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semantics - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2014-10-08 Wed

#1990. ͡ʼΰ̣ [semantics][pragmatics][derivation][inflection][word_formation][idiom][suffix]

#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) ǿ줿Stern ͡ʼΰ̣̤Ƥ롥2ΩǤ狼䤹ΰ̣˴Ūʻ󶡤ΤȤɾǤ롥ΤʤǤŪʴˤȤΰ̣ζ̤򲼤󤷤褦 (Stern 68--87)

(1) actual vs lexical meaning. ԤϼºݤȯäΤʤΰ̣򡤸Ԥϸʤˤʸ̮Ω֤ñΤȤƤỊ̇򤵤ԤϼŪʰ̣Ȥ⤤ʸˡʸȤƤʸΰ̣⡤ʸ̮ΩƤȤǡlexical meaning ह롥̾̣ϼºݤȯäΤʤˤƸΤǤꡤñΤǸΤϾ嵭Τ褦˼ʸˡʤɸؤ˴ؤ̤򤪤Ƥۤˤʤactual meaning (definiteness) Ĥlexical meaning (indefinite) Ǥ롥

(2) general vs particular meaning. 㤨 The dog is a domestic animal. μϽŪŪʰ̣ĤThat dog is mad. μϸ̤ΰ̣ġ٤Ƥ̾ϡΤ褦˼ɽ魯ŪˡȸΤɽ魯Ūˡġ̾Ȥϼ㴳ϰۤʤ뤬ƻưˤƱζ̤롥

(3) specialised vs referential meaning. λؼоݤĤͭȤüԤϤ1Ĥ뤤ϤĤ˾Ƥʤ餽θѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨 He was a man, take him for all in all. Ȥʸˤ man ϡƻŪäƤΤȤ򤵤Ƥ롥Τ褦ʻؼλʤȤѤƤ specialised meaning ͭƤȤߤʤ롥He had an army of ten thousand men. ȤȤ men ϡơθäƤꡤޤǻؼŪʰ̣ (referential meaning) ͭˤʤ̩ˤϡreferential meaning specialised meaning ΩȤϡüʸ1ĤȤȤ館٤ particular meaning ܹ specialised meaning ϺƱ䤹particular meaning ϸλؼоݤϰϤθȤơspecialised meaning ϸΰ̣ϰϤθȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥

(4) tied vs contingent meaning. ԤϸȸŪʸ̮ˤؼоݤꤹΰ̣ǤꡤԤϤǤϻؼоݤꤻüԤ䤽¾ξθʤФʤʤΰ̣Ǥ롥Ԥϰ̣Ūʰ̣ԤϸŪʰ̣ȤäƤ褤

(5) basic vs relational meaning. 줬ָ촴פäƤ硤촴ΰ̣ basicΰ̣ relational Ȥ롥㤨Сƥ lupi ϡϵȤỤ̄ͭ촴 lup- ñ°ʤȤطỤ̄ (syntactical relational meaning) ͭ -i ʤ롥طỤ̄ˤäɽ蘆Ȥϸ¤餺촴첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ˤäɽ蘆줿 (ex. ring -- rang -- rung) ˤäɽ蘆줿 (ex. Jack beats Jill. vs Jill beats Jack.) ⤹СˤäƤɽ蘆ʤȤ⤢롥طỤ̄ (derivational relational meaning) ϡ㤨 like -- liken -- likeness Υ꡼ˤߤ褦 -en -ness ˤäɽ蘆Ƥ롥绨ĤˤäơطỤ̄طỤ̄ϡ줾ܼܼбȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥

(6) word- vs phrase-meaning. δѶ (idiom) 䴷Ūʸ (ex. How do you do?) פ⤫٤Ф狼褦ˡΰ̣ϡФФʣñΰ̣¤ˤϤʤʤ

(7) autosemantic vs synsemantic meaning. ʹ˥᡼򴭵տޤȯɽŵŪˤʸ̾ˤϡautosemantic meaning ĤȤ롥ֻ졤³졤ƻ졤ưη (ex. goes, stands, be, doing) °ᡤгʤ̾졤ʣγǤ synsemantic meaning ĤȤ롥

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-09-21 Sun

#1973. Meillet ΰ̣Ѳ3Ĥθ [semantic_change][semantics][register]

ε#1972. Meillet ʸˡ([2014-09-20-1]) ǰѤ Meillet ϡʸˡΤߤʤ餺ΰ̣ѲˤĤƤפʹͻäƤ롥#1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1]) ʬŪ˿줿褦ˡä˰̣ѲθˤĤơޤȤޤäҤĤƤ롥
Meillet ˤС̣ѲΰŪˤϡŪŪҲŪ3郎̤롥ϸߤˤۤȤɴϢȤʤᡤΤ˶̤٤Ƥ롥ޤϡŬϰϤζȤŪ顥

Quelques changements, en nombre assez restreint du reste, procèdent de conditions proprement linguistiques : ils proviennent de la structure de certaines phrases, où tel mot paraît jouer un rôle spécial. (239)


°ΤϡʸˡλʤɤǤ롥ե󥹸 homme, chose, pas, rien, personne ʤɤˤơŪʰ̣ŪʸˡŪʰ̣ؤѲ㤬󤲤Ƥ롥2ĤϡŪǤ롥

Un second type de changements de sens est celui où les choses exprimées par les mots viennent à changer. (241)


ϻؼоݤ뤤ϥΤŪѲ˰¸ΰ̣ѲǤ롥#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) ǤСǽ˵󤲤Ƥ (substitution) 롥ե󥹸 plume ʥڥˤϡĤƤŴɮؼڥؼ褦ˤʤäȤ㤬󤲤Ƥ롥̾ѤʤѤȯŸʤɤˤꤽ줬ؤΤѤäŵŪˤߤ̣ѲǤ롥3ĤϼҲŪǤ롥

... la répartition des hommes de même langue en groupes distincts: c'est de cette hétérogénéité des hommes de même langue que procèdent le plus grand nombre des changements de sens, et sans doute tous ceux qui ne s'expliquent pas par les causes précitées. (243--44)


Meillet ϤμҲŪʸǤפװǤȹͤƤꡤ䤤Ƥ롥1ĤθΰۤʤѼˤƤϡ줾üԽĤͭ register ˺̤줿Ѥȯã롥ŪѼˤƤ̣äѤƤ줬ü첽Ѽˤ̤ΰ̣äѤ뤳Ȥϡ̤˸롥ȺԽĤα졤ȽĤ¯졤罸ĤνѸʤɤǤ롥ѼȯѼ֤ζۤƱ褹С̤ȤƤθΰ̣Ѳʤ뤤¿ˤȤˤʤ롥
̣Ѳ3θ¿󤲤ǡMeillet ϼΤ褦᤯äƤ롥

Ces exemples, où l'on a remarqué seulement les plus gros faits et les plus généraux, permettent de se faire une idée de la manière dont les faits linguistiques, les faits historiques et les faits sociaux s'unissent, agissent et réagissent pour transformer le sens des mots; on voit que, partout, le moment essentiel est le passage d'un mot de la langue générale à une langue particulière, ou le fait inverse, ou tous les deux, et que, par suite, les changements de sens doivent être considérés comme ayant pour condition principale la différenciation des éléments qui constituent les sociétés. (271)


ٳؤΤƼҲŪΩ줬ɽƤȤ

Meillet, Antoine. "Comment les mots changent de sens." Année sociologique 9 (1906). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1958. 230--71.

