hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ڡ / page 6 (10)

verb - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2019-01-22 Tue

#3557. Ѹˤ3ñѰ [variation][variety][world_englishes][new_englishes][3sp][verb][agreement][conjugation][inflection][link][nptr][hypercorrection]

źΡѸˤơ3ñưϤɤΤ褦˶ޤƤΤĹ餯ɤƤǡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤ 3sp γƵǼ夲Ƥ

#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1])
#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1])
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1])
#2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1])
#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])

ߤΡѸˤƤϡ3ñθϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (66--67) εҤޤȤƤ
3ñ -s ȥؤ륱ϡ¿𤵤Ƥ롥ʥꥢѼ쥢եꥫѼϤᡤꥫǥѼѼɷեꥫѼեꥫѼեԥѼ (e.g. He go to school.)󥬥ݡѼʿѼʤɤ롥
ɸѸȿФԤ̣Ѽ⤢롥ñǥȤʤꡤʣ -s ȤʬۤꥫǥѼΤʤǤ⥤쥿²Ѽ (Isletan) ǤϡΤ褦ʸ㤬ǧȤ

there are some parties that goes on over there.
Some peoples from the outside comes in.
All the dances that goes on like that occur in the spring.
The women has no voice to vote.

Maybe the governor go to these parents' homes.
About a dollar a day serve out your term.
This traditional Indian ritual take place in June.
By this time, this one side that are fast have overlapped.
The governor don't take the case.


쥿²ѼƱͤηʿѼǤǧȤ (e.g. They drink and they makes a lot of noise.)
ɸѸεդԤѼʸˡ⤢̣ǤϹŪȤ롥줬ñǤм̾ˤҸưˤ -s 줺줬ʣǤФˤ -s ղäȤǰӤƤ뤫Mesthrie and Bhatt (66) ϡηϤ "-s plural symmetry" ȸƤǤ롥
"-s plural symmetry" 򼨤Ѽ inherent variety ʤΤ뤤üԸĿͤɸѸʤɤɸȤƲ꽤 (hypercorrection) ̤ӸݤʤΤϡĴԤʤФʤʤޤѼ郎󥰥ɤŪ Northern Present Tense Rule (nptr) Ū̴طΤɤ⿵Ť˸ƤʤФʤʤ

Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-09-1]

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2018-12-29 Sat

#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ [prototype][category][pos][noun][verb][adjective][typology][conversion]

(70) ϡåƥ꡼ʤʻˤʤ顤̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³ܤƤ롥ζˤ˰꤬ꡤ¾ζˤ˰ưѲ1ĤϢ³ΤȤ

åƥ꡼ΩĴפϡγФξѤоݤȡѲȤʤȤΩ˸ФȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤǤϻ֤ηвǰꤷоݤꡤ⤦ǤϤΰưѲβγФ롥ΩȤ˹ͤȡ̾ΥץȥפϡѲΤʤꤷäоݤǤ롥ؼԤˤϡƤسԤΤʪΤǤ뤳ȤܤȤʤ롥ФưΥץȥפϡ֤ѲȤäǤ롥ҤԤΤϡΩäѲߤȤ줿礬ǤꡤŵŪˤϹ԰٤η̤ȤƸ뤫Ǥ롥äǤεǽȤ餳򸫤С̾餷פǰоݤ³ˤ뤿ΰꤷطʤߤư餷פϻ֤ǤѲˤäƵ֤οʹԤɽϤ餭ġ
Τ褦˹ͤȡ෿Ū˷ƻ줬̾餷ư餷δ֤ǡɤפ򼨤뤤ϼΩƥ꡼ȤƤϸ¤줿С⤿ʤȤ¿Ȥϡƻ줬ˡȻפ롥ƻϽŪˡ㡧֤󥴡סˤȽŪˡ㡧֥󥴤֤סˤξäƤꡤԤоݤ̤ơ̾餷פ¦ˡԤϡʹ԰٤ǤϤʤˤĤƤνҤ̤ơư餷פ¦˶ŤǤ롥ƳǰŪ˥ץȥפ鳰줿Ȥˤϡ̾ư줫ˤäɽ뤳Ȥ¿ʤ롥


ƻ줬̾ư˶ޤ줿ŪƤǤ뤬椨ˡȤˡ̾餷פ򡤤Ȥˡư餷פӤӤȤϤ롥ΰ㤤ŪˡȽŪˡ˸ƤΤǤϤʤȤƶԤޤ෿ŪˤäơƻȤƥ꡼ϸÿʸˡŪ񤤤ˤƸ֤ΰۤʤ꤬㤷Τ⡤Ūʥƥ꡼Ȥ⼨٤㤨СܸǤϷƻΩƽҸˤʤư˶ᤤǤ϶޷Ūˤ̾˶ᤤȹͤˡ
Τ褦Ϣ³ƲȤʻȤ館ȡʻž (conversion) ˤޤḤ̂䤽¾ηˤ⿷ʸƤ뤫⤷ʤ

סǧθء١ؽDz2002ǯ

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2018-12-08 Sat

#3512. ǧưμ٤̻ŪѲ [frequency][verb][comment_clause][semantic_field]

