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assertion - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2024-10-26 Sat

#5661. Ȥϲ [negation][polarity][negative][terminology][syntax][double_negative][logic][assertion][semantics]

ε#5670. ʤѸˤñʣζ̤Ρ --- Mond ǤμȲ ([2024-10-24-1]) ǡ (negation) Ǹ˽ФޤˤȤϲϤ礭Ǥؤůؤ뤳ȤǤޤǤϸؤδ˹ʤޤ
ؤѸ켭ŵ뤳ȤϤޤ礦ޤ Crystal (323--24) Ѥޤ

negation (n.) A process or construction in GRAMMATICAL and SEMANTIC analysis which typically expresses the contradiction of some or all of a sentence's meaning. In English grammar, it is expressed by the presence of the negative particle (neg, NEG) not or n't (the CONTRACTED negative); in LEXIS, there are several possible means, e.g. PREFIXES such as un-, non-, or words such as deny. Some LANGUAGES use more than one PARTICLE in a single CLAUSE to express negation (as in French ne . . . pas). The use of more than one negative form in the same clause (as in double negatives) is a characteristic of some English DIALECTS, e.g. I'm not unhappy (which is a STYLISTICALLY MARKED mode of assertion) and I've not done nothing (which is not acceptable in STANDARD English). . . .
   A topic of particular interest has been the range of sentence STRUCTURE affected by the position of a negative particle, e.g. I think John isn't coming v. I don't think John is coming: such variations in the SCOPE of negation affect the logical structure as well as the semantic analysis of the sentence. The opposite 'pole' to negative is POSITIVE (or AFFIRMATIVE), and the system of contrasts made by a language in this area is often referred to as POLARITY. Negative polarity items are those words or phrases which can appear only in a negative environment in a sentence, e.g. any in I haven't got any books. (cf. *I've got any books).


Bussmann (323) ѤޤؤˤФƸؤ򡤼Τ褦˲⤷Ƥޤ

In contrast with logical negation, natural language negation functions not only as sentence negation, but also primarily as clausal or constituent negation: she did not pay (= negation of predication), No one paid anything (= negation of the subject NP), he paid nothing (= negation of the object NP). Here the scope (= semantic coverage) of negation is frequently polysemic or dependent on the placement of negation, on the sentence stress . . . as well as on the linguistic and/or extralinguistic context. Natural language negation may be realized in various ways: (a) lexically with adverbs and adverbial expressions (not, never, by no means), indefinite pronouns (nobody, nothing, none), coordinating conjunctions (neither . . . nor), sentence equivalents (no), or prepositions (without, besides); (b) morphologically with prefixes (in + exact, un + interested) or suffix (help + less); (c) intonationally with contrastive accent (in Jacob is not flying to New York tomorrow the negation can refer to Jacob, flying, New York, or tomorrow depending which elements are stressed); (d) idiomatically by expressions like For all I care, . . . . Formally, three types of negation are differentiated: (a) internal (= strong) negation, the basic type of natural language negation (e.g. The King of France is not bald); (b) external (= weak) negation, which corresponds to logical negation (e.g. It's not the case/it's not true that p); (c) contrastive (= local) negation, which can also be considered a pragmatic variant of strong negation to the degree that stress and the corresponding modifying clause are relevant to the scope of the negation (e.g. The King of France is not bald, but rather wears glasses. The linguistic description of negation has proven to be a difficult problem in all grammatical models owing to the complex interrelationship of syntactic, prosodic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects.


2Ĥβ˴Ťơؤˤ˴ؤվȼΤ褦ˤʤǤ礦

1. μϰ
ʸ (sentence negation)
(clausal negation)
(constituent negation)
2. μ¸ͼ
Ū (lexically): 졤̾졤³졤ֻʤ
Ū (morphologically): Ƭ
Ū (intonationally): оȥ
Ū (idiomatically): ɽ
3. ηŪʬ
Ūʶ (internal/strong negation)
Ūʼ夤 (external/weak negation)
оŪʶɽŪ (contrastive/local negation)
4. κѰ (scope)
꼭ΰ֤ˤƶ
ʸˤƶ
ŪŪʸ̮ˤƶ
5. 2 (double negative)
ɸѸǤλ
ʸŪͭɸʹɽȤƤλ
6. (polarity)
(positive/affirmative) vs. (negative)

