ε#5456. Ȥϲ ([2024-04-04-1]) ˰³ (subject) ˤĤƤܼŪʵꤿ˺ݤޤѸ켭ŵʤɤäƤߤΤɤMcArthur ιܤѤ褦פƤ롥
SUBJECT [13c: from Latin subjectum grammatical subject, from subiectus placed close, ranged under]. A traditional term for a major constituent of the sentence. In a binary analysis derived from logic, the sentence is divided into subject and predicate, as in Alan (subject) has married Nita (predicate). In declarative sentences, the subject typically precedes the verb: Alan (subject) has married (verb) Nita (direct object). In interrogative sentences, it typically follows the first or only part of the verb: Did (verb) Alan (subject) marry (verb) Nita (direct object)? The subject can generally be elicited in response to a question that puts who or what before the verb: Who has married Nita?---Alan. Where concord is relevant, the subject determines the number and person of the verb: The student is complaining/The students are complaining; I am tired/He is tired. Many languages have special case forms for words in the subject, the subject requires a particular form (the subjective) in certain pronouns: I (subject) like her, and she (subject) likes me.
Kinds of subject. A distinction is sometimes made between the grammatical subject (as characterized above), the psychological subject, and the logical subject: (1) The psychological subject is the theme or topic of the sentence, what the sentence is about, and the predicate is what is said about the topic. The grammatical and psychological subjects typically coincide, though the identification of the sentence topic is not always clear: Labour and Conservative MPs clashed angrily yesterday over the poll tax. Is the topic of the sentence the MPs or the poll tax? (2) The logical subject refers to the agent of the action; our children is the logical subject in both these sentences, although it is the grammatical subject in only the first: Our children planted the oak sapling; The oak sapling was planted by our children. Many sentences, however, have no agent: Stanley has back trouble; Sheila is a conscientious student; Jenny likes jazz; There's no alternative; It's raining
Pseudo-subjects. The last sentence also illustrates the absence of a psychological subject, since it is obviously not the topic of the sentence. This so-called 'prop it' is a dummy subject, serving merely to fill a structural need in English for a subject in a sentence. In this respect, English contrasts with languages such as Latin, which can omit the subject, as in Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered: with no need for the Latin pronoun ego, I). Like prop it, 'existential there' in There's no alternative is the grammatical subject of the sentence, but introduces neither the topic nor (since there is no action) the agent.
Non-typical subjects. Subjects are typically noun phrases, but they may also be finite and non-finite clauses: 'That nobody understands me is obvious'; 'To accuse them of negligence was a serious mistake'; 'Looking after the garden takes me several hours a week in the summer.' In such instances, finite and infinitive clauses are commonly post and anticipatory it takes their place in subject position: 'It is obvious that nobody understands me'; 'It was a serious mistake to accuse them of negligence.' Occasionally, prepositional phrases and adverbs function as subjects: 'After lunch is best for me'; 'Gently does it.'