(162) Ѹ줫鸽Ѹˤǧưμ١פɽǤ褦ɽ (p) "personal"(i) "impersonal" ˡ򼨤ʤɽϡֳƻǰ줿ưٽˤäѤ˼ΡפȤΤȤǤ롥

14th15th16th17th18th19th20th
knowesupposeknowknowthinkthinkthink
witentrustthinkthinkbelievesupposeknow
thinke (p)trowtrowfind supposeknowsuppose 
semeunderstandtrust/wotbelieveknowbelievebelieve
wenewotbelievesupposeguessguessguess
trowehopewenefancy   
thinke (i)knowsupposeguess   
understondedeme/think/weneguesstrust   
demedeme     
menedoubt     
trustbelieve     
hopeguess     
gessen      
leve      
undertake      
suppose      
beleven      


̻ŪʷȤƤϡǧʽp. 162--63ˡ

1. think know Ӥ¿ȤƤ롥
2. suppose 15ˤϺǤ¿Ȥ줿θƤ18ʹߤ¿ʤäƤä
3. believe Ѹ (Chaucer)15ˤϤۤȤɻȤʤä17ʹ¿Ȥ褦ˤʤä
4. guess ϰӤƤۤ¿Ϥʤ
5. witen, wene, wot 17򶭤˻Ȥʤʤä
6. trowe 17򶭤˻ȤʤʤäޤưϤۤȤ as ? ηǻȤ줿
7. ɽˤϤϤäȤɽƤʤfancy ϸѸǤϻȤʤʤä


(170) ϡư̻Ū򡤰̣ (semantic_field) 붥Ȱ֤ŤƤ롥

witan, wene ο think 礬طޤ know η̤Ǥ⤢ȹͤ롥Fancy 17餷Ф餯ȤƤ20ȡepistemic phrase ȤƻȤʤʤäΤϡimagine ʤɤưɤ줿ꡤ뤤Ϥθ켫Ȥ¾ˡfancy restaurant Τ褦̾졤ƻŪˡˤȯãǤȹͤ롥դ˶طݤƤΤϡƱΤʬԤäƤꡤΥХ󥹤ξ˵ǽƤ뤫ȹͤ롥Think, believe, suppose, know, guess comment cl ϤΤ褦ʬ줿֤ˤƵǽƤ뤫Ǥ


ǧưȤ٤ηȤäƤ⡤̻Ū˼٤ɤäƤߤ뤳Ȥạ̇̄ξζȤʥߥåʸݤѻ뤳Ȥ˴

¼8ϡComment clause ΤޤȤסComment Clause λŪ桡εǽȯãٽ ¼ԡˡĬҥե˥å2010ǯ161--72ǡ

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2018-11-17 Sat

#3491. dreamt dreamed ˡκ [bible][shakespeare][johnson][verb][conjugation][preterite][participle][epenthesis]

ε#3490. dreamt dreamed ء ([2018-11-16-1]) ȴϢơɸˤĤơξˡκĴ٤椬褦ΤʺϤʤ褦Ǥ롥ˡκȤƺȤ뤳Ȥ¿ꥫѸǤ dreamed ޤ졤ꥹѸǤξȤѤȤʾp. 422ˡ
Fowler's (231) ˤ "Dreamed, esp. as the pa.t. form, tends to be used for emphasis and in poetry." ȤꡤѰˤ뺹뤳Ȥ򼨺Ƥ롥
Ѹξ MED ƤߤȡȤơֵ§Ūʡ drēmed(e ȡԵ§Ūʡ drempte ξѤƤȤ狼뤬ʬȤƤϵ§εܤʤʤԵ§˸治ź (epenthesis) p äƤ뤳Ȥ (cf. #739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]))
ѸǶ̣ΤϡShakespeare ǤξѤƤ뤬AV ˤ dreamt ϤʤȤ¤ʡرѸ츻ŵ١ˡAV Shakespeare ٤ʸŪǸʸˡ褯ݻƤȤΤǡ dreamed ΤۤȤФäΤ⤷ʤդˤСdreamt άŪˤˤϤդ路ʤȹͤ줿Τ⤷ʤ
ʤ1775ǯ Johnson μǤ "preter. dreamed, or dreamt" Ȥꡤdreamed ɮƬ˵󤲤Ƥ뤳Ȥ˿Ƥ

ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-02-14-1]

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2018-11-16 Fri

#3490. dreamt dreamed [clmet][corpus][lmode][verb][conjugation][preterite][participle]

Is it 'Dreamed' or 'Dreamt'? ꤹ Merriam-Webster θˡɤdream βʤӲʬˤ dreamt dreamed ؤȵ§Ƥḽˤ˾ƤƤ롥
إꥢࡦ֥ѱѼŵ٤ޤतĤμǤϡdreamed ֻΤȤ /ˈdrɛmt, ˈdriːmd/ 2ĤȯܤƤ롥ϡư dream βʬȤ dreamt/dreamed ξ֤زǽǤ뤳ȤȿǤʻѡѤȤ dreamt ֤ä /ˈdriːmd/ ȯݤεҤϤʤdreamt ȯû첻ˤĤƤϡ#2290. ƻޤĹ첻û ([2015-08-04-1]) 򻲾ȡ
θˡˤϡ19ȾˤϤǤ dreamed ͥȤʤäƤȤεҤäΤǡΤ٤Ѹ쥳ѥ CLMET3.0 ʸ򽸤Ƥߤʸ̤Υƥȥեˡ٤򽸷פ̤ϼ̤ꡥ

Period (subcorpus size)dreamtdreamed
1710--1780 (10,480,431 words)5554
1780--1850 (11,285,587)75137
1850--1920 (12,620,207)71242


