#2185. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο ([2015-04-21-1]) ơĴ٤ƤߤȤ𤹤롥Jespersen äƤߤεȤˤܤ˹ͤƤȤJespersen ȯդ줿褦ʵ-self κƵ̾βŪʽŤȤ˲äme him ʤɤñƵ̾ΰ̣Ūʷڤ뤤 "dative of interest" ˡ (cf. #980. ethical dative ([2012-01-02-1])) ȤƤΰʬϤͿƤΤǤϤʤȤĹʬ䤹ʤΤǰѤ褦 (Jespersen 325)
Omission of Reflexive Pronouns
16.21. In a great many cases the verb as used intransitively represents an older reflexive verb. The change of construction may have been brought about in two ways. In the older stages of the language the ordinary personal pronoun was used in a reflexive sense, but me in I rest me, originally in the accusative (he hine reste), might easily be felt as representing a 'dative of interest' (cf I buy me a hat, etc.) and thus be discarded as really superfluous. In the second place, after the self-pronouns had come to be generally used, the reflexive object in I dress myself might be taken to be the empathic pronoun in apposition to the nominative (the difference in stress not being always strictly maintained) and thus might easily appear superfluous. The tendency is towards getting rid of the cumbersome self-pronoun whenever no ambiguity is to be feared; thus a modern Englishman or American will say I wash, dress, and shave, where his ancestor would add (me, or) myself in each case. One of the reasons for this evolution is evidently the heaviness of the forms myself, ourselves, etc., while there is not the same inducement in other languages to get rid of the short me, se, mich, sich, migh, sig, sja, etc. Hence also the development of the activo-passive use . . . in many cases where other languages have either the reflexive or the passive forms that have arisen out of the reflexive (Scand. -s, Russian -sja, -s.)
ΰѤθǡJespersen ŪȤƤκƵ̾줬ά줿ưɽѸ¿ƤįƤȡ¿ư줬Ѹˤơּư첽פƤǧǤ롥դˤСδФϡɽ⤢ɽ⤫ĤƤϺƵ̾ȼäƤΤȶäФ˺Ƶ̾ѤȴФƤߤ롥
we bowed our selves towards him (Bacon A 4.34)
may I complain my selfe (Sh R 2 I 2.42)
they drew themselves more westerly towards the Red sea (Raleigh)
I dress my selfe handsome, till thy returne (Sh H 4 B II.4.302)
I though it would make me feel myself a boy again, but . . . I never felt so old as I do to-day (Barrie T 65)
Both I do repent me and repent it (Sh)
[he] retyr'd himselfe To Italy (Sh R 2 IV 1.96)
He . . . hath solne him home to bed (Sh Ro II 1.4)
Jesus turned him about (AV Matth. 9.22)
yeeld thee, coward (Sh Mcb V 8.23)
Ƶ̾ξάȴϢơ̾ (each other, one another) ξάѥʷȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ (Jespersen 332) we meet, we kiss, we marry Τ褦Ūʰ̣ˤƼưȤƻȤ뤬ŪȤ each other ȼäƤembrace, greet, hug ʤɤ⤳롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part III. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1954.
ɸΤ褦ˡѸ have Ե§ѲưǤ롥has -s 뤷, had -d ⤢뤫顤Ե§Ȥϼ㴳Ե§Ȥ٤ʤ *haves *haved ǤϤʤΤ
ŪˤߤСߤǤϵƤʤ haves haved ¸ߤűѸ˾Ȥ餷ƤߤȡưϽ˵§ŪʶޤưǤϤʤä٤˵§ŪǤꡤ̤ϻ¾ε§ѲưȹͤƤƺ٤ʤűѸ䡤Ȥ櫓ѸǤϡhaves haved ֵ§Ūפʽ֤Τ˹ԤƤΤǤ롥
űѸ habban (have) ζɽϡ#74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1]) ǷǤʲ˰۷֤ޤɽƷǤ褦
| habban (have) | Present Indicative | Present Subjunctive | Preterite Indicative | Preterite Subjunctive | Imperative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sg. | hæbbe | hæbbe | hæfde | hæfde | |
| 2nd sg. | hæfst, hafast | hafa | |||
| 3rd sg. | hæfþ, hafaþ | ||||
| pl. | habbaþ | hæbben | hæfdon | hæfden | habbaþ |
եؽԤեˤ̾ưȤƥ뤬ѸˤϤʤΤϤʤȤǤ롥ŪˤϡMa mere se lève tôt. ʻˤΤ褦ʸˤ롤se leve ʬ̾ưȤ졤ֺƵ̾ưפȤ¤ʤƤ롥ѸˤʤСMy mother raises herself early. ȤɽǤ롥̤αѸǤ rise get up ʤɤưѤȤǡեǤ̾ưȤȤΤ¿ޤɥĸǤ Du hast dich gar nicht verändert. (You haven't changed at all) Τ褦ˡֺƵ̾ưפ褯Ѥ̾ưŪɽȯãƤȤ롥