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2014-09-17 Wed

#1969. ΰ̣ʬʬϤ [componential_analysis][semantics][semantic_field][pragmatics][cognitive_linguistics][prototype]

ε#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1]) Ƴ componential_analysis ˤϡŪطŪŪ¤򥹥ޡȤķкŪ˵ҤǤȤ뤬Ūˤ¿ʲȽäƤ Bolinger ˼Ȥư͵򤷤ʤ顤󤲤롥

(1) ŪʬʬϤǽʰ̣ϸ¤ƤꡤʬθäˤϤޤŬѤǤʤΤǤϤʤȤ䤬롥 bachelor, spinster, woman, wife ʤɤ˴ؤ̣ˤߤγǰŪطɽˤϡ[MALE], [FEMALE], [UNMARRIED], [MARRIED] ʤкŪˤ [MALE], [MARRIED]ˤʤŪʬѤкѤࡥƱͤˡ²̾ (kinship terms) ʤĤ줿̣Ǥϡ̤˸ϤȯƤΰ̣ϤäȳƤ뤷Τʤθôط򾯿ʬǡݡºݤˤ¿ʬäƤƤŪΤʬϤΤ϶ˤƺǤ롥㤨Сbird ΰ̣ˤơsparrow, penguin, ostrich ϡ줾ɤΤ褦ʬʬϤиߤδط򥹥ޡȤ˼̸ bird [+CAN FLY] ǧʤС̸ penguin Ϥʬ򥭥󥻥뤷 [-CAN FLY] ȤʤФʤʤޤ̤β̸ ostrich Τ [CAN RUN FAST] ʤɤȤʬǧ٤ʤɤȤ뤫⤷ʤ

(2) 1Ĥθ¿ɤΤ褦ɽ뤫Ȥ꤬롥bachelor ˤϡȿ˻ҡפΤۤˤ⡤ּ㤤ΡסֳػΡסΤʤåȥפθ⤢롥Ū˵ҤˡϤBolinger (557) ϡKatz and Fodor ʬϤƼƤ롥

Componential Analysis of

Katz and Fodor ϡ(Human), (Animal) ʤɤΤäդǼ̣ʬ "marker" ȸƤӡ[who has never married] ʤɤγѤäդǼ롤θ˸ͭΰ̣ʬ "distinguisher" ȸƤǶ̤distinguisher ϡͭðۤǤȤƤʾʬϤ뤳ȤΤǤʤǤȤƤΤǡɤΤȤʬʬϤDzڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤǧƤޤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롪ˡɤΥ٥ޤǤ marker ǡɤΥ٥뤫餬 distinguisher ˤĤƵҴŪ뤳Ȥ񤷤㤨Сּ㤤ΡפȡΤʤåȥפϡȤˡּ㤤פȤ̣ʬͭƤȹͤΤǡ(Young) Ȥ marker 򤯤ФȤǽǤ롥ºݡKatz and Fodor ϼΤ褦ʬʬϤƤȤƽФƤ (Bolinger 559)

Componential Analysis of

ʤȡɤޤǤ marker 䤷Ƥdistinguisher 򲼤زؤɤ뤳ȤǽȤʤäƤ롥㤨Сּ㤤ΡפȡֳػΡפϤ줾쵳٤ȳذ٤Τʤǡ㤤̡פΰ̣ʬͭƤΤǡ(Hierarchic), (Inferior) ʤɤ marker ꤹ뤳ȤǤȤ⤤롥Ⱦж marker 䤷Ƥȡ㤨 Bolinger (563) Ƚ˼Ƥ褦ˡΤ褦ʤФʬϤǽȤʤäƤ롥

Componential Analysis of

distinguisher ʬ򹭤ʬʬϤμˡΤΤβͤ뤷marker 䤷ƤСΤ褦ˤФ̤ˤʤäƤޤ

(3) "Henry became a bachelor in 1965." Ȥʸ bachelor θϡֳػΡװʳˤϤꤨʤȤüԤΤäƤ롥֡ʰ٤뺧ȤΤʤȿ˻ҡפˤʤʥơѤˤȤϤǤʤ1965ǯˤϵ٤ϤʤäHenry Ͽʹ֤顤¾θϼưŪӽ롥Ȥ櫓1965ǯ˵٤ϤʤäȤɴʻŵŪμϡ̣ʬȤळȤŬΤ褦˻פ롥semantics pragmatics ζܡŪμɴʻŵŪμζܤȤˤʤäƤ뤬Katz and Fodor ʤʬʬϤٻ̣ԤϤ̤ȤǤʤ

(4) ʬʬϤǤϡʬ̵ͭץ饹ޥʥȤΩפˤƤꡤ١Ϣ³Ρ濴ȼաץȥ (prototype) ȤäǰळȤǤʤޤʬʬϤϤޤŪʬϤʤΤǡȤʤɰ̣ưŪʲ򰷤ȤǤʤʤʤΤˡKatz and Fodor ϡװ̣ɸ֤뤳ȤǤΤ

嵭ϡо줷ǧΰ̣ˤäƲλͿƤ椯ȤϤʬʬϤΤĵҤΥޡȤȷкϡ礭̥ϤǤ³Ƥ롥ΰ̣Τ٤Ƥʬ«Ȥɽ뤳ȤϺȤƤ⡤ΰ̣ˤƴϢäȤΰƱطȤŪˤƤϡϤȯʬϤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ

Bolinger, D. "The Atomization of Meaning." Language 41 (1965): 555--73.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-27-1]

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2014-09-16 Tue

#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬ [componential_analysis][semantics][antonymy][hyponymy][syntax]

Ūʰ̣Ǥϡΰ̣򡤰̣ʬ뤤ϰ̣θ (semantic components or primitives) ؤʬ򤹤ʬʬ (componential_analysis) μˡΤƤϡˤֲǤ«ǤפȤͤΰ̣ˤѤΤǤ롥
̣ʬϡǤˤƱͤˡѳ̤ˤäɽʤФ + - դΩȤɽ蘆뤬ʲǤϤĤƤʤˡȤơȿ˻Ҥɽ魯 bachelor ʬʬϤ򼨤

bachelor [MALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED]


Ǥϡbachelor γǰỤ̄4ĤʬȤ߹碌ȤƼƤ롥Ȥ߹碌ʤ bachelor ΤΤǤȲ᤹ΤפǤ롥षȤ߹碌ˤäƴϢ¾θȤθỤ̄ŪطΤˤʤȤǡʬʬϤͭѤʤΤǤ롥㤨СȿȽɽ魯 spinster ϡΤ褦ʬʬϤ

spinster [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED]


4ĤʬȤ߹碌 spinster ΤΤǤȤϡbachelor ʬʬϤӤȤߴطΤˤʤȤ礭ʤbachelor spinster ϤȤ [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED] ȤǤ϶̤뤬[MALE] [FEMALE] 1ˤ㤤ˤäơΤȤеطȤʤ뤳ȤƤ롥spinster ȴϢơwoman wife ʬʬϤ⼨

woman [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN]
wife [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [MARRIED]


spinster woman ϡԤ [UNMARRIED] ȤʬͿʤȤ1ˤưۤʤäƤꡤΤȤԤԤξ̸ (hypernym) Ǥ뤳ȤȽ롥ޤspinster wife δطˤĤƤϡ[UNMARRIED] [MARRIED] Ȥ1ˤΩ򼨤еȤȤˤʤ롥ˡ*The man is a wife. ΰ̣Ū̷⡤줬 [MALE] ʬޤǤΤˡҸƤʤ [FEMALE] ʬޤǤ뤳ȤˤǤ롥ʬʬϤκŦȡäˤȿдط (antonymy)ݴط (hyponymy)̷طʤɳƼδطŪɽǤ褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥ۤˤ⡤ʬʬϤϡŪŪ (selection restriction) εҤˤϤȯʤɡͭǧƤ롥
Katz Fodor ʤɤ̣ԤϡʬʬϤιͤȯŸơ㤨С#1801. homonymy polysemy ζ ([2014-04-02-1]) 褦ʬϤʤ᤿ɤޤǤ⥢ꥹȥƥ쥹Ūʬˡǰ̣򰷤ȤʬʬϤμˡˤϡǰȽƤŪ񤷤꤬ŦƤ⤤뤬̣ʬϤͭϤˡ1ĤȤơޤ˱ƶϤ򼺤äƤʤ
ʾ塤Saeed (259--66) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2014-09-13 Sat

#1965. Ūʸ [lexicology][glottochronology][semantics][lexeme][componential_analysis]

Ρ#1961. ܥ٥ ([2014-09-09-1]) εǡܸä뤤ϴøä夲ȤˡSwadesh Ƥøä˸ڤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ǵ󤲤100줫ʤ basic vocabulary ΤȤǤꡤ̸ŪŪʴøäǤȾƤ롥Ƚ¿Ӹؤ˸ؤǤ core vocabulary ˴ؤƶϤΤƤ1ĤǧƤ롥
core vocabulary Ʊꤹ⤦1ĤλߤȤơWierzbicka Goddard Ƥ롥Swadesh ƤӸؤפȤƤΤФWierzbicka Ƥϰ̣פȤƤ롥̣ˤϡ礦ɲˤŪꤵΤƱͤˡŪʰ̣θ (semantic primes) ϤȹͤƱꤷ褦Ȥ롥ϡ̣ʬʬ (componential_analysis) αĹˤ롥褷ƤȤϤʤ̣Υץߥƥɵ᤹Ȥ̥ŪʷײˤϡޤǤ¿θԤäƤGoddard ⤳ηײ̥줿1ͤǤꡤ̿äƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤCliff Goddard ("Lexico-Semantic Universals: A Critical overview." Linguistic Typology 5.1 (2001): 1--65. p. 3) Ѥ Saeed (78) ˡ

Natural Semantic Metalanguage
. . . a 'meaning' of an expression will be regarded as a paraphrase, framed in semantically simpler terms than the original expression, which is substitutable without change of meaning into all contexts in which the original expression can be used . . . The postulate implies the existence, in all languages, of a finite set of indefinable expressions (words, bound morphemes, phrasemes). The meanings of these indefinable expressions, which represent the terminal elements of language-internal semantic analysis, are known as 'semantic primes'.