18Ⱦޤ1ˤξϸ߳ѤäΤ19Ⱦ濴Ȥ2 dreamed 礭ĥƤ롥ơ19Ⱦʹߤˤ dreamed dreamt 򤵤˰ݤƤä
ȤϤߤ˻ޤ dreamt פ줺ˤȤ¤ǧƤȤפǤ롥Ѳϡġλˤ뤬ۤɤäʤΤǤ롥
ưΡֵ§פ뤤ϡֶܹԡפˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) 򻲾ȡդΡԵ§סּ嶯ưפˤĤƤϡ#3385. Ѹ˼嶯ܹԤư ([2018-08-03-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-15-1] [2018-11-17-1]

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2018-08-03 Fri

#3385. Ѹ˼嶯ܹԤư [me][verb][conjugation][inflection][tense][preterite][participle]

ưΡֶܹԡפβϡѸηˤˤƥ᥸㡼Ǥ롥ˤĤơ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
礭Ĭή˵դ餦ʵήʤּ嶯ܹԡפλ⤷ФлŦƤꥹѸ dive -- dived (-- dived) Ф륢ꥫѸ dive -- dove (-- dived) 㤬褯ΤƤ뤬ŪˤϤ¾⻶롥
ȤСWełna (425) ˤСѸ˼嶯ܹԤʤʬˤƶѲԵ§˷Ѥ³ƤΤȤơΤ褦㤬ȤѸθǵ󤲤ˡ

INFINITIVEPASTPAST PARTICIPLE
chidechidde, chōdechidden
ringringde, rongen (PL)runge
sawesawed, sewsawid, sown
sewsowedsewed, sowen
shew, showshowedshowed, showen
styckestiked, stackesticked, stōken
weerwēred, wōrewēred, worn


ۤˤ⡤ѲȤƤϸޤӤʤäΤΡѸûŪ˼嶯ܹԤиΤưϤĤä褦ȤƤϡ̾ϴְ㤤ʤѲưȤʤϤΥե󥹼Ѹ줬ˤƼѲΤߤʤ餺Ѳ褦ˤʤä strive -- strōve/strīved
ήɤ񹳤뤳Τ褦ȿʬҤ¸ߤϡˤˤƺǤⶽ̣1ĤǤ롥

Wełna, Jerzy. "Middle English: Morphology." Chapter 27 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 415--34.

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2018-08-01 Wed

#3383. to ȸɤ [infinitive][verb][syntax][emode][shakespeare]

#2502. ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤ ([2016-03-03-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡto ȸϡߤ˵ϰۤʤΤΡˤβǤۤƱǽͭ褦ˤʤꡤФжɤ򼨤ƤʤĶǤϰ׵ᤵ졤̤δĶǤ¾׵ᤵΤ̻ŪˤⶦŪˤ⸦椵Ƥꡤ٤ηϸФΤΡŪʵ§򸫤ĤФȤ񤷤
Ѹͤȡ#971. help + פε ([2011-12-24-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡhelp θϤɤη֤ǤƤȤ롥ޤ#970. Money makes the mare to go ([2011-12-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʸˤƤǽưʸǤϸѤ뤬ưʸǤ to ѤȤäϥ츽ݤ롥⡤ξζɤˤȿǤƤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ
ˤĤơ (237--38) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ˡΩޤǤˤĹˡưɤƤꡤޤ to Τʤ줬ҤѤ줿ꥶ٥īǤ
you ought not walk (Cæsar, I. i. 3)/you were wont be civil (Othello, II. iii. 190) ʤɤ㤬ꡤΤۤ Shakespeare Ǥ
I command her come to me/entreat her hear me but a word/let one be sent to pray Achilles see us
ʤ command, entreat, pray, desire, charge Τ褦ưΤȤǤ to Τʤ줬Ф롥դ˺ʤ to פʤȤƤ⤢롥It makes my heart to groan Τ褦ˡǤˤ Money makes the mare to go Ϲκ⼡ˤˡĤäƤ뤷help ξι¤ǽ롥I helped him (to) find his things. 줫ƱʸƱطΩĤ桤Ԥ to Ȥ뤳ȤԤ롥άShakespeare
and would no more endure
This wooden slavery than to suffer
The flesh-fly blow my mouth. (Tempest, III. i. 61--63)
ƱǤ롥


2ϡʤˤϲ褷Ƥʤ

ʸͺرѸȯãˡǡٴȽŹ2005ǯ

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2018-06-26 Tue

#3347. ʤư̾ۤɶޤवˤΤ [inflection][verb][noun][adjective][phonetics][phonology][consonant][vowel]

ޤοϱѸ˾Ѳ1Ĥư̾٤Сߤ˻ޤǶޤ¿¸Ƥ롥̾ζޡʤȸƤ٤ʤСˤˤʣȽͭʷۤɤʤưˤ3ñ -sʬ˷ -edʬ -ing ĤäƤۤԵ§ưǤϼȤ첻Ѱۤ˴ŤޤĤäƤ롥ޤŪäǤϤ뤬Τư̾ޤ褯ݤäƤȤ롥
ͳ1ĤȤơ̵ʤȤ櫓ޤôˤ첻μ岽üȤŪ׷ФơưΤۤ̾ƻ趯ϤͭƤȤ󤲤롥Wełna (415--16) üŪˤҤ٤Ƥ롥

Verbs proved more resistant because, unlike nouns and adjectives, their inflectional markers contained obstruent consonants, i.e. sounds not subject to vocalization, as in PRES SG 2P -st, 3P - (-eth) or PAST -ed, while the nasal sonorants -m (> -n) and -n, frequently found in the nominal endings, vocalized and were ultimately dropped.