Τ褦ɽϵŪˤϰĸ (middle_voice) ˡ̤ꡤäưˤ¿쾯ʤбʪ¸ߤ롥ºݡѸˤ help oneself, behave oneself, pride oneself on ʤɺƵ̾ư줬¤ʤɽ¿롥ѸǤϥե̾ưΤ褦ư1ƥȤߤۤɤˤȯãƤʤȤΤϻ¤ˤΤϡȤ̤ȤȤˤʤ롥ѸǺƵ̾ѤưɽΩʤΤϤʤ
εΤ˲褦Ȥк٤Ĵɬפ뤬绨ĤˤСѸǤŤϺƵ̾ȼưɽä˭٤ˤäȤȤǤ롥¾ưܺƵ̾פΤߤʤ餺ּưܺƵ̾פι¤ŤϤä¿Ԥϡ#578. go him ([2010-11-26-1]) #1392. ͿʤκƵ̾ ([2013-02-17-1]) ǸȤǤ롥Τ褦ʹ¤ʤư췲ˤϸʩȸȤӤΤ¿ưɽ魯ư (ex. go, return, run, sit, stand, turn) Ū֤ɽ魯ư (ex. doubt, dread, fear, remember) ɽ魯ư (buy, choose, get, make, procure, seek, seize, steal) ¾ (bear, bethink, rest, revenge, sport, stay) äȤΤ褦ɽ϶Ѹʹߤ˽Ѥ졤Ƶ̾æ˻ä
ѸǤƵ̾æĬή塹³Ƥ롥㤨Сadjust (oneself) to, behave (oneself), dress (oneself), hide (oneself), identify (oneself) with, prepare (oneself) for, prove (oneself) (to be), wash (oneself), worry (oneself) ʤɤǤϡƵ̾Τʤñʹ¤ޤ뷹롥Quirk et al. (358) ϡΤ褦ư "semi-reflexive verb" ȸƤǤ롥
ʾޤȤСѸޤǤϰĸͳ褹Ūʷ֤٤ޤݻȯŸƤʹߤƵŪʷִ֤ƤȤѸˤƤοबʤΤȤ櫓ʤѸȤߥΤˤĤƤϡʤĴɬפǤ롥Ƶ̾η֤ -self ᤹褦ˤʤꡤŪ˽ŤʤäȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤʱѸˤˤƺƵ̾줬 -self ޤͭη֤߽ФΤѸʹߤǤꡤ⤽ʸζѸǤ⡤-self ޤޤʤ̤ο;̾äƺƵ̾ѤƤȤա#1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1]) ȡˡ뤤ϡñΤưФ̣ŪʺʬϤȤȤ⤢ʣŪʻ٤Τ褦˻פ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ɸΤ褦 said John ʤãư줬֤ˤĤơ[2015-02-25-1]ε³Ԥ롥ѸΤθˤĤơBiber et al. (922) ϡQuirk et al. εҤ¿Ťʤ뤬Τ褦ŪͿƤ롥
Subject-verb order is virtually the rule where one or more of the following three conditions apply:
The subject is an unstressed pronoun:
"The safety record at Stansted is first class," he said. (NEWS)
The verb phrase is complex (containing auxiliary plus main verb):
"Konrad Schneider is the only one who matters," Reinhold had answered. (FICT)
The verb is followed by a specification of the addressee:
There's so much to living that I did not know before, Jackie had told her happily. (FICT)
LGSWE Corpus ǤĴˤȡʸθ֤Ǥ SV VS Ūˤ褽Ʊ餤٤ȤFICTIONǤ SV ¿NEWSǤ VS ޤʤɡʬȤȤδطǤСεǿ줿褦ˡjournalistic writing 䤪ɤ̤ǤʸǤ VS 뤳ȤȤϻѰʸΤȤδϢ
ãưǤȤạ́Ū¡ǤŪѰʸΤδͿװʣ߹ä said John John said ꤵȤС¿Ū˸ƤʤФʤʤȤˤʤ롥ۤˤŪװͿƤǽ⤢ꤽ¾ΰʸƳɽʤȤӤɬפ̻Ūʴϡ߹礤ˤƤΤޤդˤȯãʤɤȤδط뤫ɤʤɡ̣ԤʤʸԤˤĤƤϡ#2004. ICEHL18 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2014-10-22-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 ICEHL18 γزǡȯã quoth οȤͿƤǽȤݤ Colette Moore θƬȯɽİȤ롥The ICEHL18 Book of Abstracts (PDF) pp. 170--71 ȡ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Ѹˤư츽߿;θ -th -s ѲˤĤƤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ˴Ϣ Bambas ʸɤߤκǿθ̤ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤˤ褯ޤȤޤäƤ롥
ѸˤǤϡ1600ǯդξȤ The Authorised Version Լˤ3ñ -s ̵Ǥ뤳ȤФˤ롥Bacon The New Atlantis (1627) ˤ -s ʤȤΤƤ롥顤ʸŪʸǤ -s ϸŪˤȤΤ̤äΤǤϤʤȤ¬Ωġ Jespersen (19) ϤΤ褦ʰոǤ롥
Contemporary prose, at any rate in its higher forms, has generally -th'; the s-ending is not at all found in the A[uthorized] V[ersion], nor in Bacon A[tlantis] (though in Bacon E[ssays] there are some s'es). The conclusion with regard to Elizabethan usage as a whole seems to be that the form in s was a colloquialism and as such was allowed in poetry and especially in the drama. This s must, however, be considered a licence wherever it occurs in the higher literature of that period. (qtd in Bambas, p. 183)
Bambas (183) ˤСꥶ٥īλʸȤΥƥȤĴƤߤȡºݤˤ1590ǯޤǤˤʸŪʸˤƤ -s ǧƤꡤƤͻҤϤʤθ⡤Ŀͤˤä٤ΰ㤤礭ΤΡ-s 줿ȹͤͳϤʤȤJespersen θϡ-s βᾮɾǤȡ
The fact seems to be that by the 1590's the -s-form was fully acceptable in literary prose usage, and the varying frequency of the occurrence of the new form was thereafter a matter of the individual writer's whim or habit rather than of deliberate selection.
ơ17 -th -s ˼äƵˤʤäƤäȸ롥Wyld (333--34) ۩
From the beginning of the seventeenth century the 3rd Singular Present nearly always ends in -s in all kinds of prose writing except in the stateliest and most lofty. Evidently the translators of the Authorized Version of the Bible regarded -s as belonging only to familiar speech, but the exclusive use of -eth here, and in every edition of the Prayer Book, may be partly due to the tradition set by the earlier biblical translations and the early editions of the Prayer Book respectively. Except in liturgical prose, then, -eth becomes more and more uncommon after the beginning of the seventeenth century; it is the survival of this and not the recurrence of -s which is henceforth noteworthy. (qtd in Bambas, p. 185)
Bambas Ϥˤ۵Ĥ롥Wyld θϡ-eth βᾮɾǤȡĤޤȤ Bambas ϡ1600ǯǯδ֡-s -th ŪˤԤԤִȤήǤϤ뤬ξ¸λȤߤΤŬڤǤȤոΰո٤ΤϡBambas ȤԤä16ȾФ17ȾФˤƤλʸˤĴ̤Ǥ롥Bambas (186) ɽƸ褦
| Author | Title | Date | Incidence of -s |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ascham, Roger | Toxophilus | 1545 | 6% |
| Robynson, Ralph | More's Utopia | 1551 | 0% |
| Knox, John | The First Blast of the Trumpet | 1558 | 0% |
| Ascham, Roger | The Scholmaster | 1570 | 0.7% |
| Underdowne, Thomas | Heriodorus's Anaethiopean Historie | 1587 | 2% |
| Greene, Robert | Groats-Worth of Witte; Repentance of Robert Greene; Blacke Bookes Messenger | 1592 | 50% |
| Nashe, Thomas | Pierce Penilesse | 1592 | 50% |
| Spenser, Edmund | A Veue of the Present State of Ireland | 1596 | 18% |
| Meres, Francis | Poetric | 1598 | 13% |
| Dekker, Thomas | The Wonderfull Yeare 1603 | 1603 | 84% |
| Dekker, Thomas | The Seuen Deadlie Sinns of London | 1606 | 78% |
| Daniel, Samuel | The Defence of Ryme | 1607 | 62% |
| Daniel, Samuel | The Collection of the History of England | 1612--18 | 94% |
| Drummond of Hawlhornden, W. | A Cypress Grove | 1623 | 7% |
| Donne, John | Devotions | 1624 | 74% |
| Donne, John | Ivvenilia | 1633 | 64% |
| Fuller, Thomas | A Historie of the Holy Warre | 1638 | 0.4% |
| Jonson, Ben | The English Grammar | 1640 | 20% |
| Milton, John | Areopagitica | 1644 | 85% |

ε#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ĸ줫饲ޥĸˤȤؤˤĤơܤ롥ĸΥƥƤ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޥĸˤƻȿΥƥιװȤƤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ζ̤ؤȰܹԤŪʶ̤ݻޤޤˡŬäȤˤʤ롥ޤбγάŪ˼ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(Indo-European) (Germanic) PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT PRETERITE 1 AORIST PRETERITE 2
(i) loss of the (semantic) opposition perfect/aorist; (ii) retention of the diluted semantic content 'past' shared by both (in other words, loss of aspect but retention of distal time-deixis); (iii) retention of the morpho(phono)logical exponents of the old categories perfect and aorist, but divested of their oppositional meaning; (iv) redeployment of the now semantically evacuated exponents as markers of a secondary (concordial) category; in effect re-use of the now 'meaningless' old material to bolster an already existing concordial system, but in quite a new way.
ĸˤ¸ߤʤäƥޥĸˤƿȯ줿Ȥ̣ǡγŬϤޤ "conceptual novelty" λȤ롥
Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.
ɸˤĤƤ 3pp γƵǼ夲ƤϢ뵭Ҥ⤦1ĸĤΤǡʲ˵Ƥ#1301. Gramley αѸ˳Υѥ˥ȡ ([2012-11-18-1]) ȡ#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Gramley (136--37) ΰѤǤ롥
Third person {-s} vs. {-(e)th} is a further inflectional point. This distinction is one of the most noticeable in this period [EModE], and it may be used as evidence of the influence of Northern on Southern English. In ME Northerners used the ending {-s} where Southerners used {-(e)th}. In each case the respective inflection could be used in both the third person singular present tense as well as in the whole of the plural . . . . While zero became normal in the plural, in the third person singular present tense there was no such move, and the two forms were in competition with each other both in colloquial London speech and in the written language.
ƱѸ˽ѥ˥ꡤ6ϤΤ (p. 8) ˡ˾ܤ⤬ܤäƤͭѤǤ롥ޤǤ Northern Subject Rule (= Northern Present Tense Rule; cf. nptr, #689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])) ˤƤꡤδϢ Lass (166, 185) Nevalainen and Raumolin-Brunberg (283, 312) ؤθڤ⤢롥
NPTR ˤŬѤ줿̤Ȼפʣ -s Ƥ
they laugh that wins (F1--3, Q1--3; win F4) (Shakespeare, Othello 4.1.121)
whereby they make their pottage fat, and therewith driues out the rest with more content. (Deloney, Jack of Newbury 72)
For if neither they can doo that they promise & wantes greatest good (Elizabeth, Boethius 48.11)
Well know they what they speak that speaks (F1; speak Q) so wisely (Shakespeare, Troilus 3.2.145)
when sorrows comes (F1), they come not single spies. (Shakespeare, Hamlet 4.5.73)
As surely as your feet hits (F1) the ground they step on (Shakespeare, Twelfth Night 3.4.265)
Shakespeare ǤǤˤäʣ -s 줿äꤹ㤬뤳Ȥ顤ˤʸŪ뤤̻ŪʴްդꤽǤ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
Nevalainen, T. and H. Raumolin-Brunberg. "The Changing Role of London on the Linguistic Map of Tudor and Stuart England." The History of English in a Social Context: A Contribution to Historical Sociolinguistics. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Mettinger. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 279--337.
ɸ䤤˼üˤϡɽǻGörlach (68) ˤɽΰˡ
| South | Midland | North | ||
| Present Indicative | 3sg. | -(e)þ | -(e)þ | -(e)s |
| pl. | -(e)þ | -(e)n | -(e)s | |
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| LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' | LAEME: pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero |
|
| LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero |
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| eLALME: 3sp 's' | eLALME: 3sp 'th' |
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| eLALME: pp 's' | eLALME: pp 'th' |
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| eLALME: pp 'n' | eLALME: pp 'e' or zero |
#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ173ñζ -th -s ؤ֤äƤäϡλ夫ʹԤƤִηаޤҲ𤷤褦
űѸǹԤʤƤ3ñ -s ̤ˤСѸ -s Ƹ줿Τ14ΥɥΥƥȤˤƤǤ롥Ϥޤä15˽٤ȯŪΤ16--17ˤƤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ȿǤƤ褦ʥƥȤˤơ٤ޤäƤä褦-s ϡ褽1600ǯޤǤɸȤʤäƤȻפ뤬16ΥƥȤˤɤ줬ߤΤ¤Ǥ롥Ť -th 첻ȼä -eth ȤƲ-s ϲʤäᡤξԤϱΧŪǻȤʬ줿פ (ex. that hateth thee and hates us all) 㤨СShakespeare ǤϻʸǤϤۤȤ -s ѤƤ뤬ʸǤ -th 롥ȤϤξ٤ϡΧŪװʸŪװʾ˸ĿͤޤϺʤʤ˰¸뤳Ȥ¿쳵뤳ȤϤǤʤdoth hath ʤ٤˹⤤ˤĤơŷФ餯ͥǤ³-s ٤줿ȤȤϡŪħ1ĤȤõ
Lass (162--65) ϡִΥ塼ˤĤƼΤ褦Ƥ롥
In the earlier sixteenth century {-s} was probably informal, and {-th} neutral and/or elevated; by the 1580s {-s} was most likely the spoken norm, with {-eth} a metrical variant.
켣 (217--18) ˤȤ̤˸ƤߤȡThe Authorised Version (1611) Bacon The New Atlantis (1627) ˤ -s ʤȿФ Milton (1608--74) Ǥ doth hath ̤ˤ -th ʤShakespeare ǤϡJulius Caesar (1599) ʬۤ˸¤äƤߤȡ-s Ψ do have ǤϤ줾 11.76%, 8.11% ʳΰ̤ưǤ 95.65% ȰݤƤ롥
Ȥ櫓16--17ξڵ˴Ťˤդ٤ϡ#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) Ǹ褦ˡɽ -th ȤäȤƤ⡤줬Ǥ [s] ȯƤǽȤȤǤ롥
ִΥ塼ˤĤƤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) ǡʸˡˤʬϤȽŪ˼夲ϤʤȤ䤤ˤƤʤȤȽǤꡤŪʬϤȤȽƤ櫓ǤϤʤषϼưΰ (agreement) ưζޤˤäɸ˰ŪŬѤǤ롤Ūˤ줿ʬϤTime flies. ȤñʸʸˡʬϤäȡʲιʸڤʤʸˡǤΩˤäƵǽƤΥ٥νۤʤǽϤˡ

ǾʸΤ IP (=Inflectional Phrase) Ǥꡤ I (=Inflection)˼Ȥʤ NP (=Noun Phrase)˽ҸưȤʤ VP (=Verb Phrase) ġNP time I s Ψ (government) 礦طˤȤ졤ΨطҤΰפȿϢƤ롥NP time ˤϡ[+ 3RD PERSON] [+ SINGULAR] ȤͿƤꡤI [+ PRESENT] ȶĤơs ȤФ롥
οޤǤϤޤǤƤʤΤܼư (affix-hopping) Ȥ§ŬѤơs VP fly ˰ưǸ˲DzĴ time flies Ȥ¸Ȥ롥פˡΨطˤ NP I ΤȤǡ;Ργͤȹ礵졤٤ưפȶ s Ȥ롼ʼºݤˤϡ3ñΤۤľˡǤ뤳ȤɬܾǤϾάˡΥ롼1ķƤȡ¸¾쵬§ѤơϢŪʸǤʸ "Time doesn't fly." 䵿ʸ "Does time fly?" ʤɤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥
ʬϤɸѸ3ñ -s ˤޤĤȷ֤Ӥ꤫ǤȤϤ뤬ʤΤ褦ʸݤΤȤȤʤʸˡϡֲפ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפ䤤Τդ֤ʤפ䤤ˤϡϤŪʻѤۤʤ
ܸƤѲΤʤǡǥʤɤǤ礭夲ƺǤ褯ΤƤΤˡ֤ȴաפ롥ȴդˤĤܥ֥Ǥϡ#1864. ȴդٸ̡ ([2014-06-04-1]) Ǽ夲٤ǡѲεˤĤ¿ΤȤʬäƤƤ롥ˤĤƽפƶͿƤɤߤ䤹ȤƤϡ˾ΤϤʤ
ȴդȤϡưβǽˤĤơŪɸǤָסֵפ֤פȴơָסֵפȤʤäƤƤ븽ݤؤΤˡ֤פȴƤ褦˸뤬ǤϤʤȤͤ⤢롥Ѳɽǵ mirareru mireruokirareru okireru ȤʤꡤæƤΤ mi(ra)reru, oki(ra)reru Τ褦 ra ǤȤȤߤʤȤΤˤǤ뤬 mir(ar)eru, okir(ar)eru Τ褦 ar æƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ºݡar ȴաפȤϡưʳβǽޤΤԹ礬褤ưΡɤפɸŪʲǽϡŤɤޤ (yomareru) Фơɤ (yomeru) Ǥϡ֤פæƤȤϸʤΤΡyom(ar)eru Τ褦 ar ȴäƤȤϸ롥̩ʰ̣Dzǽ֤פȴΤϡư졤Ըư졤ѳưΤߤǤꡤ¾ˤĤƤϤȴդȤƾΤŬڤǤϤʤΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤar ȴդȸƤǤСưǤưǤưγѷˤ餺ŪʲǽФƸ߹Ȥ褦ˤʤäƤ뿷ǽβӤҤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Τ褦ˡar ȴȤʬϤȯŸӾˤǽưη֤ӤƵҤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ñʵˡ롥ǽưν߷ϡȤȤʤưθ촴ؤ eru դǤɽФ褤ưγѷ˸¤餺ָ (mir-u) ָ (mir-eru)ֵ (okir-u) ֵ (okir-eru)ɤ (yom-u) ɤ (yom-eru)ּ (tor-u) ּ (tor-eru) ӤƳФʤѳưϡ (kur-u) Фơ (kor-eru) Τ褦˸촴ؤ뤳Ȥաˡaru ȴʬϤϡָסֵסɤޤסּספʤŪʲǽͳʤȿǽƳФʤeru դʬϤϡǽΤȤưν߷ȤƿǽƳФȤʰ塤pp. 22--23ˡ
߿ʹθѲˤϤ褯뤳ȤȴդⵯϰƳȸŤǤϾ½鵭Ͽꡤ餯ѲϤΤʳܤܤС쳤ǤѤƤȴդʬۤŤηϩɤ߲ȡʤɤμϤޤꡤ줬ơᵦʤɤ濴ήǤΤΤ褦ĹѥǹͤȡȴղϰưΥԸư첽ȤĬήΰôäƤꡤ켫Τǯ³ƤưγѷδάΤʤ˰֤Ť롥
ͺܸ쥦å١ȽŹҴȿӡ1999ǯ
ư줬֤ˡɸΤ褦ľܰѤƳ said John ʤɤɽ롥Ѥʸθޤ֤Ȥˡ߷뤤ϲãư줬֤Ǥ롥Τ褦ʰ֤ I said, I replied, I thought ʤɤ̾θ⤢뤬quoth ξˤ֤Τ§Ǥ롥ٹ (163--64) 褦
"Can I have a light, sir?" said I.---Stevenson.
"My very dog," sighed poor Rip, "has forgotten me!"---Irving.
But where, thought I, is the crew?---Irving.
There was no getting away from these verities, thought Constance.---Bennett.
"The swine turned Normans to my comfort!" quoth Gurth.---Scott.
Quoth I: "But have you no prison at all now?"---William Morris.
"Well," quoth I, "I have always been told that a woman is as old as she looks."---ibid.
Ѥʸθޤ֤ΰ֤Ǥ quoth SVVS⤤ǽȤȤ줬̾줫̾ˤäƤʬۤϰۤʤ롥Quirk et al. (1022) ˤȡ줬̾ξ John said said John Ϥ̤줬̾ξ he said ̤ǡsaid he ȤŤѸǤ said he ʤɤ⤴̤˸줿ޤǤʬۤ餷
Ѥʸ֤Ȥ֤̾ϵʤüʴĶˤƤϵꤦ롥ٹ (165fn) ˤȡ
äȤ䤳ạ̈ӤӤʸޤϿͤȯˤäƻοܤεޤǤȤˤϡSaid she, "Tom, it was middling warm in school, warn't it?"---Mark Twain; Said I: "How do you manage with politics?"---William Morris Τ褦ʤΤ⤢롥٤ơ嵭ξˤΤ˽롥äƼ줬̾Ǥž֤¿̾ΤȤˤϾ֤¿椨̾μ줬ư褿Ȥˤϡäˤ줬ƤΤȸƤ褤ȿФ˼줬̾ǡ줬ưˤä顤ư˽ƤΤȲ٤Ǥ롥Cp. "Mr. Sherlock Holms, I believe," said she.---Doyle ʤϤΤޤȻפäƤΤäƤ顤she Ĵ줿; Barbara looked enchanting to-day, Basil thought.---Alfred Noyes ʤ Basil λפդƤˡ
ޤjournalistic writing Ǥ⡤ʸǤȤVSȤʤ礬 (ex. "Declared tall, nineteen-year-old Napier: 'The show will go on'." (Quirk et al. 1024fn))
ۤѤäȤǤϡäˤƹԵΰ֤Ȥơ-s Ĥ says you says he ʤɤʹ뤳Ȥ롥A: I'm going to win this game., B: Says you! ǡǤꡤḄƤΤ "That's what you say." ۤɤǤ롥
̻ŪʴؿȤƤϡʸθ֤ˤ said he ΥפƤаޤͳˤʤ롥˸δ餢ٸ椵ƤΤǤϤʤȻפ뤬Ĵ٤Ƥߤ
ʲˡľܰѤƳŵŪãưƤ (Quirk et al. 1024)
add, admit, announce, answer, argue, assert, ask, beg, boast, claim, comment, conclude, confess, cry (out), declare, exclaim, explain, insist, maintain, note, object, observe, order, promise, protest, recall, remark, repeat, reply, report, say, shout (out), state, tell, think, urge, warn, whisper, wonder, write
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Ѹ Wright ̤ˤߤ뤬ϡֿ͡פΰ̣Ǥ롥̾ȤñΤ wright ʿ͡ˤȤѤ뤳ȤϺϤۤȤɤʤ͡ʼοͤɽΤʣΰȤѤ뤳ȤϤ롥Ū褯ߤΤ playwright ʷȡˤǤ롥ϵʤ (write) ͤǤϤʤŪ˺Ф (wright) Ǥ롥⤷ write ʽˤ˴طƤΤǤСټԤɽ (agentive suffix) Ĥ writer ʽˤȤʤϤۤˤ arkwright, boatwright, cartwright, comedywright, housewright, millwright, novelwright, ploughwright, shipwright, timberwright, waggonwright, wainwright, wheelwright, woodwright ʤɤ롥
wright ϵ̤ȡư work ˴ط롥ưθűѸ wyrcan ϡֹԤ롨߽Фפʤɹ̣Ѥ졤θ촴˸ղä줿 wyrhta (< wyrcta) ֿ͡פȤƻȤ줿θ¾Υޥˤ⸫졤ƸŤΤȻפ롥wyrhta ϡ1첻 r Ȥž (metathesis) wryhta ۷Ȥޤ졤 <a> ɽ첻ʿü˵ڤǡˤĤʤ wright 췿Ǥäžϡwork θŤʬ wrought ˤ⸫롥
MED wrigt(e (n.(1)) ˤȡѸǡθ줬ʲΤ褦ʤޤֻʤƤ餯ȯˤǼ¸ƤȤ롥
wright(e (n.(1)) Also wrigt(e, wrigth(e, wrigh, wriȝt(e, wriȝth(e, wriht(e, writ(e, writh(e, writht, wreth(e, (N) wreght, (SWM) wrouhte, whrouhte & (chiefly early) wricht(e, (early) wirhte, (chiefly SW or SWM) wruhte, wruchte, wurhte, wurhta, wurhtæ, wuruhte & (in names) wrightte, wrighthe, wrig, wri(h)tte, wrihgte, wrichgte, wrich(e, wrict(e, wricth(e, wrick, wristh, wrieth, wreghte, wreȝte, wrehte, wrechte, wrecthe, wreit, wreitche, wreut(t)e, wroghte, wrozte, wrouȝte, wrughte, wrushte, wrh(i)te, wirgh, wirchte, wiche, wergh(t)e, werhte, wereste, worght(t)e, worichte, worithte, wort, worth, whrighte, whrit, whreihte, whergte, right, rith; pl. wrightes, etc. & wriȝttis, writtis, (NEM) whrightes & (early) wrihten, wirhten, (SWM) wrohtes, wurhten, (early gen.) wurhtena, (early dat.) wurhtan & (gen. in place names) wrightin(g)-, wri(c)tin-, wrichting-, wrstinc-, uritting-.
ޤѸǤ castlewright, feltwright, glasswright ʤɤ븽ˤϸʤ̾䡤battlewright ΡˡLatinwright ʥƥؼԡˤʤɤѤ⸫줿ʣο̾⡤ޤäƤΤ⤤Ĥ뤬 Basketwricte, Bordwricht, Bowwrighth, Briggwricht, Cartewrychgte, Chesewricte, Waynwryche, Wycchewrichte ʤ¸ߤ
ѸޤǤ wright ʣǤȤݤäƤ褦θϼ˿ꤨƤߤǤϿۤɤĤäƤʤοθȤơѸʹߤ˥եƥ줫鿷ʿȡ̾줬ήƤȡ-er -ist ޤιټˤȯƤȤ뤬̤ĴǤ롥
ɸϡѸؽԤ٤ϤѤʵɽʤǤ롥ѸǤư3;ñ߷ȤƸ촴 -(e)s դΤ§ȤʤäƤ롥(1) 줬3;ΤǤꡤ(2) 줬ñǤꡤ(3) ߤǤȤ3Ĥξ郎٤·äȤˤΤղäȤ§ʤΤǡѸؽԤˤȤäƽˤʸ̩ˤ (4) ľˡǤȤɬסˡ伫Ȥ⡤ѸäꤹݤˤϡȤ櫓ư줬Υ줿ʤɤˡ§ᤵפä˺Ƥޤ3ñ -s ȤϲʤΤΤ¸ߤΤȳؽԤԻĤ˻פΤ϶ˤƼǤ롥
Ѹˤ3ñ -s ϱοȻפäƤ롥ŪʴϡưΰפȤϤʸݤΰȤơεʬϤʤ줦롥Ω줫ϡ㤨ʸˡǤ InflP ȤǽƤΤȤǼ̾ȶȤδطҤ뤳ȤǡɤΤ褦ʾư -s ղä뤫Ǥ롥Ͼˤʤ3ñΤȤ -s դΤͳ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ǽΩ줫ϡ-s ̵ͭˤꡤ(1) 줬3;Τ12;Τζ̡(2) 줬ñʣζ̡(3) ߤߤζ̤Ū뤳ȤǤ롤롥㤨С줬 John 1ͤ he ǻؤ뤤 John and Mary 2ͤ they ǻؤΤ줫Ǥͽۤʸ̮ˤơ̾ʬʹʤäȤƤ⡤ʸȤǡưθտʹ뤳ȤǤСפǤ롥Τ褦ǽ¤ˤơ-s ̵ͭϵǽŪȤȤǤä3ñ -s Ȥ§ⵡǽŪǤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ǥ3ñ -s Ρ֤ʤפˤƤʤǽȤǽݤΤǤСä3ñ -s ĤȤˡǤϤʤ¾ˤ͡ˡͤϤʤ3ñ -p Ȥ -g ǤϤʤΤʤ3ʣ -s ǤϤʤΤʤ3ñ -s ǤϤʤΤ뤤ϡβǽ٤Ȥ߹碌ŬưΥѥǤ⡤Ʊ褦ѤĤޤꡤ嵭εǽŪϡ3ñ -s ĸѸΥѥ˸¤餺Ʊ褦Ѥ¾ΥѥˤѤƤޤȤȤǤ롥ɡǽŪϡʤѸ줬ˤä3ñ -s ĥѥͭƤΤʤ
ŪǤ쵡ǽŪǤ졤Ūʴεϡ3ñ -s ˴ؤͿ褦ȤϤƤ뤬ΰʤƤˤܼŪ䤤ˤƤʤ̻ŪʴߤС֤ʤפؤϤäƤǤ롥
̻Ūʲˡɸȯ⤦褦֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤפȤˤϡ֤ʤ3ñȤݥΤ;פʸĤʤФʤʤΤפȤռ롥¾ΥݥǤΤޤޤǤ褤Τˡʤ3ñ˸¤äݤʤȤʤФʤʤΤȡȤ̻ŪʻռȿФǤ롥̻Ūˤϡ3ñ -s ĤȤϡۤȤפʤȤ٤Ȥ¿ʤΤǤ롥ष䤦٤ϡ֤ʤ3ñʳǤϲĤʤʤäƤޤäΤפǤ롥
ǤϡΤȤäȤơűѸư lufian (to love) ľˡߤζɽǤ褦
| lufian (to love) | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | lufie | lufiaþ |
| 2nd person | lufast | lufiaþ |
| 3rd person | lufaþ | lufiaþ |
ѸԵ§Ѥư졤ä˸촴첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ˤʬư¿ϡŪʶѲưͳ褹롥űѸǤϸѸ¿ư줬Ѳư°ƤꡤȾޤǤ˼Ѳʵ§ѡˤذܹԤ뤫뤤ѸȤʤäưΤ붯ܹԤˤˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) ʤɤεȤ줿
ơѸˤޤʤ館ѲưϡѤλˤäɸ drink--drank--drunk Τ褦ABC win--won--won Τ褦ABBʤɡĤμ˶ʬ뤬϶ѸʸɸѸˤƳΩΤȹͤƤ褤#492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǤϤޤʬ첻ɤΤʤʤäߤǤޤɸѼǤϰۤʤ첻Ѥ줿ꤹ롥
drink win γѥפΰ㤤Ѹ˸ɤεϡűѸζѲưˤ1ʡñפȤˤ2ʡʣפȤˤ2ब̤Ƥ¤ˤ롥#42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡưϼοȿ;Τ˱2ĤΰۤʤäƤdrink ǤС -- 1 -- 2 -- ʬνˡdrincan -- dranc -- druncon -- druncen Τ褦˳Ѥwin ˤĤƤ winnan -- wann -- wunnon -- wunnen ȳѤʤѼ (principal parts) ȸƤ֡ˡȤѸʸ塤ηΤδάĬήȼưβ2η֤̤뵡餷ƤäĤƤ12Τ줫ͥȤʤͣβȤƵǽƤȤˤʤäβʾʣǤꡤѸޤǤ˷֤夻㤷ɤĿͺư¿ädrink Ϥޤ1 dranc ͳ褹֤ɸѸβȤ夹뤳Ȥˤʤꡤwin ˤĤƤϤޤ2 wunnan η֡ʸ won ֤ /wʌn/ ȯˤͳ褹֤Ѥ줿ȤȤǤ롥
12Τ줬Ѥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫ŤװǤʤdrincan winnan °붯Ѳ3¾ưˤĤĴ٤Ƥߤȡdrinkcan Τ褦˸1Ѥ줿Τˤ hringan, scrincan, sincan, singan, springan, swimman ꡤwinnan Τ褦2Τ줿Τˤ clingan, spinnan, stingan, wringan 롥ɸѼǤϲ̤첻ķ֤Ѥ륱⾯ʤʤ㤨Сsing βɸѼǤ sang ɸѼ sung Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤspin βɸѼǤ spun ʳѼǤ span ⤢ꤦ롤ʴꡤp. 76ˡ
ʤbindan, findan, grindan, windan Ѳ3ưǡ2Ѥ줿פǤ (ex. bound, found, ground, wound) 첻ϡѸƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ˤĹʤꡤ˸첻 (gvs) ˤ2첻 /aʊ/ Ĥ˻äƤǡwinnan ΥפȤϾۤʤ벻Ūаޤéä
ͺرѸˡ3ǡ̿2013ǯ
ѸȾввʸȤΤƤΤˡɸιʸ롥 make ΰ̣ǽ become ˶عʸˡǤм᤹ԴưǤȤ졤ιʸ5ʸȤߤ SVC Ȥ롥ˤȤäơפΰ̣ä She'll make him a good wife. ɽ뤳ȤǤhim a good wife Ǥ뤫顤ιʸ SVOO ȲǤ롥ξʸطƤΤȲʤСȤ She'll make a good wife. Ϥष SVO ʸʬϤʤ롥Τ褦ʻǡɸιʸ SVC Ȥ SVO ȤĤʤξԻĤʹʸȤȤˤʤ롥λϡˤäƤޤޤǤ롥
ιʸϤȤ˺Ƶ̾ξά뤳Ȥ뤬ˤϡŪˤ̻ŪˤΤդʤŪˤϡShe'll make herself a good wife. ʸˡǽɸιʸѤȤƸ뤳ȤϤޤʤޤ̻Ūˤ⡤̾ޤʸȤƤꡤƵ̾줬άƤιʸǤȤŪǧ뤳ȤϤǤʤषŪˤ make ΡֺפȤŪ᤹븶ˡȯŸƤʸ1ĤˤʤOED ʸ24ˤˤȡιʸѤ make θϡ"Of a person: to become by development or training. Also, with object a noun modified by good, bad, or other adjective of praise or the contrary: to perform well (ill, etc.) the part or function of." ȵҤ롥ɽ魯ͤȯŸ䷱ФