])#4235. quite a few ϡ¤餲ʤǸǵž ([2020-11-30-1]) ε quite ˡܤƤʬˤ quite Maximizers Compromizers 2ĤΥꥹȤΤʤ˸롥̤ˡ٤γǰȼʤȶˤ Maximizer ȤƵǽ٤ͭȶˤ Compromiser ȤƵǽȤ롥줾ʸ󤲤Ƥ

[ Maximizer Ȥ ]

Flying is quite the best way to travel.
I quite forgot about her birthday.
I quite understand.
The bottle is quite empty.
You're quite right.

[ Compromizer Ȥ ]

He plays quite well.
I quite enjoyed the party, but I've been to better ones.
It is quite cold, isn't it?
She quite likes him, but not enough to marry him.
The food in the cafeteria is usually quite good.

٤ι⤤ƳȤ񤷤

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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