#291. ;̾ thou ξüưؤαƶ ([2010-02-12-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡѸˤϡ餯Ǥ趯ư޸Ǥä2;ñ -est ⡤ʷŪʲȤƤǤϤʤ˼ҲŪͳˤꡤб;̾ thou Ȥ˾äƤäˤꡤưޤΥꥨ󤬤褤ϼ岽ȤȤϻŦƤƤ褤

Wełna, Jerzy. "Middle English: Morphology." Chapter 27 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 415--34.

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2018-06-24 Sun

#3345. ѲưƳ෿γ̿Ǥ [oe][verb][conjugation][inflection][suffix][tense][preterite][germanic][morphology][dental_suffix]

ޥɤκǤΩäħ1ĤˡѲư¸ߤ롥#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1]) ǿ줿褦˻ (dental suffix) դȤǡȤñ˲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤä˴Ť෿δߤȡˤäƸűѸޤॲޥϡ޸ (inflecting languages) æ (agglutinating language) 뤤ϸΩ (isolating language) ؤȰŤȤˤʤ (cf. #522. ˤ෿ ([2010-10-01-1])) ΰ̣ǤϡѲưƳϡ緶ˤС෿γ̿ŪפäȤ롥von Mengden (287) βʹƤߤ褦

It is remarkable that in a strongly inflecting language like Old English (in contrast to both agglutinating and to analytic), there is a suffix (-d-) which is an unambiguous marker of the tense value past. The fact that this suffix -d- is the only morphological marker in all the paradigms of Old English with a truly distinctive one-to-one relation between form and value may indicate that this morpheme is rather young.


֤ȵǽƩ٤ι⤤11δطˤȤȤϡѸܸΤ褦ʥפθˤƤȡˤʤʤΤΤ褦ʥפǤϤʤäűѸζ޷ǰƬ֤ĤIJƹͤƤߤȡΤ˶ˤȤä-d- ̿1ȤϡθϢŪ˳̿ȤͶȯѸ෿ŪѤƤȤˤʤäΤǤ롥

von Mengden, Ferdinand. "Old English: Morphology." Chapter 18 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 272--93.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-25-1] [2019-05-15-1]

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2018-06-22 Fri

#3343. drink--drank--drank Ω [verb][conjugation][inflection][vowel][emode]

ߡꥫѸθǡʬȤɸŪ drunk ǤϤʤƱ drank Ѥ뤳Ȥ뤬ϸѤȤϡŪˡη³ȸ٤Ǥ롥
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1]) #492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ褦ˡ߷ʬ3׷ˤδ֤첻Ѱۤ򼨤ŪʶѲưμѥѥϡġưˤäưۤʤꡤѸŪˤŪʵ§Ф뤳Ȥ񤷤ºݤˡűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹ̤͡3׷Υѥ󤬶˴򷫤깭ƤCowie (608) ȡ˰ѤƤ Lass ΥȤƤߤ褦

Tense marking on strong verbs in Early Modern English often had a different pattern for the form of the preterit and the past participle to both Middle English and Modern English. Different verbs go through different patterns, taking some time to stabilize . . . As Lass says, "it seems as if each verb has its own history" (1999: 168--70), which can be illustrated by changes in the paradigm for DRINK:

late 15thdrink, drank, drunk
end of 16th to 19thdrink, drunk, drunk
17th to 19thdrink, drank, drank


3ĤΥѥΤɸѼǤϺǽΤΤ򤵤줿ɸѼǤϺǸΤΤ򤵤줿Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦ˡ츫ָѡפȻפΤϡĤ¸ߤʣ褫ΰۤʤ˴ŤΤ¿
Ϣơsing βɸŪ sang Τۤ sung Ѥ륱⤢뤬Ʊͤ˹ͤ٤Ǥ롥

Cowie, Claire. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 38 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 604--20.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-28-1]

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2018-06-19 Tue

#3340. ޥˤưζѲȸƬȤߴط [germanic][indo-european][stress][gradation][exaptation][aspect][tense][suffix][contact][stress][preterite][verb][conjugation][grammaticalisation][participle][dental_suffix]

#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 6ĤκΩäޥŪħ󤲤Kastovsky (140) ˤȡΤʲ3ĤˤĤƤϡޥĸ줬ȯãǸߤ̩ܤʴطäȤ

(2) ư˸ߤȲ2λ
(3) ư˶Ѳ (strong conjugation) ȼѲ (weak conjugation) 2γѤ
(4) 촴1˶

One major Germanic innovation was a shift from an aspectual to a tense system. This coincided with the shift to initial accent, and both may have been due to language contact, maybe with Finno-Ugric. Initial stress deprived ablaut of its phonological conditioning, and the shift from aspect to tense required a systematic marking of the new preterit tense. From this, two types of exponents emerged. One is connected to the secondary (weak) verbs, which only had present aspect/tense forms. They developed an affixal "dental preterit", together with an affix for the past participle. The source of the latter was the Indo-European participial -to-suffix; the source of the former is not clear . . . . The most popular theory is grammaticalization of a periphrastic construction with do (IE *dhe-), but there are a number of phonological problems with this. The second type was the functionalization of the originally non-functional ablaut alternations to express the new category, i.e. the making use of junk . . . . But this was somewhat unsystematic, because original perfect forms were mixed with aorist forms, resulting in a pattern with over- and under-differentiation. Thus, in class III (helpan : healp : hulpon : geholpen) the preterit is over-differentiated, because the different ablaut forms are non-functional, since the personal endings would be sufficient to signal the necessary distinctions. But in class I (wrītan : wrāt : writon : gewriten), there is under-differentiation, because some preterit forms and the past participle have the same vowel. (140)