ŪˤϡWierzbicka Goddard ˤꡤ60줬 "universal semantic primes" ȤƤƤSaeed 79ˡθäĴǤȴ줿ԤθǤȤ롥

Substantives:I, you, someone/person, something, body
Determiners:this, the same, other
Quantifiers:one, two, some, all, many/much
Evaluators:good, bad
Descriptors:big, small
Mental predicates:think, know, want, feel, see, hear
Speech:say, word, true
Actions, events, movement:do, happen, move, touch
Existence and possession:is, have
Life and death:live, die
Time:when/time, now, before, after, a long time, a short time, for some time, moment
Space:where/place, here, above, below
'Logical' concepts:not, maybe, can, because, if
Intensifier, augmentor:very, more
Taxonomy:kind (of), part (of)
Similarity:like


̣θǤƱꤹȤȤϰΥ᥿졤ŪʸĤȤˤĤʤ뤬Wierzbicka Goddard Ϥ򤢤ƼθǤбƼȤǤäåꥹȤϡäơøäΥꥹȤȤϡŪʰ̣θǤȿǤǤΥꥹȤȤƤ줿ΤǤ롥

Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2014-09-10 Wed

#1962. ǰ [lexicology][semantics][hyponymy][terminology][semantic_field][cognitive_linguistics]

ε#1961. ܥ٥ ([2014-09-09-1]) ǡǰ (conceptual hierarchy) 뤤ݴط (hyponymy) ȤѸФԤݴطϸŪʴطǰƬˤǤꡤֲȶפȡ֤פǹͤСֲȶפϡ֤פξ̸ (hypernym) ǤȤ졤֤פϡֲȶפβ̸ (hyponym) ǤȤ롥Ԥǰϳǰ֤δطǰƬˤǤꡤ̤Ȳ̤δطŤˤ⹭ꡤʥͥåȥŸƤȤȤ館롥
ǰؤ򤹤ϡŪˤ̣ (semantic_field) 夲ط޼ƤߤΤ褤ʪؤˤ볦 (kingdom) (phylum or division) (class) (order) (family)° (genus) (species) ʬޤϤ褯Τ줿ǰؤǤ뤷Ӹؤη (family_tree) ⤽ΰǤ롥ʲǤ (17) ˵󤲤Ƥֲܸȶפΰ̣ˤ복ǰؤȡѸ COOKưˤΰ̣ˤ복ǰؤ򼨤

Conceptual Hierarchy of Japanese

Conceptual Hierarchy of English

ֲȶפˤĤơӡϤȡη¤ϤȤΡɤ뤬Ϥʲʬब˴ŤΤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤̣˱ƤѤĿͤˤäƤۤʤǽΤǡοޤ1ĤΥǥȹͤ
˵Ť褦ˡǰؤϸóؽˤΩġ嵭 COOK ưFURNITURE, FRUIT, VEHICLE, WEAPON, VEGETABLE, TOOL, BIRD, SPORT, TOY, CLOTHING ʤɤ̾γǰؤƤߤٶˤʤꤽ

ԡˡذ̣١īҽŹ2012ǯ

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2014-09-09 Tue

#1961. ܥ٥ [lexicology][semantics][cognitive_linguistics][prototype][glottochronology][basic_english][hyponymy][terminology][semantic_field]

ε#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1]) κǸǡָóؤϡʸŪҿ㤵١̣ˡιȤäشطˤפȽҤ٤ؤǤϡФСִŪʸáפˤʤ뤬äƴŪȤ뤫ˤĤƤ͡Ω줬롥ľŪˤϡŪʸäȤϡŪѤ졤٤ǡҶˤ˽äǤȺѤޤ뤳ȤǤΤˤ礭ƤʤȻפɤޤǤܸäǧ뤫Ȥ䡤̸줴Ȥ˰ۤʤΤʤΤ뤤̸Ūˤ٤ŪʤΤʤΤȤ⤢ꡤפ褦񤷤ơޤǤ롥㤨СػŪˤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) 󾧤 Swadesh ֻøäФơȽä줿Ȥ⤢äŪŪǾ줿 Basic English (cf. #960. Basic English ([2011-12-13-1])#1705. Basic English ǽ񤫤줿ä ([2013-12-27-1])) ȤδܸäˤĤƤ⡤ǰܤ줿Ȥä
ŪʸäȤȤǤ⤦1۵Τϡǧΰ̣ǤФм夲ܥ٥ (Basic Level Category) Ǥ롥Ūʴط1Ĥˡǰ (conceptual hierarchy) 뤤ݴط (hyponymy) ȤΤ롥㤨СֲȶפȤ̣ (semantic_field) ͤƤߤ롥ֲȶפȤŪʥƥ꡼βˡ֤פִפΥƥ꡼ꡤ줾βˡɪݤס֥ǥåפٶס֥ѥǥפʤɤ롥˾ˤⲼˤ⡤Ʋˤ⤳Τ褦ʸôطäƤꡤֲȶפΰ̣˵ʸåͥåȥŸƤȤΤ̣ιͤǡֲȶס֤סɪݤפȤ3ʳݴطˤĤܤȡǤ̤Υ٥ϿΡ֤פȹͤ롥֤ä줿顤˺¤ꤿʡפֲ̤ȶ˺¤ꤿʡפŪƤ뤷ɪݤ˺¤ꤿʡפ̾ʸ̮ǤԼ˺٤롥֤פȤ٥뤬ŪŪ礦ɤ褤٥ȤФ롥Ǥϡ֤פ Basic Level Category ƤȤ롥
Ǥϡ Basic Level Category ϲˤäƷޤΤTaylor (52) ϡץȥθ Rosch ˰͵򤷤ʤ顤Τ褦ʵǽŪٻƤ롥

Rosch argues that it is the basic level categories that most fully exploit the real-world correlation of attributes. Basic level terms cut up reality into maximally informative categories. The basic level, therefore, is the level in a categorization hierarchy at which the 'best' categories can emerge. More precisely, Rosch hypothesizes that basic level categories both

   (a) maximize the number of attributes shared by members of the category;
and
   (b) minimize the number of attributes shared with members of other categories.


֤פϡ۲͡ʼΤ㤨Сɪݤפ֥ǥåפ¿ζ̤ (a) ˤʤޤ֤פϡִפ͡ʼδ㤨Сٶפ֥ѥǥפȶͭϾʤΤǡ(b) ˤʤϡ֤פ濴ˤƹͤƱ褦ˡֲȶפ뤤ϡɪݤפ濴˹ͤ (a) (b) ˤʤɤ򸡺Ƥߤȡ֤פۤɤˤξʤ
Basic Level Category θäϡǧŪ˽פȹͤƤ롥ޤŪ˺Ǥ褯Ȥ졤Ҷˤäƺǽ˽졤ͤǤ®ȿ뤳ȤΤƤ롥δäȤ
ܸä̤θˤĤƤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1])#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿

Taylor, John R. Linguistic Categorization. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2003.