Subjectless sentences. Subjects are usually omitted in imperatives, as in Come here rather than You come here. They are often absent from non-finite clauses ('Identifying the rioters may take us some time') and from verbless clauses ('New filters will be sent to you when available'), and may be omitted in certain contexts, especially in informal notes (Hope to see you soon) and in coordination (The telescope is 43 ft long, weighs almost 11 tonnes, and is more than six years late).
ܤνФɸŪȤäƤ褯褽ʸˡŪʴγǰƳƤ롥ζ̤˻ϤޤꡤŪŪҲ𤵤롥
Ǥϡ줬ʸˡŪʴΤߤʤ餺ŪŪʴȤ館Ȥơ̤Υ뤬롥Ūʴϡ֥ơޡסŪʴϡưιټԡפбΤʤΤ⤫롥¤ʸƤϤƤߤȡ3Ĥδμ줬ɬߤ˰פʤȤ롥
³ơŪʼ졤ߡμȸƤФΤҲ𤵤롥Ǥ there is ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) ڤ롥ιʸǤ there ϥơޤǤϤꤨʤưιټԤǤʤΤǡޤʸˡΤᤵƤȤߤʤۤʤ
̾̾ʳ쥫ƥȤΩȤ꤬Ƴ줿ȡǸ˼줬ʤʤ뤤ϾάƤ㤬롥
ۤˤ͡ϵ줽ϼϤˤޤǡ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
331ۿ YouTube ֤Τۤإͥ219ϡָŤʸˡʸˡThere is ʸޤ狼ꤷƤäƤޤܥͥȤƤϡ4֤ǻİ3100ۤȤʤꡤŪ¿İƤ褦Ǥ꤬Ȥޤ
There is a book on the desk. Τ褦¸ʸ (existential_sentence) ˤ there ϡ̣Ūˤ϶¤ǤʸˡŪˤϼǤ뤫Τ褦ʿޤa book ϲϤƤ뤫С줳Ǥ뤳ȤǤޤ be ưȿΰפǤ⡤a book Τۤ餷ΤǤϤʤȵǤǤ
ޤΤ褦˼Ƥ (subject) ȤϡäʤΤǤ礦ͤϤƬ뤰뤷Ƥޤ¸ʸμꡤӡּפȤѸ˴ؤƤϡheldio Ǥ夲Ƥޤ
#1003. There is an apple on the table. --- Ϥɤ졩
#1032. ʤ subject ּס --- ֤إ饸פΥԥ졼
hellog Ǥ⡤¸ʸ˴ϢϰʲεǼ夲Ƥޤ
#1565. existential there ε (1) ([2013-08-09-1])
#1566. existential there ε (2) ([2013-08-10-1])
#4473. ¸ʸˤμỌ̇̄μ ([2021-07-26-1])
Ȥϲñ˲褹ǤϤޤҳˤͤƤС

ǯ12˽Ǥ줿źˤդ⤷뿷ɽӤܸǡɤǤߤʤܤǤäȾФäƤޤܸ˭٤˵ʤ顤ȤФۣ˾ƤƤޤɤߤ䤹Ĵʤ⡤¤ϸŪʴؾνƤꡤʪߤƤ˽ǽʤפδͭܤȤʤäƤޤ
ɤΤ褦ʻ㤬ȤƤΤϥ٥θФǤƤߤޤ礦
ŪʴϡȤ櫓칽¤ؤܤΩäƤޤ³줬ĤʤƤǤϲȲΥפϤɤޤǤƻ줬ˤΤ֤Ρפ¿Ūˤۤ˸Ụ̄Ūۣ夲Ƥޤ
ܸܽɤ߽ݤդ٤ޤȤܤȤƤϡŪܸνäޥ˥奢ȤɤळȤǤȻפޤषŪʴؿܽ˼äƤߤ顤ŪΤ⤷兩ʬäƤȤ褦ɤޤꤵƤΤ⤷ޤۣγƻˤĤƤϡפȡֲסʴˤդƤޤ
ܽΤ⤦1Ĥɤϡ˵ƤܸλѸˤɤʤ뤫ѸäɤΤ褦ɽʤɤȹͤʤɤ߿ʤ뤳ȤˤäơξθȤƤιԤΰ㤤˵ŤȤ褦ɤǤξ֤ˤʤꤽǤ
ܽˤĤƤ YouTube ֤Τۤإͥפˤ#205. źˤ⤢ޤʤȤФ̩٤ΤҲβǼ夲ƤޤҤ
ۣˤĤƤ hellog #2278. ̣ۣ ([2015-07-23-1])#4913. ξˤ⤤ --- ŪξŪξޤǡ ([2022-10-09-1]) ε⤴ɤ
ź ˤ⤢ޤʤȤФ̩١˼Ҥޥץޡӡ2023ǯ
ī Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פۿ#1022. ȡȥ --- khelf ĹڤθơޡǤˤ tautology Ȥϲ"A is A" Τ褦ʰ츫̵̣ʷʤ¸ߤʤФ̣ͭȤʤΤˤĤƤϡkhelfʷѸ˥ե˲ĹڵȤȤ˺äȸƤƤͽǤϤƬФȤݤǤۿǤҤİС
ȡȥˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥϡ#4851. tautology ([2022-08-08-1]) ȤƤǤƳƤޤϱѸ켭ѸΥȡȥλĤƤߤޤ
a beginner who has just started
free gift
He lives alone by himself.
hear with one's ears
helpful assistance
necessary essentials
new innovation
real truth
She is dumb and can not speak.
speak all at once together
the modern university of today
The money should be adequate enough.
They spoke in turn, one after the other.
This candidate will win or not win.
very excellent
widow woman
̣ѡʤɤδ͡ʬǤǤΤˤäƤ periphrasis ʱˡˡpleonasm ʾˡˡredundancy ʾĹˡrepetition ʷ֤ˤʤɤȸƤѤۤŬڤʻ⤢ꤽǤޤͷ (word_play) ȤطƤǤ
ˤäƥȡȥμϰۤʤΤ̸ˤȡȥεȯãϡȡȥθŪǽϡ椬Ƥ֡ꤷΤơޤǤ
䤿ʻȤѸ켭ܸ켭ʤɤǤϡФΤȤˤɤΤ褦ʾܤƤФ줽켫Τϡե٥åȽ礢뤤ϸ¤٤줿ǡƸ줬ˡ§äʸǷǤƤΤ̤θȯʬĶʬˤξܤƤ뤳Ȥ¿θ塤ʻƼʸˡ졤1İʾΤŵǤ롥ȥˤϡˡ졦Ϣ졤츻¾ʤɤդƤ뼭⤢̤μ (dictionary) Ȥˡܺ٤ϰۤʤ褽Τ褦ʥ쥤ȤǤ롥
Ǥϡ䤿üԤƬˤ뼭 (lexicon) ϡɤΤ褦ƤꡤƸιܡʤõܹ (lexical entry) ˤϤɤʾֵܡפƤΤϡ̣ŪǤ롥
ޤùܤ¤Ӥե٥åȽǤϤʤȤľ롥ޤʸɤ߽ǤʤλҶƬθõܹܤˤϡˡξäƤʤˡʻʤɤΤ褦ˡ̤˸츻˴ؿΤüԤǤʤ¤ꡤƬθõܹˡָפΤ褦̻ŪʥʡꤵƤȤϹͤˤ
ȯʻƼʸˡˤĤƤϡμ (dictionary) ȤϰۤʤȤͽۤ뤬餫ΥեޥåȤƬμˤֵܡפƤȹͤ롥ǤϡŪˤɤʥեޥåȤʤΤ
ϸ̣ʬŪǤꡥ줾ȤǤƤƤ櫓ǤϤʤľƬƤߤ櫓ˤϤʤ绨Ĥʹդ뤳ȤΤѸñǹͤ¤ꡤ㤨СBauer (192--93) ϡLyons Ȥ¾ΤĤԸˤۤꤷĤġ4ܤƤ롥
(i) stem(s)
(ii) inflectional class
(iii) syntactic properties
(iv) semantic specification(s)
(i) stem(s) ʸ촴ˤȤ뤬ȤƤ뤳ȤϲʬĶʬˤξΤȤǤ롥(ii) ϷŪ(iii) Ū(iv) ϰ̣ŪǤ롥Ǹιܤϡ¿ξˤϡʣԡפˤ錄
ؤθϤϡˡ츻;ϤϤʤΤǧᤶʤʸȸ츻Ǥ˸ؼԤˤȤäơäȼ䤷ȤǤϤ롥
Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
Lyons, John. Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1977.