Kastovsky ˤСޥĸϡ餯 Finno-Ugric Ȥθܿη̡(a) ĸŪ (aspect) Ż뤹줫 (tense) Ż뤹ؤɤڤꡤ(b) ѥȤŪʸƬȤؤڤؤäȤ˶̤٤褦ˤʤäη֤ϡȤȤϰĸŪʥѰۤ˰¸Ƥ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ǽŪˡѤƺäΤȡ (dental suffix) դȤΤȤäηȿʣȤؤˤꡤѸưŪʻѲϢʤפΩƤäΤǤ롥츫ȸߤ̵ط˻פ븽ݤ֤εˤƸߤ˴ϢƤȤ1Ĥ
ΰѤǿƤȴϢơ#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) ⻲ȡ

Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-07-1]

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2018-06-18 Mon

#3339. ѸδŪԵ§ư [verb][conjugation][inflection][vowel][oe][hel_education][tense][preterite]

ѸԵ§ư (irregular verb) οϡʣưޤС褷ƾʤȤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ춵δŪư˸¤С60٤Ǥ롥㤨СعؽƳΡ٤dzؽ٤Ȥ139ĤưΤ§ư82졤Ե§ư57Ǥ롥 (44--45ˤƷǤƤ57ΥꥹȤʲ˵󤲤Ƥ

*become*begin*breakbringbuildbuy
catch*comecutdo*draw*drink
*drive*eat*fallfeel*find*fly
*forget*get*givego*growhave
hearkeep*knowleavelend*let
losemakemeanmeetputread
*ride*rise*runsay*seesell
send*singsit*sleep*speakspend
*spring*stand*swimtaketeachtell
think*wind*write


57ĤԵ§ưΤűѸǶѲư°ƤΤϡˤ뤬ۤȾʬ29ĤǤ* դΡˡĤΤۤȤɤϡŪʴԵ§Ǥ뤫Τ褦˸뤬űѸȤƤϵ§ŪưäȤ櫓
ѸԵ§ư˴ؤ붦Ū̻Ūϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1])#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1])#2210. think -- thought -- thought γѡ ([2015-05-16-1])#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1])#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) ϤȤ뵭Ǽ夲ƤΤǡ

塡رѸѤʵ36ϡ١ҡ2018ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-25-1] [2019-05-15-1]

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2018-06-14 Thu

#3335. Ѳưβʬ -n [participle][oe][inflection][reconstruction][indo-european][germanic][suffix][gradation][verb][verners_law]

ѸΡԵ§ưפβʬˤϡŵŪ -(e)nwritten, born, eaten, fallen ǡǤ롥ϡűѸǶѲưȸƤФưβʬͳ褹ΤǤꡤűѸǤ⤽줾 writen, boren, eten, feallen Τ褦ˡ§Ū -en 줿ʡ#2217. űѸ춯Ѳư෿ΤޤȤ ([2015-05-23-1]) ˼ѥ򻲾ȡˡ
űѸζѲư ablaut 뤤 gradation ȸƤФ첻Ǥϡߡ12ʬ4̤졤碌ưΡ4׷ (four principal parts) ȸƤФ롥4ܤβʬγʤΤűѸ줫餵̤СϤȤȤư줽ΤΤ°볬ǤϤʤäषư줫Ωƻͳ褹餷ޥĸǤ *ROOT - - n- ƷƤꡤĸǤ * ROOT- o - nó- ƷƤ롥ķ˴ޤޤɡ n ѸˤޤǻĤʬ -(e)n εȹͤƤ롥
θϡ촴β֤ˤ⾯ƶͿƤ롥äդ٤ϡĸķǤ϶ n θ³ȤϡޥǤ Verner's Law ͳƸ촴λҲѲȤͽۤ롥ʤߤˡѲ V, VI, VII ˤĤơʬθ촴첻γˤ긽߷ƱˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥˤդ (ex. tredan (pres.)/treden (pp.), faran (pres.)/faren (pp.), healdan (pres.)/healden (pp.))
ʾ塤Lass (161--62) 򻲾Ȥ-en ˤĤƤϡϢơ#1916. ˡȽˡǰۤʤ֤ķƻ ([2014-07-26-1]) ⻲ȡ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2018-04-24 Tue

#3284. be ưü [be][inflection][inflection][clitic][verb][auxiliary_verb][sobokunagimon]

be ư줬üưǤ뤳ȤϡƸޤǤʤ褦˻פ롥¾ưˤʤ褦ʣʶޤ򼨤Ūˤϼ¤ˤؤƤưºݤˡ#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 ([2018-04-19-1]) 3ܤˤ󤲤褦ˡbe ư¿αѸؽԤ˷㤷֤ʤפ
be ư˼ٹˤä Crystal The Story of Be ν (p. xi--xii) Ǥϡbe ưü󤵤Ƥ롥