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2014-09-08 Mon

#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ [register][lexicology][loan_word][latin][french][greek][semantics][polysemy][lexical_stratification]

ѸäħŪع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ʤɤεǤߤƤع¤ȤɽΤϡ岼طȳؤΤӥΤ褦ʷʪΥ᡼⤷ʤӥȤϡĺԥߥåɤΤ褦ʷۤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ顤ι㳬ؤá䶹ޤä泬ؤΥե󥹸áⳬؤΥƥ󡦥ꥷäȤ᡼
ԥߥåɤȤŬڤʤΤϡ1ĤˤϡⳬؤΥƥ󡦥ꥷäΤøŪϰ̤Ȱҿ褯Ƥ뤫ҲŪʸŪ¾ݤݥˤĤƤ뤳Ȥϡӥ뷿ԥߥåɷΤۤ褯ɽǤ롥
2ܤȤơ줾θä٤ԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤȤɽǤ뤫Ǥ롥ε#1959. ʸػˤʸػˤˤפԤѤäˤγ ([2014-09-07-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäդΤߤʤ餺񤭸դˤƤ⡤ä٤¾ݤƤʤʤʬۤϡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡܸˤƤƱͤäˡоŪˡⳬؤθä٤㤤ġθˤĤƤȿ⤢ŪʷȤƤϡƳؤ٤ѤȤб롥äȤ⡤Ƴؤθ̡ʰۤʤˤȤȤǤСɬ⤽줬ԥߥåɤѤб櫓Ǥʤ100cf. #309. Ѹδܸ100εȳ ([2010-03-02-1]) Ⱥ600cf. #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ ([2009-11-15-1])ˤǸ¤ꡤ̤ѤϤ褽бƤ뤬10000Ȥ٥Ĵȡ#429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ ([2010-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤƤ3ؤξ岼ط롥
ԥߥåɤȤͭȹͤ3ܤͳϡԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤ٤Τߤʤ餺ΤỊ̇ˡιˤбƤ뤫ŪܶǤ٤⤤ФǤʤ¿Ǥꡤˡ¿ˤ錄롥ŪʸƱͿפǤ⡤ give Ūʸ¿ˤ¿ƥѸ donate ϸꤵƤ롥ޤgive ʸȤ SVOiOd SVOd to Oi 뤳ȤǤʤʤ dative shift ǽˤdonate ϸԤʸƤʤۤˤϡ#112. ե󥹡ƥѸȲˡߡ ([2009-08-17-1]) Ǽ褦ˡóؤŪʿ񤤤˴ͿƤȵ륱롥
3δ顤Hughes (43) ϡΤ褦ʥԥߥåɹ¤

Pyramid of English Lexicon

嵭3Τۤˤ⡤ƳؤѤȸ򤷤䤹 (comprehensibility) طƤȤ⤢롥ɤΤȤóؤϡʸŪҿ㤵١̣ˡιȤäشطˤȤȤԥߥåɤȤϹߤǤ롥

Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

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2014-09-06 Sat

#1958. Hughes θ [register][semantics][lexicology][purism][semantic_field]

Ѱ (register) ˤäỌ̇̄ιˤĤơ#611. Murray θ ([2010-12-29-1]) Ǹǿ޼褦ˡCOMMON (meaning) 濴ˡLITERARY, FOREIGN, SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, COLLOQUIAL, SLANG, DIALECTAL ؤ;˸äỌ̇̄äƤȤΤMurray ªοޤŪʸỌ̇̄Ƥߤ褦ʲο (Hughes 5) Ǥϡǥ (PREGNANT) Ȥ̣ξäơθ礬٤֤Ƥ뤳ȤƤ롥

The Semantic Field of

ʿŪ줬ʰ̣ξ˻ѰȤäŪʴطΩŪȤǽȤǡָפȤθϱԤƶäHughes ϸΤ̻ŪѲȤ뤳ȤϤʤȤѸθ륬ʻѰˤϡޤޤ¿˵ڤǤƤMurray 100ǯä̤ο޼ɬפȡơMurray θ򼡤Τ褦˲ɤ󼨤 (372)

Murray's Lexical Configuration Revised by Hughes

٥뤬ä줿֤ѲꤷƤ뤬Hughes (370--71) ˤСϸѸθäȿǤΤǤȤ㤨СϼѸФ (purism) ޤꡤ¾줫äή䤹ʤäƤȤǡFOREIGN Ȥ϶̤٤ޤ줿Ǥ򼨤٥ EXOTIC ɬפʤѸŪ˸üѤäƤƤ뤳ȤˤĤơ#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) 򻲾ȡˡޤSCIENTIFIC TECHNICAL θäѲȼäơξԤΰִطˤĤƤƹͤɬפ⤷ʤ嵭4٥뤬 ARCHAIC ȤȤ濴Υ줿դ˰֤ƤΤϡθäƩȿǤƤ롥ˡLITERARY Ȥ٥μϰϤۣˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥ顤Υ٥ϤʤȤʬŪ FORMAL, ARCHAIC, ˤäƤ COLLOQUIAL, SLANG, OBSCENITY ¾Υ٥䤦Τ⤷ʤ
οޤȿǤƤʤΤȤơ¾Ѽ狼θä롥㤨СꥹѸθäǰƬˤȤΤʤ¿Ǥ褦ˤʤäꥫѸθ (americanism) 䤽¾ѼθäϤɤΤ褦˰֤ŤFOREIGN EXOTIC Ȥ㤦ŪϰǰƬˤ DIALECT Ȥۤʤ롥
ù¤̣¤ȤȤѲ롥Ѹ⤽ϳʤѸǤ⡤ѰȤŽդ٥롤Ƹο޼ƹͤƤ롥

Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-06-26-1]

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2014-09-05 Fri

#1957. Ụ̄ǧΰ̣ˤǰ [cognitive_linguistics][terminology][semantics]

ΰ̣Ȥϡλؼо (referent) ΤΤǤϤʤ줬복ǰ (concept) ǤȤΤΰ̣ǤϼήιͤǤ롥γǰȤΤΤɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ뤫ϡҤȤĤϤäꤷʤΡְ̣ᳵǰϡ礭2ĤΩʬ롥

ֳǰˤ2濫ꡤĤϷʵؤήỤ̄ιͤǤꡤ⤦ĤϿǧθؤιͤǤ롥Ụ̄Ǥϡǰʡ̣ˤ򡤸ɽɽ魯ʪݤƥ꡼ˤȤƻνΤȹͤ롥ȤСָפȤγǰʡ̣ˤϡ¤¸ߤ¿ͤʸƥ꡼ȤƻӮǤ롤ͤ­ǿ롤ʹ֤ˤ褯ʤĤʤɡˤ«Ǥȹͤ롥Ụ̄ǤγǰϡΤ褦ˡ줬ŬѤʪݤȤƯޤΤ褦ʹͤγǰϡɽβƱ褦ˡѤξˤƤϴ¸ΤΤȤư졤ΤγǰɤΤ褦ʲФƷ뤫Ȥǰβˤʤ
Ф츦ˤƿʹ֤ǧǽϤ׻뤹ǧθؤǤϡɽɽ魯ǰϡǰ (conceptualization) ȸƤФ롤ѼԤγª (construal) ȿǤǰˡˤäƷΤȹͤ졤ѼԤΥ¸ߤʴ¸ΡˤΤȤϤߤʤʤǰꤷΤǤʤѼԤѤξ˱Ū˷ΤȤ뤳ǧθؤγǰѤϡǰʥƥ꡼ˤβɽ˸복ǰγĥΤͭǤ롥p. vii--viii


Ụ̄ˤ복ǰ򡤤⤦ܤȡΤ褦ˤʤʡ#1931. ǰỤ̄ ([2014-08-10-1]) ⻲ȡˡ

ǰ (concept) Ȥϡʪƥ꡼ˤȤİ뤳ȤޤǧǡǧϻʪθŪŪħӽŪܼŪǤФ뤳Ȥˤä롥p. 13--14


Τ褦ˡỤ̄ˤơΰ̣ʡᳵǰˤȤϵҴŪŪǷޤäΤȤǤ롥ǧΰ̣ΩǤϡΰ̣ʡᳵǰˤȤϼŪưŪǷޤʤήΤȤǤ롥
30ǯۤɤδ֤˵ĹƤǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) ʬˤϡʸˡʤɤγɤˤŵŪʡ줾Ȥʶ̾򤬤櫓ǤϤʤʤΰ̣ˤ˴ؤ͡ʴؿäʣθԤˤ䤫˸Ʊ˶̤ǧۤƤ̡ƬƤʬǤ롥δˤ䤫ʶǧΤĤȤϡë (7) ˤȡΤΤǤ롥