εǼ夲#5289. ̾˰̣ϤΤ ([2023-10-20-1]) ˤĤơرμȤǵκݤˡʤ̾˰̣ΤݤǻݤʬΤȤͻ4ĤۤȻפäΤǡ˵ϿƤ
1ĤϡΥ١Ȥ Nyström ǤƤȤꡤ"A crucial point is what we mean by meaning" (40) Ȥ롥̣ȤϲˤĤƤǧΰ㤤ˤ̾˰̣Ϥ뤫פѤȤƼʥݥȤơͤƱդΤǤ⤢cf. #1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1])ˡ
2Ĥϡ嵭ʿŪ̾Ȥϲפǧΰ㤤˴ؤݥȤǤ롥ä̾Ȥߤʤ̾餷ȤϲȤ䤤ϡ̾ץȡ (name_project) ̤ƤȤǤ⤢롥㤨СŵŪʿ̾̾ˤˤϰ̣ʤ뤳ȤǤȤƤ⡤˥å͡ˤ餫˰̣Τ륱¿ȡ̾ȥ˥ạ̵̊ͭ͡εΤʤƱ˰ΤʤΤȤ䤬ͯ
3Ĥϡ̾ʤ (onomasticon) Ȱ̸줫ʤá̾ lexiconˤɤٽŤʤäƤ뤫ϡˤäưۤʤȤ𤬤롥㤨п̾ǹͤȡѸ John, Tom, Mary onomasticon ˤϿƤΤΡlexicon ˤϿƤʤܸο̾Ρ֤ס֤錄ס֤פʤɤ onomasticon ˤ lexicon ˤϿƤǤ롥Сˤơ̾ޡפΰ֤ŤۤʤäƤΤǤcf. #5195. ̾ (name lemma) ([2023-07-18-1])ˡθȤ뤫ߤ뤫ˤäơ̾˰̣ϤΤפؤФäƤΤϼΤȤ⤷ʤоȤˤĤơ˰դäС˰͵륢ե٥åʸηϤѤѸʡ饸ˤȡɽŪĴ¿ѤܸʡƥӷˤȤǤϡ̾Ọ̇̄δطªϰۤʤ
4Ĥˡ̾١ϰϤ˴ؤ롥²ǤΤ̤˥å͡ʤɤο̤̾פ֥ɥפΤ褦̾⤢롥̾ΰ̣̾ʹͤ벿Ȳ᤹ΤǤСʶüǤϤ뤬˲²ȤϰϤΰ㤤ϡΤޤ̾ΰ̣٤ͭ٤κˤʤ롥ĿͤˤȤäƤ̣ͭǤ⡤¾Τ٤ƤοͤˤȤäƤ̵̣ȤΤǤ롥ȡ̾˰̣ϤΤפŪ䤦Ȥʤ
ܵɤߤγˤ⡤ҵ³ƤС
Nyström, Staffan. "Names and Meaning." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 39--51.
̾ؤ뤤ϸͭ̾ (onomastics) 1Ĥˡɸε롥Ϥ̾˰̣ΤɤˤĤƤϡĹ餯ͤ³Ƥ#5197. ͭ̾˰̣ϤΤʤΤ ([2023-07-20-1]) Ȥ줿Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פΥץߥꥹʡۿֱͥѸˤ (helwa)סͭˤǤ֡ڱѸˤ #15̾˰̣뤫ʤȤƵƤ롥
Nyström (40--41) ϡͭ̾ˤϹ̣ǤΡְ̣פȤơ"the maxium meaningfulness thesis" ˻ƱƤ (40) ʲ Nyström εꡤǤפ
Do names have meaning or not, that is do they have both meaning and reference or do they only have reference? This question is closely connected to the dichotomy proper name---common noun (or to use another pair of terms name--appellative) and also to the idea of names being more or less 'namelike', showing a lower or higher degree of propriality or 'nameness'. Can a certain name be a more 'namelike' name than another? I believe it can. To support such an assertion one might argue that a name is not a physical, material object. It is an abstract conception. A name is the result of a complex mental process: sometimes (when we hear or see a name) the result of an individual analysis of a string of sounds or letters, sometimes (when we produce a name) the result of a verbalization of a thought. We shall not ask ourselves what a name is but what a name does. To use a name means to start a process in the brain, a process which in turn activates our memories, fantasy, linguistic abilities, emotions, and many other things. With an approach like that, it would be counterproductive to state that names do not have meaning, that names are meaningless.
̾ȤϲפȤ䤤̾ϲΤפȤ̾䤦ȤפʤΤǤϤʤȤˤܤڤꡤ줫夲ƤФȡ
Nyström, Staffan. "Names and Meaning." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 39--51.