(1) be ưϡѸ¾Τư¿ͤѲġwalk ʤ walk, walks, walked, walked 4ΰۤʤ򼨤go ʤ go, goes, going, gone, went 5ΰۤʤ򼨤be Ǥ be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been 8ब̤롥ŪˤСbe ¿ܤΤۤɤǤ롥
(2) ٤Ƥ¾ưǤϡ߷ˤͭɸη֤ĤΤ3;ñ -s Τߤbe ưǤϾ嵭Τ褦123;ΤΤ줾ˤưۤʤ֤򼨤
(3) be ǤϡΤȯ (be, been) ȶΤʤȯ (bi, bin, bn) ̤롥
(4) ܸŪ̾³ơtwas (< it was), wast (< was it) Τ褦ͻ礹롥ޤyou're, I'm, aren't, weren't ʤɤν򼨤Ʊͤν򼨤Τϡۤ have do ΤߤǤ (ex. hasn't, don't)
(5) be ư3Ĥ˰ۤʤʸˡǽġ1ܤˡ¸ߤפ̣ưȤơ2ܤ˿ʹԷư֤ưȤơ3ܤϢ (copula) ȤƤǤ롥¾ưǤޤ¿̤ʵǽͭΤϤʤ

Crystal ᤯ϡǡ

It is thus hardly surprising to find that, over the past 1,500 years, be has developed a wide range of meanings and uses, and a wider range of variant forms than any other English verb. It is the second most frequent word in English, after the. If any verb deserves its own story, it is this one.


Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.

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2017-11-26 Sun

#3135. -ed ε [suffix][preterite][participle][germanic][indo-european][verb][inflection][etymology][reduplication][gothic][grammaticalisation][preterite-present_verb][degemination][sobokunagimon][-st][dental_suffix]

Ѹˤưβʬ˷ -ed "dental suffix" ȤƤФ졤ղäϥޥͭηֲǤʡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 򻲾ȡˡˤäƥޥϡ촴첻ѲƲ췿ζѲưԵ§Ѳưˤȡ dental suffix ղäѲưʵ§ѲưˤȤ2ʬ뤳ȤˤʤäԤϡֵ§Ūפʤ˸¿ưعäƤѸưˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤʡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
Ѹ -ed Υޥˤ뵯ˤĤƤϽ⤢ꡤ夬ĤƤʤͭϤˤȡư do ƱǤϤʤȤdo ΤưṲ̄ȤȤǧˤ衤ʬˤΰ̣ɤФƤΤϼǤϤʤƱˤȡޥˤ do 촴Τʣ (reduplication) ȤŤֲäƤˡƱҲ2ٸ *dēd- ʤɤη֤Ȥʤä䤬첻üλҲ蘆äƽŻҲȤʤäæŻҲơɤΤȤ *d- ˼ޤäĤޤꡤ-ed λҲϡdo θ촴ҲбƱˡ줬Τ˽ʣƱҲˤб뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǥϡϲ餫ʸˤٻΤȸ˾嵭ηֲ򤦤碌㤬ĤȤLass (164)

The origin of the weak preterite is a perennial source of controversy. The main problem is that it is a uniquely Germanic invention, which is difficult to connect firmly with any single IE antecedent. Observing the old dictum ex nihilo nihil fit (nothing is made out of nothing), scholars have proposed numerous sources, none of which is without its difficulties. The main problem is that there are at least three consonantisms: /d/ (Go nasida 'I saved', inf. nasjan), /t/ (Go baúhta 'I bought', inf. bugjan), and /s/ (Go wissa 'I knew', inf *witan).
   But even given this complexity, the most likely primary source seems to be compounding of an original verbal noun of some sort with the verb */dhe:-/ 'put, place, do' (OHG tuon, OE dōn, OCS dějati 'do', Skr dádhati 'he places', L fēci 'I made, did').
   This leads to a useful analysis of a Gothic pret 3 ppl like nasidēdun 'they saved':
   
(7.18) nas - i -dē - d - un
       SAVE-theme-reduplication-DO-3 pl

I.e. a verbal root followed by a thematic connective followed by the reduplicated perfect plural of 'do'. This gives a periphrastic construction with a sense like 'did V-ing'; with, significantly, Object-Verb order . . ., i.e. (7.18) has the form of an OV clause 'NP-pl sav(ing) did'. An extended form also existed, in which a nominalizing suffix */-ti/ or */-tu/ was intercalated between the root and the 'do' form, e.g. in Go faúrhtidēdun 'they feared', which can be analysed as {faúrh-ti-dē-d-un}. This suffix was in many cases later weakened; first the vowel dropped, so that */-ti-d-/ > */-td-/; this led to assimilation */-tt-/, and then eventual reinterpretation of the /t/-initial portion as a suffix itself, and loss of the 'do' part from verbs of this type . . . . The problematic /s(s)/ forms may go back to a different (earlier) development also involving */-ti/, in which the sequence */tt/ > /s(s)/ . . . but this is not clear.


פˡ-ed ղäθϼ̤ޤư촴̾첽ܤư̾Τ褦ʤΤ롥ľˡdo β did Τ褦ʤΤ֤ơΤȤơ֡ưˤưԤʤäפȤ롥Τ褦ˤȤȤOVαŪ칽¤ȤƻϤޤä䤬ΤĤŤޤäʣΤ褦ʤΤȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤꡤŪʲؤȰܹԤʳ˻äơ-ed ʬϡŪǤȤʤ«ǤȲᤵ줿ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȤߤƤ褤
ΰѤ Lass Go wissa ˸ڤȤȤˡǸ /s(s)/ ˸ڤǤ뤬бűѸˤư wāt βȤ wiste/wisse ꡤŪ񤷤ꤲƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2231. ưβ˸ -st- ([2015-06-06-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2017-03-17 Fri

#2881. Ѹʣ2;̿ξü [imperative][verb][inflection][number][agreement]

ɸθѲˤĤơ#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1]) ȡ#2476. Ѹˤˤư̿ˡ³ˡŪǽŪͻ礷 ([2016-02-06-1]) Ǿ줿޸μ岽üϡȤ櫓űѸѸˤƵäѸ˾Ѳư̿ζ޸ˤĤƤϡŪDZƤᤫޤܳŪʵҤʤƤʤ褦˻פ롥ưˤֿΰספɸʤ˴ؤȤ־νĤѸˤ2;ΤΡֿפϤ t/v_distinction Ȥݥ饤ȥͥľ뤹Ǥ⤢뤫顤ʾɵ椹ͤΤơޤʤΤǤϤʤ
ηˤĤơ (162) äƤߤȡΤ褦ˤä

̿ˡñʣ
ñ {-ø} (sing/her (=hear))첻<h> Ǥ -e ⵯ롥ʣܼľˡʣΤȤۤƱʬۤ򼨤 ({-es, -eth})ɽľ³Ȥ {-e} (helpe ye)15ȾФ {-ø} ʣƤˤʽФ褦ˤʤAncrR ˤǤˤ㤬ˡ


p. 277 ˤϢ뵭Ҥä

̿ˡ϶ܼ (helpes, helpeth) ޤϸ (helpe ye) ˤꤢ蘆롥Ԥϼ줬ʣ뤤ϡŤʸƤӳݤפñξѤ롥ɽȼȤϤƤޤǤ롥ԤñʣξѤ롥


顤Ѹ̿ˡʣϡ(1) ޸ˤĤľˡʣƱʬۤ򼨤Ȥȡ(2) Ťñפ2;ΤˤѤ줿ȡ(3) 15Ⱦк饼ޤִ褦ˤʤäƤȤʬ롥ʾξܺ٤ʵҤϤʤ
Ѹ͡ۼܥƥȤʤɤʬۤĴꡤ˻̤äƽѸդʬۤ򸫤Ƥߤ뤳ɬפ⤷ʤ

סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-01-1]

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2017-02-21 Tue

#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤ [link][notice][3sp][3pp][conjugation][verb][inflection][variety][rensai][sobokunagimon]

220ˡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ2Ȥʤ֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤҤΥȤ˥åץɤޤ3ñ -s ˴ؤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ 3sp γƵǽ񤭤ƤޤΤΤϡѤʵפȤݤǤޤȤ᤿ȤȤʤäƤޤɤ
ϢܵΤʤǤϿޤǤ3ñ -s Ūˤϡ3;ΡʣߤդĤޤʣפζޤʿŪ˹ͤɬפޤμݤ顤ܥ֥ǤϡʣפˤĤƤ 3pp Ȥƥ꡼ΤȤ͡Ƥޤ碌ƤȤ
ޤϢܵǤ⡤رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡǤ⡤ܤ夲ޤǤ -th äƤ3ñѸˤ -s ֤줿аޤ˴ؤ꤬ޤ⡤Ѹ˾塤ɴФζ̣ǤƤߤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1])#2156. C16b--C17a 3ñ -th -s Ѳ ([2015-03-23-1]) ʤɤ

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2017-01-26 Thu

#2831. performative hypothesis [pragmatics][speech_act][syntax][verb][performative_hypothesis][performative]

#2674. Ūʸ3Ĥħ ([2016-08-22-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡʸˤϡĥĽʸ (constative) ȡξ˹԰٤ȼʸ (performative) 2ब롥ͤ褦ˤäƤϡĽʸĽҡפȤȯù԰ (speech_act) ԤʤΤǤΤ顤1οʸǤȤʸˤϡΡֿԡפưľɽ魯Ūʸ (ex. I command you to surrender immediately.) ȡǤʤżŪʸ (ex. Surrender immediately.) 뤳ȤͤС㤨 You're a stupid cow. Τ褦̾ĽʸϡʸƬ I hereby insult you that . . . ʤɤä򤹤٤ĽҡפȤԤɽ魯żŪʸʤΤȵǤ뤫⤷ʤΤ褦ˡĽʸϼ¤ϿʸǤꡤʸƬˡI hereby + ư (performative verb) פʤɤƤΤȲ᤹벾performative hypothesis ȸƤǤ롥
βϹϼƤʤȤƵ󤲤 I hereby insult you that you're a stupid cow. ȤʸͤƤߤ褦ʸỤ̄Ūˤʤ̾ȯäȤƤϤʤԼǤ롥Ūˤʸε餢롥ˡŪ˱ƤȤʬοư줬ֱĤ (lie) ֶ (threaten) ʤɤʸƤߤȤɤޤޤʸΤԼΩäƤ롥ˡƤư줬ʹ꤬ΤꤹˡϤΤȤ⤢롥
β1970ǯ󵯤줿1980ǯʹߡ̣줾Ω줫꤬Ŧ졤ȽƤǤ˲βȸäƤ褤Ȼפ뤬Ƭ˵󤲤̿פʤɡοư˴ؤƤϡʷŪȤƻȤΤ⤷ʤʾ塤Huang (97--98) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-24-1]

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2016-11-24 Thu

#2768. ưư come ľ [verb][deixis][pragmatics]

¿θˡ˴ؤľ (deixis) 롥ľŪɽˤϡhither thither ʤɤ̣ܼǤ侮ɽ蘆Τ⤢Сcome go Τ褦˰ưư (motion verb) ʤɤɽ蘆Τ⤢롥
褯ΤƤ褦ˡѸ go/come λȤʬϡܸΡֹԤפλȤʬȤϼ㴳ۤʤ롥ä꤬ʹ˶ŤưϡܸǤϡֻϤʤΤȤعԤޤפɽΤФơѸǤ I'll come to you ɽ롥ϡѸ come ܸפ˴ؤľۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ򼨤Ƥ롥
Ѹ come ϡFillmore ̾ʸˤСʤȤʲ5ĤξΤȤѤȤʰʲHuang 161 ˡ

(i) movement towards the speaker's location at CT [= coding time]
(ii) movement towards the speaker's location at arrival time
(iii) movement towards the addressee's location at CT
(iv) movement towards the addressee's location at arrival time
(v) movement towards the home-base maintained at CT by either the speaker or the addressee.

Ū John will come to the library next week. ȤʸǹͤƤߤ褦ʸȯ뤳ȤǤΤϡޤä꤬޽ۤˤǤ (= (i)) ˡä꤬轵 John äƤ֤˿޽ۤˤˤΩ (= (ii)) ˡʹ꤬޽ۤˤ (= (iii))뤤轵 John äƤ֤˿޽ۤˤ (= (iv)) ˤȤ롥Ǹˡäʹ꤬ºݤ˺뤤轵˿޽ۤˤ뤫ɤˤ餺޽ۤäʹܾ̾ "home-base" 㤨СˤǤˤϡʸΩ롥㤨Сäʹ꤬Ȥˤο޽ۤλʽǤȲꤹȡʸʤΩ롥John will come to the library next week, but both of us will be on holiday then.
̸Ū come ˤ褽ưưľξ郎ۤʤäƤ褦ˡ˸¤äƤ⡤̻Ūˤξ郎ѲƤȤǽϤ롥Ԥ˸Ȥʤ뤬Τ褦ʸϤǤˤΤѸˤǤõäƤߤΤ⤪⤷
deixis ̤ˤĤƤϡ#2680. deixis ([2016-08-28-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

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2016-10-18 Tue

#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 [suffix][conversion][latin][participle][analogy][adjective][verb][-ate]

ñˤ -ate ĤΤ¿ϥƥ1ưβʬθ˸ -atus, -atum ͳ褷ѸǤϸͽۤƻ̾ȤƵǽƤФ꤫ưȤƤⵡǽƤ롥ʻ줴ȤˡĤ󤲤褦ʤˤϡʣʻͤƤΤ⤢뤳Ȥ˵Ť

̾졧 advocate, legate, centrifugate, duplicate, mandate, vulcanizate; alcoholate, ferrate, acetate, carbonate; episcopate, pontificate, professorate, rabbinate
ƻ졧 consummate, degenerate, inanimate, Italianate, temperate; branchiate, chordate, foliate
ư졧 activate, assassinate, camphorate, capacitate, chlorinate, concentrate, domesticate, evaporate, fractionate, hyphenate, locate, negotiate, orchestrate, pollinate, pontificate, substantiate, triangulate, ulcerate, vaccinate, venerate

-ate ϥƥβʬͳ褹Τ顤ѸǤƻȤơ뤤Ϥ̾ˡͳ̾ȤѤȤΤ򤷤䤹ѸǤ -ate 줬ưȤѤ㤬¿ष-ate ıñȤСޤư㤬פ⤫֤ΤǤϤʤʤ -ate ưȤʤΤ
ͳˤĤƤϡƻ줬ưʻž (conversion) 뤳ȤϱѸˤʤ-ate ƻ⤽η˾äƼͳưؤʻžΤȸƤ롥ΤǤ white, warm, busy, dry, empty, dirty ʤɤǷƻ줫ưؤʻžϸ뤷ե󥹼ѸǤ clear, humble, manifest ʤɤ㤬롥顤ƥͳ褹 -ate ƻ⤽ΤޤưȤѤƻ졤ˤβ̲˵ڤǡȤȤΥƥ1ưϤȤˤ -ate ȼưȤƱѸ˼ޤȤ夷ΤȤ (see #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]))
嵭ϡBaugh and Cable (222) ǤѤƤꡤ˶ᤤΤȤʤäƤ롥OED -ate, suffix3 ǤƱܤƤ뤬κǸˡΤ褦ʥȤդդƤꡤ̣

(It is possible that the analogy of native verbs in -t, with the pa. pple. identical in form with the infinitive, as set, hit, put, cut, contributed also to the establishment of verbs like direct, separat(e, identical with their pa. pples.)


κǸθȴϢơ#1860. Ʊβʬ ([2014-05-31-1])#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) ȡ#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޤ-ate ̤¦̤#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1]) ǰäƤΤǡɤ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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