ȤФϡֵפǤ롥Ĥޤꡤַפȡְ̣פηӤĤΩäƤ롥
ȤФΡַפ㤨Сְ̣פɬ㤦
Ʊַפ˷ӤḤ̂ʣ硤ΰ̣ߤ˴Ϣ1ĤΤޤȤޤƤ롥
ȤФΡְ̣פϡҴŪʰ̣Ƥ˸¤餺䤬ɤΤ褦ªȤǧŪʺѤޤǤ롥


4ܤǼƤ褦ˡǧΰ̣ˤƤϡȤФΰ̣ʡᳵǰˤϤޤήưŪʤΤǤ롥

ë سؤӤΥǧθء١ҤĤ˼2006ǯ
ԡˡذ̣١īҽŹ2012ǯ

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2014-09-03 Wed

#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ [semantic_change][semantics][synaesthesia][rhetoric][grammaticalisation][prediction_of_language_change][speed_of_change][function_of_language][subjectification]

ΰ̣Ѳͽ¬ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥϡ¾θѲƱͤǤ롥Ǥ˵ạ̈Ѳ򸦵椹뤳ȤϽפ狼뤳Ȥϰ̣ѲΰŪʷǤꡤΰ̣Ѳͽ¬ۤɤηϤϤʤ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ǡˡ§פ̾ͤ뤫⤷ʤ̣Ѳ򸫤⤷줬¤ȤƤ㳰㳰ȤۤȤɤϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) #1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) Ǽ褦ʰ̣ѲΰŪʷǤ롥
Brinton and Arnovick (87) ϡΤ褦ʷŦƤ롥

᤯롥Τ˼ؤϿɤĤʤȤ⤢롥ex. desultory (slow, aimlessly, despondently), peruse (to skim or read casually)
Ūʰ̣Ūʰ̣ءex. understand
ΩŪʰ̣ΩŪʰ̣ءex. esteem (cf. #1099. Ҥηƻɾηƻ ([2012-04-30-1])#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1])#1400. relational adjective qualitative adjective ؤΰ̣Ѳθưϡ ([2013-02-25-1]))
Ūʰ̣ޤ뷹ex. awful
Ūʸưʪ䲼ο͡ɽ魯ɽ顥ex. rat, villain
ŪɽŪʷи˴Ťex. mouth of a river
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ΰ
Ե§Ѳϡ쳰Ūװˤ餵䤹̾ˤȤ櫓Ǥ

⤦1ġ̣ѲΰŪʷȤϡ켫ΤüȸƤ֤٤ˤựѲ餫ηǤȤˤȤȤƤ褤¤ǻȤ Brinton and Arnovick ⡤"Of all the components of language, lexical meaning is most susceptible to change. Semantics is not rule-governed in the same way that grammar is because the connection between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional." (76) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ޤ̣ѲˤĤơ (106) ϰʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Ȥ졦¯Ǥϰ̣ѲȯǤ롥٤ȡʸˡѲϤʤޤǡ餯ΤǤȵŤΤϤ鷺ѲϡܸΡ֤ȴȤСפΤ褦ˡ⤦Ť䤹Ǥ̣Ѳ˭٤٤ΩʤǤϡʤ̣Ѳ (semantic change) Ϥۤˤ˵Τϡ餯̣Ѳǥ (discourse) ˤŪĤߤľΤǤ롥


Ǹʸơ (130) ϡְ̣ãθưǤǥˤ륳ߥ˥ưŪľܷӤĤƤ뤫ǤפȷƤ롥

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ

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2014-09-01 Mon

#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) [semantic_change][semantics][history_of_linguistics]

#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ƱΤStern βɮ (10) ˡ̣Ѳ7ʬबäȤ狼䤹ޤȤƤ

A ????????
	i  (substitution)
		(a) ؼоݤʪŪѲ: house, ship, telephone
		(b) ؼоݤ˴ؤμѲ: atom, electricity
		(c) ؼоݤФ٤Ѳ: scholasticism, Home Rule
B Ūװ
	I ɽطο
		ii ?? (analogy)
			(a) : reversion [reversal Ȥ٤Ȥ]
			(b) Ū: red letter day  black letter day
			(c) Ū: bless ? bliss, start naked ? stark naked
		iii  (shortening)
			(a) û: pop < popular concert, props < properties
			(b) ??????: fall (of the leaf), (sewing) machine
	II ؼطο
		iv ̿̾ (nomination)
			(a) ̿̾: Kodak, Tono-Bungay                
			(b) ž: labyrinth [of the ear], crane        տŪ
			(c) : the herring-pond (= the Atlantic) 
		v 転移 (transfer)
			(a) ˴Ť: pyramid, saddle ('')         
			(b) ¾δط˴Ť: pigtails (= China men)       
	III Ūطο                                               
		vi 崹 (permutation)                                           տŪ
			(a) 黺ʪ: copper, nickel                         
			(b) ƴ狼Ƥ: tub, wardrobe                          
			(c) ʬΤ: bureau, dungeon etc.                   
		vii Ŭ (adequation): horn (''  'ū'  'ۥ') 

­ޤǤˡStern ΰ̣ϴŪ Ogden and Richards ΰ̣λѷ (semiotic triangle; cf. #1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1])) ˴ŤΤѸ򾯤ѤƼΤ褦ˤƤʻ桤p. 10ˡ

Semiotic Triangle by Stern

ơ (10) ϲΤʤ Stern ̻Ụ̄षỤ̄¿ʹ׸򤷤ΤȤɾƤ롥

iv (b)--(c) ȡStern Ȥɤ (fluctuation) ȤΤͿ v--vii ϰտŪտŪȤĤˤäƶ̤졤ŪˤƱƱϰϤǤ롥̤γ٤餤Сबΰ̣ѲפȤߤƤɤפϡãξ̤̾ǵ붦ŪžܼŪѤ꤬ʤȤȤˤʤ롥̻Ụ̄餫齤ؤؤηФߤƤStern Ű줷ؼˤäƤοͳ餫ˤʤäȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥٤ƤθѲθư˺Ƥ롤̤ΤȤФǤжŪˤäǽǤȤ Paul (1880) ΤȤФ̻Ụ̄ϤʳǤϤäǧȤˤʤ롥


ϡStern ˤȤäƤ̻Ụ̄ˤȤäƤʤȤˡ̻Ụ̄϶Ūʰ̣θݤ졤˵ۤޤ褦ˤƼΰյǤƤäȤɾ Stern ˤȤäʤȤˡ̣θƤȾʬˤϡỤ̄ˤƹθ٤Ω󤵤ƤꡤνǤ⿧ƤʤȤǤϡỤ̄Ụ̄ºỤ̄Ụ̄ͭỤ̣̄ŬϰϡỤ̄طỤ̄᡼׹͡ʤɤζ̤Ƥ롥
Stern ̻ŪǤϤʤŪʹ׸ǧƽȤɾϡ󤫤⤷ʤȤΤϡ#1686. Ụ̄άˡ ([2013-12-08-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŪʰ̣ǤؤˤȼΰäƤ뤫ɤСϲ̣ˤ̣Ѳˤ衤غŪʥץǸ椵Τ̤ˤʤäƤĤޤꡤ줽ΤΤغŪʥץʤǤϸǤʤʤäƤƤ롥ˤƤ⡤̣ˤˤ Stern θŵȤƤβͤǤʤ

˰졤 塤 ŵ ԡˡذ̣١ұѸʸꡡ7ҡ2005ǯ
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-08-25 Mon