7. ˴ؤŪΧỤ̄ŪŪ¦̤ʣߴط
8. Ūΰ㤤

ΰϡʣ¿򼨤ƤޤƤꡤȴʤʤǤ

Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2023-06-27 Tue

#5174. ̾졦 [pronoun][personal_pronoun][generic][indefinite_pronoun][determiner][assertion][semantics][logic]

Ѹˤ̾ (indefinite_pronoun) (indefinite determiner) ȤηϤ롥 (indefinite) ȿФ (definite) Ǥ롥㤨п;̾졤Ƶ̾졤ͭ̾졤ؼ̾졤ƤȤ˵̾ˤŪǤǧ뤬̾ˤϤ줬ߤʤ̾졦ϡषŪ顤ŪǤ (quantitative) ȤȤ館Ƥ褤⤷ʤŪ (universal) ʬŪ (partitive) ȤǤ롥
Quirk et al. (6.45) ˼פ̾졦ΰɽ롥Ǻܤ褦ηŪǤϤ뤬ʤʤʣʸǤ뤳Ȥ狼



Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2022-01-21 Fri

#4652. any ֤ɤ?Ǥפɽ碌褦 either ϡ֤?Ǥפɽ碌 [pronoun][adjective][assertion][dual][logic][semantics][contronym]

Any child can do that. Ȥʸϡ֤ɤʻҶǤ⤽줬Ǥפΰդɽ路ޤ֤ϰۤʤޤŪʰ̣ȤƤ All children can do that. Ȥ褽ƱǤ
ʿŪ󤲤ޤEither way will do. Ȥʸϡ֤ΤǤ⤦ޤԤޤפΰդɽ路ޤ֤ϰۤʤޤŪʰ̣ȤƤ Both ways will do . Ȥ褽ƱǤ
ä2Ĥ either both ѤʸڥƱѤȤΤϡʤʤζäǤϤʤǤ礦ȤΤϡ䤿 either (A or B) both (A and B) еɽǤȿޤƤǤ2Ĥʸ̮ˤäƤϤषɽȤ٤ΤˤʤΤǤ
either ϡ̤ˤ2ĤΤΡ֤줫סҰפ̣򤵤Ƥޤ¤ϡ֤ΡǤʤ褤ˡפȤϢϡ֡ξǤäƤʤ褤ˡפβ᤬ޤؤȤǤСor ˤϡ¾Ū (exclusive disjunction) ȡ¾Ū (inclusive disjunction) ξ뤳ȤǤ礦
ȤȤǡ¿Υ˥奢󥹤ΰ㤤Ϥʤ⡤either both ǥѥե졼ǤƤޤΤǤ㤨С򻲾ȡ

Unfortunately I was sitting at the table with smokers on either side of me.
Unfortunately I was sitting at the table with smokers on both sides of me.

either vs both ΰ̣Ūĥطϡany vs all ζĥطȥѥǤԤ2ĤΤΤˤĤơԤ3İʾΤΤˤĤơȤ㤤Ǥ (cf. Quirk et al. 6.61ˡСԤϰ̣Ūξп (dual) äƤȤȤǤ
οƥ꡼νפʥСäξϡѸˤⲽŪʷǤϤޤ꡹˺פĤƤޤboth, either, neither, other, whether ʤ -er ĤΤ¿Ǥ (cf. #3005. or θ츻 ([2017-07-19-1]))

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-01-23-1]

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2018-12-14 Fri

#3518. ȵʸζᤵ [conditional][word_order][syntax][assertion][construction_grammar]

ε#3517. if Ȥ鷺 V + S Ȥ ([2018-12-13-1]) ǡV + S ξưŵŪ³ˡˤȯãˤĤƼꤢѸǺǤ̤ V + S θȤΤϵʸǤ롥Ȥȡȵʸδ֤˲餫ΤʤΤȤ䤬ͯˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦
ȵʸϡΤ˶ᤤطˤ롥ޤܵƳ³ if Ѥ뤳ȤפHe asked if I liked Chinese food. ϻȿҤͤפ Let me know if she is coming 뤫Τ餻ƤפʤɡԤǤ if ?ɤפ̾ƳΤ?ʤСפƳΤʸ̮˱ưۤʤȤξŪޤˤξ־פȡֵפȤʤΤǤ롥ܸ˸뷸֤פ⡤ŵŪ˵ɽ魯Ȥա
̣Ū뤤ŪˤС⵿ʸ "nonassertive" ǤȤǶ̤Ƥ롥Ĥޤꡤ̿ˤĤꤷƤʤȤȤǤ롥̿Ȥ̤βǽްդȤǡ"alternative possible worlds" ȤƤȸƤ褤ξԤۤʤΤϡϤǤϲȯù԰٤ˤʤʤʸǤϤǡֵ䡦פȤȯù԰٤Ȥʤ뤳ȤĤǤˤСִ˾פ̿ɽ魯֤ޤäƤʤȤȤΤ nonassertion Τ⤦1ĤŵǤ롥may ʸʤɤñȤǡִ˾פȯù԰٤Ȥʤǵʸȶ̤롥
Τ褦˹ͤƤȡʤ᤬ʸƱͤ V + S θȤΤܤʤξԤƤΤǤϤʤεǤ⼨̤ꡤֵס³ˡסִ˾ס־פȤɤϸߤ˥󥯤Ƥ褦
(non)assertion ˤĤƤϡ#679. assertion and nonassertion (1) ([2011-03-07-1])#680. assertion and nonassertion (2) ([2011-03-08-1])#950. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (3) ([2011-12-03-1]) ε򻲾Ȥ줿

Leuschner, Torsten and Daan Van den Nest. "Asynchronous Grammaticalization: V1-Conditionals in Present-Day English and German." Languages in Contrast 15 (2015): 34--63.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-15-1]

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2011-12-03 Sat

#950. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (3) [negative][syntax][subjunctive][assertion][expletive]

[2011-12-01-1], [2011-12-02-1]εǵƤɽ never so (= ever so) ³롥
never so ever so ۤƱǤȤȤϰ츫򤷤nonassertion ̣ŪĶǤϡΩ¤뤳Ȥ nonassertion ˤĤƤ[2011-03-07-1][2011-03-08-1]ε򻲾ȡˡ㤨СQuirk et al. (Section 8.112 [p. 601]) ϼΤ褦˸ڤʸ󤲤Ƥ롥

In nonassertive clauses ever (with some retention of temporal meaning) can replace never as minimizer; this is common, for instance, in rhetorical questions:

Will they (n)ever stop talking? Won't they ever learn? (*Won't they never learn?)
I wondered if the train would (n)ever arrive.


Ǹʸˤ褦ˡư wonder ³ if ǤϡΩ¤뤳Ȥ¿⤬Ū˹ǤʸΤδްդŪǤйδްդȤ⤵뤬̣κƱȤʤwonder ϡ֤褯狼ʤפްդΤǤ뤫顤ɤΤȤ³ ifwhether nonassertion ӤӤȤȤ

He was beginning to wonder whether Gertrud was (not) there at all.
He's starting to wonder whether he did (not) the right thing in accepting this job.
I wonder if he is (not) over fifty.
I wonder if I'll (not) recognize him after all these years.
I wonder whether it was (not) wise to let her travel alone.


ǡbe it never so humble be it ever so humble ȤƤˡǤ뤫顤nonassertion ӤӤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤŪˤϡ֤ɤʤˤߤܤ餷ȤפȤΰ̣бΤ be it ever so humble ȤɽܸǤ֤ɤʤˤߤܤ餷ʤפɽղä뤳ȤǤ褦ˡѸǤ or never εղä줿ȤƤԻ׵ĤϤʤѸǤϡor ˤŪ꤬ղäȤϡˤäƹִ꤬줿̤Ȥ be it never so humble ΤǤϤʤ
Сnever Ƭ n(e)- ϡ̣ (expletive) ȸƤФƤΤ˶ᤤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2011-03-08 Tue

#680. assertion and nonassertion (2) [syntax][negative][assertion]

ε[2011-03-07-1]˰³ʿʸ ( assertion ) ȡʸӵʸ ( nonassertion ) ΩˤĤơnonassertion ˤϡʿʸ ( "He isn't honest." ) 굿ʸ ( "Is he honest?" ) 굿ʸ ( "Isn't he honest?" ) 3Ūʸ뤬δطϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤСnonassertion ϤɤΤ褦ηϤʤƤΤ3Ԥδطˤ3̤꤬ͤ줽Ǥ롥