ε#5281. ʣ ([2023-10-12-1]) ˤʣ (plural_of_approximation) ˤĤơǽ˻ŦΤ Jespersen (83--85) Ǥ롥θŵɤ߱ΤǡΤޤްѤ
Plural of Approximation
4.51 The sixties (cf. 4.12) has two meanings, first the years from 60 to 69 inclusive in any century; thus Seeley E 249 the seventies and the eighties of the eighteenth century | Stedman Oxford 152 in the "Seventies" [i.e. 1870, etc.] | in the early forties = early in the forties. Second it may mean the age of any individual person, when he is sixty, 61, etc., as in Wells U 316 responsible action is begun in the early twenties . . . Men marry before the middle thirties | Children's Birthday Book 182 While I am in the ones, I can frolic all the day; but when I'm in the tens, I must get up with the lark . . . When I'm in the twenties, I'll be like sister Joe . . . When I'm in the thirties, I'll be just like Mama.
4.52. The most important instance of this plural is found in the pronouns of the first and second persons: we = I + one or more not-I's. The pl you (ye) may mean thou + thou + thou (various individuals addressed at the same time), or else thou + one or more other people not addressed at the moment; for the expressions you people, you boys, you all, to supply the want of a separate pl form of you see 2.87.
A 'normal' plural of I is only thinkable, when I is taken as a quotation-word (cf. 8.2), as in Kipl L 66 he told the tale, the I--I--I's flashing through the record as telegraph-poles fly past the traveller; cf. also the philosophical plural egos or me's, rarer I's, and the jocular verse: Here am I, my name is Forbes, Me the Master quite absorbs, Me and many other me's, In his great Thucydides.
4.53. It will be seen that the rule (given for instance in Latin grammars) that when two subjects are of different persons, the verb is in "the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third" 'si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, Allen and Greenough, Lat. Gr. §317) is really superfluous, as a self-evidence consequence of the definition that "the first person plural is the first person singular plus some one else, etc." In English grammar the rule is even more superfluous, because no persons are distinguished in the plural of English verbs.
When a body of men, in response to "Who will join me?", answer "We all will", their collective answers may be said to be an ordinary plural (class 1) of I (= many I's), though each individual "we will" means really nothing more than "I will, and B and C . . . will, too" in conformity with the above definition. Similarly in a collective document: "We, the undersigned citizens of the city of . . ."
4.54. The plural we is essentially vague and in no wise indicates whom the speaker wants to include besides himself. Not even the distinction made in a great many African and other languages between one we meaning 'I and my own people, but not you', and another we meaning 'I + you (sg or pl)' is made in our class of languages. But very often the resulting ambiguity is remedied by an appositive addition; the same speaker may according to circumstances say we brothers, we doctors, we Yorkshiremen, we Europeans, we gentlemen, etc. Cf. also GE M 2.201 we people who have not been galloping. --- Cf. for 4.51 ff. PhilGr p. 191 ff.
4.55. Other examples of the pl of approximation are the Vincent Crummleses, etc. 4.42. In other languages we have still other examples, as when Latin patres many mean pater + mater, Italian zii = zio + zia, Span. hermanos = hermano(s) + hermana(s), etc.
ʣȤäƤ⡤ΰ̣ʣǤ롥ϡ츫ƷȤߤơܼŪˤϰ̣ȸʤΤȻפ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 2. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: C. Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1922.
#5230. ֽθա --- ؽػŵ٤ ([2023-08-22-1]) ǰѤؽػŵ٤μʬˡ2žָդνפȤФǤƤʸϤ (347--38)
դν¾ηŪȤƼƤİ뷼---νˤۤܽŤʤ---ǤϡդļԤ˼Ƥ졤䤬ơŵŵפԻ롥ϲŪ줿ǤꡤڤβȽǤδब˵ʾ塤˸ɵϤꤨʤ줬ŵ̱Ĥκܤˤ롥䶵ꥹȶ顼ʤɤΰˤơŵ̵ɵμĥŪ˱뤬ҥɥʤɤ¿Ǥ⡤ŵФưפ˴ѻǤ롥ŵФʪҤŵޤھϡդνܼŪ¢ƤΤǤ롥
ޤĶŪҤθաʿθʩʤɡˤ줿ŵŪޤΤߤʤ餺˽줿ŪͤӤӤƤȤߤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Τ褦츻Ȥʤäơ¾ΰڤβʬȤߤʤ硤դ켫ΤʲơǽŪˤϸդʪ߽ФǤȼĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʤդʪιǤȸָ챧פǤ롥츫ȡϿܤ줿̤ȯã椨ѤۤʸѤȼǽ⤤ΤǤ롥
Ǹ˽ФƤָ챧פȤʸѤˤĤơ֤ƼΤ褦ʸϤ³ (348)
ְջãפ˾ʤ¤ꡤƯϡ①ɽС②ʤ③ؼ④ˤ롥ϡ①ï②ïˡ③ΤˤĤơ④ȤפȤͻ蹽¤Ȥߤǹͻ뤳ȤǤ¤ϡְջãפۤˤѤǧȤߤˤϼޤڤʤۼʸδҤθ챧ˤϴޤޤƤ롥ĤޤꡤˤϸμǽְջãפǤϤʤֱ¤פª褦ʸѤƤǤΤǤ롥
ָ챧פϡؤǤϼ갷뤳ȤΤʤѤǤϤ뤬1ĤθѤǤϤ롥
ѵӾ 氣 ҡ ʡᲬ ͺԡˡؽػŵ١ҡ2010ǯ
#5221. ֵפȤϲ (2) ([2023-08-13-1]) ǿ줿ؽػŵ٤ѥѥɤ³Ƥ롥ָաפιܲˡֽθա (346--47) ȤФζ̣⤬äϲɤۤʤäƤΤ
θξˤա뤤ϤǻѤդΤϡ̤ˡֽפȸƤФƤ롥㤨Сֿΰפʩڡפ硤οΡְפʩֹڡפϡäṆ̀礤Ȥϼۤˤʹ֤γǰŪİĶΤǤ롥äȤƤƱǤ⡤줬ξ˸ȡ˰ۼΰ̣ӤӤΤǤ롥Τ褦ˡή̤Ƥ̣ǤȤ䤷ĶŪؤƯˤϤ롥
ξȤϡŪˤϡиΩǤꡤޤ㫤ԤǤ롥ǤϡФФȤʤ⡤ȿ鸫СФФȤʤ⤬Ƥ롥ĶŪۤդȤƸȤθʩʩ⤤ʩŵˤȤƼƤ뤬θդǻѤդƱηϤ°ΤǤ롥ʤСθʩϡȤ줨ʤĤޤꡤξǤϡФФȤʤ븽ݤȤơޤθաСˤ֤ΤǤ롥ĶŪ줿ꡤĶŪؼꤹۤɤˡդ뤲ΤǤ롥ξǤϡ餫λǡή줬ǤڤĶŪȤ˸줫ƤȤǤαư롥Ρ狼ĶæФȤˢؤפȤŤαưи佡ʤƤ롥
ȤǡաĤޤ꽡ˤϤĤμ꤬ޤޤƤꤵ롥ĶŪۤ줿ŪϡľѡħǰηİΤ̤Ǥ롥椨줬Ԥ༡ϡ¦Ǥǧ֤Ȥ뤳ȤǤ롥Ȥʪáʩˤˡˡʩ⤽ΤΡʤ켡νˤϡޤľŪ˴졤äߺѤμСǧƤ椯ǡĹ修θաνˤĽĤ˶ͭ졤ħŪʰվŻäƵ˼ޤ롥ơǰŪϣФʤŵŵԻ졤ĤˤϿءؤʤɳŪʿηŪĤθա軰νˤФ롥
ξˤƽ줬ȯȤȤˡդ˽ˤäƽξ줽켫Τ졤Ū̿ϤǺƹȤ¦̤롥Ȥ櫓θդۤθդϡܼŪǤŽ̤줿ΤȤ롥̽ۤˤΤϡռβ漹Ū˲Τ̵ȤʤꡤФμƩȤ֤Ǥ롥εꡤǥʥեξ̾ˡǰʩܡޥȥʿˡ˻졤ʤɤε̽ۤ귿ϡ褯ΤƤ롥μ귿Τ뤳ȤϡΤĤɡ狼ĶæʢФȤˢؤפüŪ˼¸뤳Ȥ¾ʤʤ衤硦θ֤Ū˽Ż뤵졤ŪˡΰĤȤȤ߹ޤƤʤǤ롥
ȵ䤬ͯƤξˤƤϡְפֹڡפΰ̣ѤȤȤϲ̤ự (semantics) ιͻоݤˤʤΤȽδ֤ˡ¿ (polysemy) ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ƤȹͤƤ褤ΤʤɤǤϡŪʸ˴ؤơڽʳءˡۤڥꥹȶۤʤɤΥ졼٥뤬ղä뤳Ȥ⤢顤쥸ȤƤȤ館ƤΤ
ΰѤǤϡּ¦Ǥǧ֤פȤɽѤƤ롥¦ǰ̣¤ꤷƤΤȤС̣ѲѰۤμΤᤰȤؤäƤˤĤƤϡ#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1]) ʤɤȡ
θˤĤƤϡ#3908. ֵפȤϲ ([2020-01-08-1]) ȡ#5221. ֵפȤϲ (2) ([2023-08-13-1]) ⻲ȡ#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1]) طƤ
ѵӾ 氣 ҡ ʡᲬ ͺԡˡؽػŵ١ҡ2010ǯ
¾ư (transitivity) ˤĤơ2ˤ錄äƤ
#5202. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ ([2023-07-25-1])
#5204. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ (2) [2023-07-27-1]
Bussmann (494--95) Ѹ켭ŵ transitivity ιѤ롥
Valence property of verbs which require a direct object, e.g. read, see, hear. Used more broadly, verbs which govern other objects (e.g. dative, genitive) can also be termed 'transitive'; while only verbs which have no object at all (e.g. sleep, rain) would be intransitive. Hopper and Thompson (1980) introduce other factors of transitivity in the framework of universal grammar, which result in a graduated concept of transitivity. In addition to the selection of a direct object, other semantic roles as well as the properties of adverbials, mood, affirmation vs negation, and aspect play a role. A maximally transitive sentence contains a non-negated resultive verb in the indicative which requires at least a subject and direct object; the verb complements function as agent and affected object, are definite and animate . . . . Using data from various languages, Hopper and Thompson demonstrate that each of the factors listed above as affecting transitivity is important for making transivtivity through case, adpositions, or verbal inflection. Thus in many languages (e.g. Lithuanian, Polish, Middle High German) affirmation vs negation correlates with the selection of case for objects in such a way that in affirmative sentences the object is usually in the accusative, while in negated sentences the object of the same verb occurs in the genitive or in another oblique case.
¾ưȤϡ(1) ǡǤ뤳ȡ(2) ˤäƤζˡ͡Ǥ뤳ȡʬäƤŪˤϡгŪ᤹롤̤ɽ魯ľˡιư줬¤ "transitive" ǤȤȤ
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
#5202. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ ([2023-07-25-1]) Ұ³¾ư (transitivity) ˤĤơ
Halliday εǽʸˡˤȡ¾ưͤݤˤ3ĤΥѥפȤʤ롥 (process)Ϳ (participant) (circumstance) 3ĤΤȤ櫓 (process) ŪʥѥȤʤ롥
ֲפȾΤΤˤ礭3Ĥμब롥˾3Ĥμबդ롥줾ȡʪŪ (material)Ū (mental)طŪ (relational) Ū (behavioural), Ū (verbal), ¸Ū (existential) 6Ȥʤ롥
Transitivity A term used mainly in systemic functional linguistics to refer to the system of grammatical choices available in language for representing actions, events, experiences and relationships in the world . . . .
There are three components in a transitivity process: the process type (the process or state represented by the verb phrase in a clause), the participant(s) (people, things or concepts involved in a process or experiencing a state) and the circumstance (elements augmenting the clause, providing information about extent, location, manner, cause, contingency and so on). So in the clause 'Mary and Jim ate fish and chips on Friday', the process is represented by 'ate', the participants are 'Mary and Jim' and the circumstances are 'on Friday'.
Halliday and Mtthiesen (2004) identify three main process types, material, mental and relational, and three minor types, behavioural, verbal and existential. Associated with each process are certain kinds of participants. 1) Material processes refer to actions and events. The verb in a material process clause is usually a 'doing' word . . .: Elinor grabbed a fire extinguisher; She kicked Marina. Participants in material processes include actor ('Elinor', 'she') and goal ('a fire extinguisher', 'Marina'). 2) Metal processes refer to states of mind or psychological experiences. The verb in a mental process clause is usually a mental verb: I can't remember his name; Our party believes in choice. Participants in mental processes include senser(s) ('I'; 'our party') and phenomenon ('his name'; 'choice'). 3) Relational processes commonly ascribe an attribute to an entity, or identify it: Something smells awful in here; My name is Scruff. The verb in a relational processes include token ('something', 'my name')) and value ('Scruff', 'awful'). 4) Behavioural processes are concerned with the behaviour of a participant who is a conscious entity. They lie somewhere between material and mental processes. The verb in a behavioural process clause is usually intransitive, and semantically it refers to a process of consciousness or a physiological state: Many survivors are sleeping in the open; The baby cried. The participant in a behavioral process is called a behaver. 5) Verbal processes are processes of verbal action: 'Really?', said Septimus Coffin; He told them a story about a gooseberry in a lift. Participants in verbal processes include sayer ('Septimus Coffin', 'he'), verbiage ('really', 'a story') an recipient ('them'). 6) Existential processes report the existence of someone or something. Only one participant is involved in an existential process: the existent. There are two main grammatical forms for this type of process: existential there as subject + copular verb (There are thousands of examples.); and existent as subject + copular verb (Maureen was at home.)
ϡưˤƤȤ櫓Ūʰ̣ط6ӼäΤȤäƤ褤ůŪˤСΥѥɤޤǺŪʸ쥫ƥΤʬʤͤĤǤ롥
ǽʸˡŪˤ̤Ȥơֲפ졤ˤС¾ưפ٤ޤäƤ롤ȤȤˤʤäƤ롥¾ưȤϤŪʳǰѸǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʸѡʸˡѤȤߤФƤȯۤǤ뤳ȤΤäƤ
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
ɸ䤤ˤĤƤϡ¿εʤƤ㤨п̾̾ͤƤߤ褦ëפֹפˤϡؼо (referent) Ǥꡤ˰̣ (meaning) ϤʤȤ롥ϡ#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ ([2015-05-18-1]) ǤȤΩ
ëפϡ礭סëסֹפϡֹספȤǤꡤơǤ⡤Ȥ߹碌ʪ⡤줾ܸˤƳΤ˰̣ĤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ˤС¿ܸüԤˤȤä¿ξ硤ëפˤϥץ峦ˤҡΥտ路Ƥꡤֹפˤʿ¤ΥåƤ롥Τ褦ʥåϡỤ̄ǤȤϤʤޤǤ⡤̤δ鲿餫ΰ̣ǤȤȤǤäợְפȤ뤫ȤˤĤʤäƤȤԲǤ롥
ȴϢơNyström 5Ĥۤɤΰ̣̤Ƥ롥ΥȤդʤ⤹롥
(1) Ụ̄ (lexical meaning)嵭ǤСëפϡ礭ëפۤɤ̾θỤ̄äƤ롥
(2) ͭ̾Ụ̄ (proprial meaning)ֹפϡܤܽ˰֤븩뤤ϻԤؼͭ̾Ǥ롥
(3) Ụ̄ (categorial meaning)֥ݥפϡŵŪˡ˸Ȥƥ°Сդ̾Ǥ롥
(4) ϢỤ̄ (associative meaning)ëפϡ¿οͤˤȤäơ˥ץ峦δ˾Ǥ롥
(5) Ụ̄ (emotive meaning)ֹפϡ¿οͤˤȤäơ˸ﳲζỴʿ¤ؤδꤤ롥
Ȥ櫓 (4) (5) Τ褦ʴỤ̄ (connotation) ϡƤ٤Ŀͤˤäơ뤤ϽĤˤȤäưۤʤΤǤꡤỤ̄ͭ̾Ụ̄ˤߤɬߤʤ⤷ʤ
Nyström, Staffan. "Names and Meaning." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 39--51.
ε#5177. (semasiology) ̾ (onomasiology) ([2023-06-30-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ̣Ѳ (semantic_change or semasiological change) ȤȤ˰뤳Ȥ¿Τ˶̤٤Ȥ̾ŪѲ (onomasiological change) ȤΤ롥
Traugott and Dasher (52--53) ϡ̾ŪѲ ("onomasiological changes") ˤĤơBréal εȤǡ2ĤΥפƤ롥
(i) Specialization: one element "becomes the pre-eminent exponent of the grammatical conception of which it bears the stamp" . . . , for example, the selection of que as the sole complementizer in French . . . .
(ii) Differentiation: two elements which are (near-)synonymous diverge. Paradigm examples include, in English, (a) the specialization, e.g. of hound when dog was borrowed from Scandinavian, and (b) loss of a form when sound change leads to "homonymic clash," e.g. ME let in the sense "prohibit" from OE lett- was lost after OE lætan "allow" also developed into ME let . . . .
Bréal ˤС̾ŪѲϡ̣ѲǤʤФ꤫ñ̾ѲȤ櫓Ǥʤ"the proper subject of the 'science of significations'" (95) ȤȤ餷
ľˤȡBréal ϹäƤˤ
Traugott, Elizabeth C. and Richard B. Dasher. Regularity in Semantic Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2005.
Bréal, Michel. Semantics: Studies in the Science of Meaning. Trans. Mrs. Henry Cust. New York: Dover, 1964. 1900.
ΰ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ݤˡ (semasiology) ̾ (onomasiology) ʬƹͤɬפ롥 (155) Ѥ롥
ΰ̣ѲͤäƤϡ (semasiology) ̾ (onomasiology) ̤Ƥ̣ȯηӤĤȹͤȤȯ̾ˤꤷƤȯ˷ӤḤ̂ѲƤͼŪѲȸƤ̣֡ꤷƤΰ̣˷ӤĤ̾ѲƤͼ̾ŪѲȸƤ֡ΰ̣ѲˤӤĤѲȤƹªʤСŪѲΤߤʤ餺̾ŪѲθƤ褤
פˡ̾ΰ̣Ѳ̾̾ѲƤФ褤#3283. ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡϤǤޤ ([2018-04-23-1]) ȡ

Ѹˤ̾ (indefinite_pronoun) (indefinite determiner) ȤηϤ롥 (indefinite) ȿФ (definite) Ǥ롥㤨п;̾졤Ƶ̾졤ͭ̾졤ؼ̾졤ƤȤ˵̾ˤŪǤǧ뤬̾ˤϤ줬ߤʤ̾졦ϡषŪ顤ŪǤ (quantitative) ȤȤ館Ƥ褤⤷ʤŪ (universal) ʬŪ (partitive) ȤǤ롥
Quirk et al. (6.45) ˼פ̾졦ΰɽ롥Ǻܤ褦ηŪǤϤ뤬ʤʤʣʸǤ뤳Ȥ狼
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ȿиסеסоȸסбפʤɤȾΤ antonym ϡð̣ˤƤؿƤȿи켭ŵतϹǤ褯ΤܸǾѤƤΤȤơȿиоȸ켭ŵǡ٤롥
ȿиȤäƤȿСפΤ͡ǡð̣ǤޤˤȤʤ롥嵭μŵΡ֤ޤ (i--ii) ɤСȤ⤷Ǥ
ñϰİĤФФ¸ߤƤΤǤϤʤޤȤޤХͥåȥʤƤ롥ȤСפȤñϡ֤㤵ס֤䤸ס֥ѥѡפʤɤȸ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡƱΤؤƤ롥δ֤ˤϷɰդ̵ͭ˥奢ΰ㤤ʤɤꡤƱǤȤϤʤƱ˶ᤤطδطˤȤȤǤ롥פФȤơפȤ줬롥ơפˤ֤줵ס֤դס֥ޥޡפȤä褦θ줬¸ߤ롥ޤפȡפξԤޤȤơֿơפꡤֿơפФȤơֻҡפȤ줬롥Τ褦ˡñߤ˴Ϣʣȿ֤Ƥ롥
ȿиϤƱ졦ˤƱΤؤȤäब뤬ȿиξñǤϤʤȿиȤ硤ޤξԤδ֤˶̤̣ʤФʤʤפפȿиˤʤΤϡξԤơȤ̤ΰ̣äƤ뤫Ǥ롥̤̣äƤǤϡȿиˤϤʤʤפפȿиˤʤΤϡǤϤʤǤȤȤˤ롥ĤޤꡤȤफ鸫ȿФΰ̣ˤʤΤǤ롥ȿиξϡ
(1) ̤̣äƤ뤳
(2) ξǡफ鸫ơȿФΰ̣äƤ뤳
ǤȤȤˤʤ
⤦Ĥ褦羡פȿиˤϡԡפȡֿɾפȤ뤬Ԥϡ(1) 纹Ǿ餬ĤȤ(2) 餱Ȥफ鸫ȿФΰ̣äƤꡤԡĤޤֿɾפϡ(1) ĤȤ̤ΰ̣(2) 纹Ȥफ鸫ȿФΰ̣äƤ롥ȿиϡĤȤϸ¤ʤबѤȡĤ¸ߤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ʾΤ褦ȡȿиȽŪưפʤ褦˸뤬ˤĤƶŪ˹ͤƤʤˤʤȡȿФΰ̣ȤϲȤȤˤʤäƤơȽǤ˶줷ळȤ¿
嵭˵Ƥ羡פ˴ؤ뼭ŵοޤȤ褦¤Ūʡ줤ʥޥȥåȤʤ롥
| 纹 | 㾮 | ||
| 㾡 | 羡 | ɾ | |
| ̡ | ԡԡ |
娢 娢ɹ Ш
Heine and Kuteva (92) ˤȡˤ괧 (indefinite article) ȯãƤϩɤäƤߤȡФФˤϰ̣ŪŪʴϢʳǧȤ
1An item serves as a nominal modifier denoting the numerical value 'one' (numeral).
2The item introduces a new participant presumed to be unknown to the hearer and this participant is then taken up as definite in subsequent discourse (presentative marker).
3The item presents a participant known to the speaker but presumed to be unknown to the hearer, irrespective of whether or not the participant is expected to come up as a major discourse participant (specific indefinite marker).
4The item presents a participant whose referential identity neither the hearer nor the speaker knows (nonspecific indefinite marker).
5The item can be expected to occur in all contexts and on all types of nouns except for a few contexts involving, for instance, definiteness marking, proper nouns, predicative clauses, etc. (generalized indefinite article).
Ѹ괧ȯãˤƤ⡤ΰϢʳ줿Τɤϡܺ٤ĴƤߤʤʬʤʤȤȯãγϤ1ʳŪΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ one ʸűѸ ān) ϤޤäȤϵʤ2--5γʳ¾ڤСʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ΰ (unidirectionality) ٻȤƼ夲뤳Ȥˤʤܤ٤ϡ餯ѸѸˤƤȤʤ˰㤤ʤ
Ϣơ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ⻲ȡ
Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.
ɸ¿αѸؽԤȤΤ뵿ǤϤʤǤ礦
ܲ khelfʷѸ˥եˤǤֱѸ˥ƥ50褬ŤƤޤ413Ϥơkhelf СˤѸ˥ƥĤ1ĤĸƤƤޤƥĸ khelf θĥå @khelf_keio ⤪Τ餻ƤޤΤǡҥեޥȤƤѤ
ơɸεˤĤ422˸줿ƥ#9. ʤ be going to ̤̣ΡҲ𤷤ޤ

ˡΥƥĤ heldio ǤޤƥĺԤȤ̤ȤǡѤʵäƤޤ#711. ʤ be going to ̤̣ΡȤۿƤޤҤİ
ƥĤǤǤƤ褦ˡɤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤѸ˸Ǥ˽פʳǰѸǤΤǡܤƤܥ֥Ǥ¿εǼ夲ƤΤǡĤƤߤޤ
#417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1])
#1972. Meillet ʸˡ([2014-09-20-1])
#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1])
#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1])
#3281. Hopper and Traugott ˤʸˡܼ ([2018-04-21-1])
#5124 Oxford Bibliographies ˤʸˡγס ([2023-05-08-1])
Ȥ櫓 be going to ˴ؤʸˡεȴϢơʲȡ
#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])
#3272. ʸˡ2ĤΥᥫ˥ ([2018-04-12-1])
#4844. ̤ɽȯѥ ([2022-08-01-1])
#3273. Lehman ˤʸˡμ١6 ([2018-04-13-1])
ʸˡ˴ؤȤƤϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ݺƻͺʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯˤǤ
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
ޤǤˡVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) YouTube ְʼδѸظإ̤ͥơʣˤ錄ءˤɸ (trademark linguistics) ˤĤ̤Ƥޤ
ΡVoicy
#667. ¤Ȥ --- ɸؤȤϲ329
#671. ¤Ȥ --- ɸεŪͻ42
#674. ¤Ȥ --- ɸŪˡ45
ΡYouTube
#112. ɸθ --- ¤о322
#114. ޥƤ뤳ȡƤʤȡƤȤϲ̣뤫 --- ޥμҲỤ̄ --- ¤μȡ329
#116. ǤϤʤɸ¤ؤڤǥץ45
#118 412ͽˤ³ʸ嵭2023/04/12(Wed)#118. ¤ꤹˡءɸ --- ѥˡؤء
ɸθؤȤΤϻˤȤäƤߤäΤǤ¤ŪäƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤϢʬ¿ΰ褬ȤȤ褯ʬޤ伫ȤδؿϱѸˡ˸ؤǤδͤƤ¿ޤפĤΤվǵƤߤޤ
ΰ̣ѲȤΥᥫ˥ࡥä , metonymy, synecdoche ʤɡ rhetoric Ȥɤ
ͭ̾ (onomastics) ̡̾ (personal_name)̾eponym ʤɡ餬ˤư̾βΤȤꡥ
ΰ̣ѡʲ˴ؤ벾ȤƤ "Onymic Reference Default Principle" (ORDP) ˤĤƤϡ#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1]) ȡ
(semiotics) ̤νꡥ
ħ (sound_symbolism) Ȳ (phonaesthesia)
դˤʸʸޥΡåΤ (cf. capitalisation)
ïȥ뤹ΤȤȻۤȸμҲŪꡥ츢 (linguistic_right) ײ (language_planning) Υơޡ
٤Ƥȥ꤬ʤǤ˾ɸθؤ¸ߤǰƬ֤ƤȻפޤ
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