#1946. ǽŪʴߤû [shortening][clipping][word_formation][morphology][function_of_language][style][semantics][semantic_change][euphemism][language_change][slang]

shortening ûˤȤϡˤƽפˤˤߤˡ1ĤǤ롥ѸˤǤߤƤ⡤Ȥ櫓Ѹ shortening ˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥϡ#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1]) dzǧϢơ#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1])#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) Ǥûˤ͡ʼब뤳Ȥǧ#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1102. Zipf's law ȸοա ([2012-05-03-1]) ǤϾãθΨȤûͻ
嵭Τ褦ˡûϼȤƷȤơ뤤ϾȤδϢǸΤ̤Stern ϵǽỤ̄ŪʴûβܤƤ롥Stern ϡ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) Ǽ褦ˡụ̂ѲʬΤʤ˴ޤƤ롥٤Ƥụ̂Ѳȼ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤ㤨 private soldier ʼ´ˤ private ûȤ¸θʷƻˤǤ private Ͽʡ̾Ρ˸Ȥˤʤꡤδߤа̣ѲȤˤʤ롥
private soldier Τ褦ˡṳ̂θ¸θƱȤʤ뤿˰̣ѲȤȤ̤ˡrhinoceros rhino, advertisement ad ʤɤ clipping ڳˤΤ褦ˡ̤θùܤȤʤ륱롥Ǥΰ̣ǤΡְ̣ѲפϤʤ̣Ū˸٤ΤϤʤ褦ˤפ뤬rhinoceros rhino ΰ̣κadvertisement ad ΰ̣κ⤷ȤСûϰ̣ŪʴްդȤȤˤʤ롥
Stern (256) ϡûŪʲǤȤȤˡǽŪʴפʲǤȤߤƤ롥ºݡûθΤʤǺǽפΤΤϡǽŪװǤȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥Stern (256) μĥѤ롥

Starting with the communicative and symbolic functions, I have already pointed out above . . . that brevity may conduce to a better understanding, and too many words confuse the point at issue; the picking out of a few salient items may give a better idea of the topic than prolonged wallowing in details; the hearer may understand the shortened expression quicker and better.
   The expressive function is partly covered by signals, but a shortened expression by itself may, owing to its unusual and perhaps ungrammatical, form, reflect better the speaker's emotional state and make the hearer aware of it. Clippings are very often intended to make the words express sympathy or endearment towards the persons addressed; nursery speech abounds in nighties, tootsies, etc., and clippings of proper names, transforming them into pet names, are often due to a similar desire for emotive effects . . . . The numerous shortenings (clippings) in slang and cant often aim at a humourous effect.
   Conciseness and brevity increase vivacity, and thus also the effectiveness of speech; brevity is the soul of wit; the purposive function may consequently be better served by shortened phrases.


ΤеŪʴûߤˤȤɤޤ餺ѤŪɽϡʸΤȤäǽŪ¦̤ûȤ館ƶϡStern ǡȤǤ롥֤û뤳ȤǤषǽղä⤬̣
ѤʸϤǸڤƤնɽ nighties ȴϢơ#908. bra, panties, nightie ([2011-10-22-1]) ڤӡ#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-08-10 Sun

#1931. ǰỤ̄ [semantics][register][taboo][information_structure]

ɽΰ̣ˤϡǰỤ̄ (conceptual meaning) ǰỤ̤̄롥ǰỤ̄ϼỤ̄ (dictionary meaning) ȤƤФ졤ʪ򥫥ƥ꡼ȤƤȤ館켫Ȥ򤽤ʳΤΤ̤뤿Ф줿ŪܼŪǤν礫ʤ롥ǰỤ̄ϡʸ̡̮뤤ϤȤϢۤˤ공ǰỤ̄դạ̈Ǥ롥ǰỤ̄ˤϡĤμबǧ롥Leech 򻲾ȤƳ⤷Ƥ (23--26) ˵äơñ˲ܤ


(1) Ụ̄ (connotative meaning)
λؼоݤϢۤؼоͭؤ ("what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to") 㤨СѸ mother ܸΡפϡλؼоݤϢۤͥ𿼤οʤɤΥ᡼ȼ⤷ʤΥ᡼ϼŪǿͤˤäưۤʤΤǤꡤҲΤʤǰꤷƤʤ

(2) ҲỤ̄ (social [stylistic] meaning)
ѤطʤˤҲŪˤĤ ("what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use") ǯء̡Ҳءϰ衤Ρ줷ɰաʸʤɤμҲŪطʤȿǤΡʸŪħȤɽФΤǡʸỤ̄ȤƤФ롥Ѹ father, dad, daddy, pop, papa ܸΡס֤㤵ס֤סֿס֥ѥѡס֤Ȥפʤɤϡ줾ۤʤ register °ƤꡤѤμҲŪطʤۤʤäƤ롥#839. register ([2011-08-14-1])#227. ѸѼΥǥ ([2009-12-10-1])#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#849. ä񤭸 (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

(3) Ụ̄ (affective meaning)
ѼԤδ٤ˤĤ ("what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer") Stop being so bloody arrogant." "What a darling little dress!" ˤ륤åʬΤ褦ˡäΰɽ蘆褦ʾ硥

(4) Ƥ줿̣ (reflected meaning)
ɽ̤θϢۤˤ̣ ("what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression") ¿줬ѤݤŪʰ̣ؤض (taboo) ŵŪ˸롥㤨СκݤˤϡڤסֵסʬפϤ줾γǰỤ̄΢ˡΥ۵Ƥ줿̣롥Ѹ cock, ass ʤɤŪƤ줿̣ȼˡѼˤäƤ򤱤뷹롥

(5) ϢỤ̄ (collocative meaning)
ϢȤƶ뤳Ȥ¿˴ϢŤ ("what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word") 㤨СŵŪ pretty Ͻɽ魯ȶhandsome ɽ魯ȶ롥ξγǰỤ̄ϡִ̤Τ褤פǰפ뤬ϢỤ̄ϰۤʤ롥ϢỤ̄ˤꡤԤϤ襤餷ԤüʴΩȤްդ롥

嵭 (1) (5) ϡ줬Ị̇ǤꡤޤȤϢỤ̄ (associative meaning) ȤƤФ롥μỤ̄ʸỊ̇Ǥ롥

(6) Ụ̄ (thematic meaning)
䶯ĴˤäƺФ¤ (information structure) ˴ؤ̣ ("what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis") 㤨Сγƥڥˤơ1ܤ2ܤʸǤϡο֤ˤäƼỤ̄ۤʤ롥

(a) John owns the biggest shop in London.
(b) The biggest shop in London belongs to John.

(c) I like Danish cheese best.
(d) Danish cheese, I like best.

(e) Bill uses an electric razor.
(f) The kind of razor that Bill uses is an electric one.


ʾǰỤ̄Ȥ櫓° (1)--(6) ϢỤ̄ϡǰỤ̄Τ褦˸ŪǤϤʤѼԤѤطʤˤѰۤ뤿ᡤ˵ܤ뤳ȤϤʤ㳰Ȥơ(2) μҲỤ̄ŪäǰꤷƤΤǡ˥졼٥ȼäƵܤ뤳Ȥ¿

ְ̣Ȥϡסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ1--27ǡ

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2014-07-19 Sat

#1909. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (2) [semantic_change][gender][lexicology][semantics][euphemism][taboo][sapir-whorf_hypothesis]

ε#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1]) ǡѸˤ̤Ƹ semantic pejoration ΰ췲򸫤ѸŪˤϡɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ餫ʷǤꡤظˤϲ餫ưŤȹͤ롥ǤϡɤΤ褦ưŤΤ
1ĤϡȤ櫓ءפؼնŪʸ (euphemism) μפ¸ߤȤ𤬤롥ؤ̣ϰ taboo ǤꡤŪˤȤλؼоݤؼ뤳ȤΤǤ̤θ׵᤹롥˰٥ͥƥʴްդޤȤĤƤޤȡʧΤ񤷤ᡤüԤϼ깤ΤĤƤʤ̤θѤƻؼ뤳Ȥ֤ΤǤ롥ˡϡ#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1]) Ǥߤ褦͡뤬¸θ夲ơΰ̣žʲˤƤޤȤΤؤʤ1ĤǤ롥ܸΡ¯ספ⤳तǤ롥Ϣơβɽ魯 euphemism ˤĤơ#908. bra, panties, nightie ([2011-10-22-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
Schulz μĥˤСưŤϡˤؤиפ˽λδǰǤȤǤϡʤλ뤹뤫Ȥȡ򶲤Ƥ뤫ȤݤоݤǤβͤҲŪˡʤƸŪˤ˲뤳Ȥˤäơ϶ݤƨ褦ȤƤΤȡˡʤϽ򶲤ƤΤȤС "fear of sexual inadequacy" ˤ롤³Schulz (89) ʣԤ˰͵򤷤ʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤롥

A woman knows the truth about his potency; he cannot lie to her. Yet her own performance remains a secret, a mystery to him. Thus, man's fear of woman is basically sexual, which is perhaps the reason why so many of the derogatory terms for women take on sexual connotations.


ࡤ϶˸Ūʴؿ餳ΰ̣Ѳ夲ΤʵˤʤäƤȤϡǽͽۤƤ⤺äȳغŪʥȥԥåˤʤ餷ǧθؤȿǤȤϡԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˤؤäƤ

Schulz, Muriel. "The Semantic Derogation of Woman." Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Ed. Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1975. 64--75.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-26-1] [2014-12-17-1]

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2014-07-18 Fri

#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) [semantic_change][gender][lexicology][semantics]

#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) (3) Ǽ̣ΰ (pejoration) ϡѸˤˤ㤬¿ɤ̣뤤ϾʤȤΩŪʰ̣ä˥ͥƥʲͤդ븽ݤǤ롥ޤǤεȤƤϡ#505. silly ΰ̣Ѳ ([2010-09-14-1])#683. semantic prosody ([2011-03-11-1] )#742. amusing, awful, and artificial ([2011-05-09-1]) ʤɤǶ򸫤Ƥ
Ѹˤˤ̣ΰȤƤȤ櫓褯ΤƤΤϡɽ魯äѸˤ̤ơֽפ̣췲ϡ¤ŪʴỤ̄ (connotation) Ƥ򼨤ֽעŪˤ餷ʤע־ءפȤΤŵŪʥѥǤ롥̤鰷ä Schulz ʸ "The Semantic Derogation of Woman" ˤȡֽɽ魯פ˰ŪʸݤǤ뤫Ǥ⤫ȸФ˼롥3ս꤫Ѥ褦

Again and again in the history of the language, one finds that a perfectly innocent term designating a girl or woman may begin with totally neutral or even positive connotations, but that gradually it acquires negative implications, at first perhaps only slightly disparaging, but after a period of time becoming abusive and ending as a sexual slur. (82--83)

. . . virtually every originally neutral word for women has at some point in its existence acquired debased connotations or obscene reference, or both. (83)

I have located roughly a thousand words and phrases describing women in sexually derogatory ways. There is nothing approaching this multitude for describing men. Farmer and Henley (1965), for example, have over five hundred terms (in English alone) which are synonyms for prostitute. They have only sixty-five synonyms for whoremonger. (89)


Schulz ʸˤϡ¿㤬󤵤Ƥ롥ʸ˸99򥢥ե٥åȽ¤٤Ƥߤ٤ƤŪס־ءפˤޤǰ̣櫓ǤϤʤѸˤΤʤǾʤȤ⤢Ūʴްդäƽؼñ췲Ǥ롥

abbess, academician, aunt, bag, bat, bawd, beldam, biddy, Biddy, bitch, broad, broadtail, carrion, cat, cleaver, cocktail, courtesan, cousin, cow, crone, dame, daughter, doll, Dolly, dolly, dowager, drab, drap, female, flagger, floozie, frump, game, Gill, girl, governess, guttersnipe, hack, hackney, hag, harlot, harridan, heifer, hussy, jade, jay, Jill, Jude, Jug, Kitty, kitty, lady, laundress, Madam, minx, Miss, Mistress, moonlighter, Mopsy, mother, mutton, natural, needlewoman, niece, nun, nymph, nymphet, omnibus, peach, pig, pinchprick, pirate, plover, Polly, princess, professional, Pug, quean, sister, slattern, slut, sow, spinster, squaw, sweetheart, tail trader, Tart, tickletail, tit, tramp, trollop, trot, twofer, underwear, warhorse, wench, whore, wife, witch


פʤΤϡбɽ魯췲ɬ̣ΰäƤʤȤspinster ȿȽˤФ bachelor ȿˡwitch ˤФ warlock ˤˡȤˤϥͥƥʴްդϤʤɤ餫ȤȥݥƥɾդƤ롥Ϸɽ魯 trot, heifer ʤɤŪϷɽ魯 geezer, codger ϾŪȤƤ⤽ٹ礤Ͼqueen ʽˤ quean ʤФˤ̤Byron "the Queen of queans" ʤɤȸͷӤ򤷤Ƥ뤬Ф king ʲˤˤΤδްդϤʤprincess prince ƱͤоŪmother, sister, aunt, niece ΰ̣Ȥäб father, brother, uncle, nephew ˤϤε̣Ϥʤοȡɽ魯 footman, yeoman, squire ϰ̣βȤ뤬abbess, hussy, needlewoman ʤɽοȡ¿ professional θ줬Ƥ褦ˡưפˡοȡפؤžƤ椯㤤ɽ魯 boy, youth, stripling, lad, fellow, puppy, whelp ʤΩŪdoll, girl, nymph ŪȤʤ롥
ɽ魯ͭ̾⡤Фа̣ΰоݤȤʤ롥ޤȽξԤؼ뤳ȤǤ dog, pig, pirate ʤɤθǤ⡤ؼˤϡͥƥʰ̣դΤ⾯ʤʤϤ䡤ʬ߽ФƤΤǤ롥

Schulz, Muriel. "The Semantic Derogation of Woman." Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Ed. Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1975. 64--75.

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2014-06-27 Fri

#1887. ˤͤݤ4Ĥλ [gender][gender_difference][terminology][sociolinguistics][semantics][singular_they]

#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1]) ǡHellinger and Bussmann 򻲾ȤǡˤθȤ櫓ΤˤȤ˿̤٤ȤθǤ롥Ūˤ grammatical gender, lexical gender, referential gender, social gender 4̤ɬפ롥ʲHellinger and Bussmann (7--11) 򻲾Ȥʤ鳵⤹롥

ˤȤˡޤפ⤫֤Τ grammatical gender űѸǤ3ꡤ٤Ƥ̾줬§ŪˤϤ줫˳꿶Ƥ̾Υ饹ΰȤơ̾2?3ۤɤ̤졤Ūʰפȼʤɤħ롥The World Atlas of Language Structures Online Number of Genders, Sex-based and Non-sex-based Gender Systems, Systems of Gender Assignment ʤɤθʬۤϤƤ⡤Ȥƥ꡼ϡ²ʤɤθ²˸ꤵ줺ϤߤƤ롥
ˡlexical gender Ȥʬ롥쳰°Ǥ뼫ʪŪ򻲾Ȥ뤬ܼŪˤϸỤ̄Ū˵ꤵǤ롥㤨Сfather mother ϡ줾 [+male] [+female] Ȥ̣"gender-specific" ʸȤ롥ǡcitizen, patient, individual ʤɤˤơlexical gender "gender-indefinite" 뤤 "gender-neutral" Ȥ롥gender-specific ʸϡ̾ǼȤ heshe ̣ˤä򤵤Τ̤Ǥ롥grammatical gender lexical gender ϤƤפ뤬ɥĸ Individuum (n), Person (f) Τ褦ξԤפʤΤ⻶롥Τ褦ʾ硤ˤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ̾ grammatical gender ˤäƤʤ롥
3ܤϡreferential gender Ǥ롥ϡ줬ǻؼоݤʪŪǤ롥㤨С˵󤲤ɥĸ Person grammatical gender Ͻlexical gender θ줬ºݤʸ̮ˤƤؼƤСreferential gender ȤȤˤʤ롥Ʊͤˡɥĸ Mädchaen für alles "girl for everything" ʲǤⲰˤˤĤƤѤ뤬ξ Mädchaen grammatical gender lexical gender Ͻreferential gender ȤȤˤʤ롥̾Ǽݤˤϡgrammatical gender ˤ referential gender ˤ礬롥
Ǹˡsocial gender ȤϡҲŪ䡦Ȥ蘆˽ʬˡǤ롥ͤɽ魯̾졤ä˿Ȥ˴ؤ̾ϡ˽줫 social gender 蘆Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿㤨бƤǤϡlawyer, surgeon, scientist ϤФǤ뤳ȤԤ졤secretary, nurse, schoolteacher ϽǤ뤳ȤԤ롥pedestrian, consumer, patient ʤɤΰŪ̾ϡ̾ he Ǿȱ뤳ȤŪʴǤ뤳Ȥ顤 social gender ǤȲǤ롥social gender ˤϡμҲˤΥƥ쥪פ褯ɽ蘆롥

ѸˤˤȤƤϡʸˡξüȤ꤬롥ʸˡִ줿Ȥ褦ʾ˴ͿΤϡgrammatical gender, lexical gender, referential gender 3generic 'he' singular they ꤬طΤϡlexical gender, referential gender, social gender 3ȤˡָפˤޤĤܤפϰۤʤäƤȤȤˤʤ롥

Hellinger, Marlis and Hadumod Bussmann, eds. Gender across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001.

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2014-06-14 Sat

#1874. ٸθݼ [semantics][semantic_change][frequency][speed_of_change]

ٸϷŪݼŪȤȤϡ褯롥٤Ѳ䤹Ȥδ֤شط餷ȤϡǶǤ#1864. ȴդٸ̡ ([2014-06-04-1]) Ǽ夲εƬˤ⤤ĤεؤΥ󥯤ĥä (##694,1091,1239,1242,1243,1265,1286,1287,1864) ٸϤƤŪʴøǤ⤢뤳Ȥ顤ϴøäݼȤˤ̤롥ºݡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ϡøäݼȤä
Ȥ (sign) ֤Ȥɽ (signifiant) ˤĤ٤ݼδطŦΤʤСΤ⤦1Ĥ¦̤Ǥ뵭 (signifié)ʤ̣ˤĤƤƱͤδطŦƤ褤Ϥ٤ΰ̣ǤСѲˤȤΤǤϤʤStern (185) ϡٸθݼ˿Ƥ롥

It is well known that the most common words of a language retain most tenaciously old and otherwise discarded forms and inflections. It is reasonable to assume that a strong tradition has similar effects on meanings. Note, however, that the retention of one or more old meanings is no obstacle to the acquisition of new ones: frequency is only a conservative factor for already established meanings.


٤θĸϤ켫Τ٤ǤꡤŪʴøǤΨ⤯ΤȤݼŪȤͽۤ롥ʤۤ Stern νҤ٤̤ꡤι٤θݼŪȤƤ⡤θŪŪʸղä뤳Ȥ˸櫓ǤϤʤष¿ξ硤ø¿Ǥ롥
Stern θ褦ˡ֤ˤĤƤ̣ˤĤƤ⡤٤ݼȤشطǧ褦˻פ롥1礭ʰ㤤롥֤Ѳˤϡ˼ä뤤ϾʤȤξ variants Ȥ¤ΩľȤ롥ΤȤ ơ variant Τ˶̤롥̣ѲˤϡŤɬ֤ΤǤϤʤξѤƤ椯Ȥ¿ variants ִΩȤϡ餬¿ȤѤ߽ŤʤäƤǤ롥֤ݼỌ̇̄ݼϡΰ㤤ռʤ򤷤ƤɬפϢơ#1692. ̣ȷ֤δط ([2013-12-14-1]) 3Ѥ򻲾Ȥ줿

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-06-13 Fri

#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ [semantics][semantic_change][causation]

#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1])#1863. Stern ˤΰ̣Ť3ǡ ([2014-06-03-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1]) ạ̇̄Ọ̇̄ѲˤĤƹͻ Stern θҲ𤷤ƤStern (165--76) ϰ̣Ѳʬ꤬7ʬƤ

A. External Causes Class I. Substitution.
B. Linguistic Causes
   I. Shift of Verbal Relation
      a. Class II. Analogy.
      b. Class III. Shortening.
   II. Shift of Referential Relation
      a. Class IV. Nomination.
      b. Class V. (Regular) Transfer.
   III. Shift of Subjective Relation
      a. Class VI. Permutation.
      b. Class VII. Adequation.


Class I (Substitution) ϡŪŪװˤ̣ѲǤ롥ФеѤʸȯŸؤäƤꡤ㤨 ship to travel ϡŪʾʪȯȸȤǤϡؼо (referent) ۤʤäƤ롥̣ѲΤΤȤߤʤϡؼоݤѲȼ̣ѹȤäۤŬڤ⤷ʤ
Class II (Analogy) ϡ㤨 fast ֤äȡפ®פؤȤɤạ̈Ѳˤбƻ fast ؤƶƻ fast ®פθȤ㤬󤲤롥տŪտŪξ롥üԼΡ
Class III (Shortening) ϡprivate soldier ξάȤ private Ѥ褦ʥǡ̤Ȥ private ΰ̣䵡ǽѲȤˤʤ롥տŪտŪξ롥üԼΡ
Class IV (Nomination) ϡȡȡȤʤɤޤžȤ櫓ͤʤɤտŪʤȤŪˤ˹Ԥ׻ŪžؤüԼΡ
Class V ((Regular) Transfer) ϡտŪžɽ魯 Nomination ФơտŪžؤտޤ̵ͭȽȤʤ⤢롥üԼΡ
Class VI (Permutation) ϡcount one's beads Ȥֶפˤơ beads ϵ̣βΤ˥ꥪο̤äƤȤ顤beads ̤ΤΤ̣褦ˤʤäcount one's beads ϡξ˲ǤȤۣǤϤ뤬ʤ̤ƤΤؼоݤȤƤȤħ롥տŪʹ¿Ϳ롥
Class VII (Adequation) ϡưʪγѤɽ魯 horn Ȥָפʺʤ˳ụ̄褦ˤʤä㤬󤲤롥ؼоݼΤѲƤʤΤ Substitution ǤϤʤؼоݤλŪ˴ؤüԤѲħŪǤ롥տŪʹ¿Ϳ롥

Stern 7ʬϡ(1) 쳰ŪŪ(2) ʡؼоݡѤΤ˴ؤ뤫(3) տŪտŪ(4) 礿뻲ͿԤüԤΤߤʹޤफȤäʣδŤ͹碌ΤǤ롥1ĤΥǥȤƤȤ館Ƥ
Ϣơ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) #1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1]) ⻲ȡ

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-06-03 Tue

#1863. Stern ˤΰ̣Ť3 [semantics]

Stern ϸΰ̣ŤǤȤ3Ĥ󤲤Ƥ롥1ܤ "the objective reference", 2ܤ "the subjective apprehension", 3ܤ "the traditional range" Ǥ롥줾졤ؼоݤΤΤäʹ꤬ɤΤ褦ªƤ뤫Ҳ񴷽ȤƤͭϰϤɽ魯̤δ餤Сε#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1]) ǵ󤲤 Stern θ4ǽΤκǽ3ġsymbolic, expressive, communicative εǽˤ줾бȤ롥Stern (43--44) ľƤ餪

   We have found, in the first place, that the objective reference is an indispensable element in any meaning, and that the qualitative characteristics of meaning are conditioned by the actual characteristics of the referent which the word is employed to denote. This factor conditions the symbolic function of the word.
   We have found, secondly, that the meaning of a word is determined also by the subject's apprehension of the referent that the word is employed to denote, that is to say, the subject's thoughts and feelings with regard to the referent. This factor conditions the expressive function of the word.
   We have found, thirdly, that the traditional range of a word serves to discriminate its meaning from concomitant elements of mental content, or mental context. The meaning of a word in speech normally lies within its range. This factor conditions the communicative function of the word.


ΰ̣Ť3ǤȤƤ̥ŪʤΤϡ12ǤƿŪʤΤǤΤФơ3ǤϡҲ񴷽ʤɡƼҲŪʳǰ˴طΤǤ̣ʬŪǤϤ뤬ؤæѤεʼҲ˸ؤΤʤذᤷƤ뤫Τ褦ʴ롥
³ Stern (45) ϡ嵭Ƨޤơΰ̣򼡤Τ褦Ƥ롥ʤȤȲȤɾǤǤ롥

The meaning of a word --- in actual speech -- is identical with those elements of the user's (speaker's or hearer's) subjective apprehension of the referent denoted by the word, which he apprehends as expressed by it.


Stern ΩϡOgden and Richards ΩȤۤɳ֤äƤʤ褦˻פ롥ԤˤĤƤϡ#1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1])#1777. Ogden and Richards ˤ The Canons of Symbolism ([2014-03-09-1])#1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-05-05-1] [2014-06-13-1]

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