(1) nonassertion = negative-statement and positive-question and negative-question
(2) nonassertion = ( ( negative and positive ) -question ) and negative-statement
(3) nonassertion = ( negative- ( statement and question ) ) and positive-question

ɤ褬äȤ⥹ޡȤͤäơ󤷤 some / any sometimes / ever ʤɤ assertive form nonassertive form ΥڥפФ㤨 somebody anybody ͤʬ뤬ϢȤ nobody פ⤫֤ϤǤ롥Ʊͤ sometimes / ever never ۵롥θϡ2줫ʤΩǤϤʤ3줫ʤط򼨺ΤǤ롥ɽǼȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

assertive formssomesomebodysomethingsometimes
nonassertive formsanyanybodyanythingever
negative formsnonobodynothingnever


ǿо줷3ܤ nobody never Τ褦 negative form ϡʿʸ˸Ǥʤ굿ʸˤ⸽ ( ex. "Have you never been to London?" ) ʤ굿ʸˤϸʤʬۤθȡ3Τ (3) ѤΤäȤ⥹ޡȤȤȤˤʤ롥(3) ѤƤ Quirk et al. (1975, p. 84) ͿƤ޼ѤΤ򼨤ʻͤޤǤ Quirk et al. (1972, p. 54) Ǥ (2) Ƥ

Nonassertion

εκǽ˼ 2 x 2 ñɽ٤ƿʬʣˤʤäassertion Ȥڤˤäơsome, any, no ʬۤʤɡ¿θݤǤ褦ˤʤä

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.

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2011-03-07 Mon

#679. assertion and nonassertion (1) [syntax][negative][assertion]

Ѹʸ ( sentence ) ˤϡʸ ( positive ) ʸ ( negative ) ʿʸ ( statement ) ȵʸ ( question ) Ȥ2ȤδŪΩ롥"He is honest." ȤʿʸˤȤȡ鼡Τ褦 2 x 2 ʸ롥

 statementquestion
positiveHe is honest.Is he honest?
negativeHe isn't honest.Isn't he honest?


ʬϡ2ȤΩˤ꤭줤ˤޤȤ졤򺹤;ϤϤʤ褦˸롥4Ĥʸʬहˡ¾ˤ⤢ꡤʬѤȿθ롥礲ˤбѸѤΰüָ뤳ȤǤ롥
ϡassertion nonassertion Ȥ̤ΩƳˤäƲǽˤʤ (Quirk et al. 53--54) Ωˤȡʸ "He is honest." assertive Ȥʤꡤ3ĤʸϤ nonassertive Ȥʤ롥ʿʸǤ 'He is honest' Ȥ꤬̿ꤵƤ뤬ʸ䵿ʸǤϤ꤬̿ꤵ뤫դ뤫ǡˤƤϤƤʤassertion ȤˤäơʿʸȤʳȤ礭ʬ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǡ嵭 2 x 2 ɽؤäƼΤ褦ʿ޼롥

              +----- assertion ( "He is honest." ) 
              |
sentence -----+                        +----- negative ( "He isn't honest." )
              |                        |
              +----- nonassertion -----+
                                       |
                                       +----- question ( "Isn't he honest?" )


nonassertion ʸ assertion ʸ̿δ֤ǤʤŪˤ operator ʤʸξˤ be ư is ˤο񤤤ѲȤǤ֤롥ˡassertion / nonassertion ΩϡʲΰϢбʬۤ롥some / any, somebody / anybody, something / anything, sometimes / ever, already / yet ƥڥθǡ ( assertive form ) ϤäѤʿʸ˸졤ʸ䵿ʸˤϤäѤ ( nonassertive form ) Ѥ롥
Τ褦ˡassertion ȤƳ뤳ȤǡѸιʸ˴ؤ뿷θ뤳Ȥʬ뤬1꤬ĤƤ롥굿ʸ "Isn't he honest?" οޤΤɤ˼ޤΤȤǤ롥굿ʸ nonassertion ˴ޤޤ뤳ȤϡŪˤ⡤Ūˤ⡤ޤ nonassertive form иǽǤǤ⡤ְ㤤ʤǤϡޤǼ negative question Ʊ֤Τ褤Τ뤤ϡnegative question Τ줫˶ӤĤƤꡤ˱ƳزפɬפΤˤĤƤεǡ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.

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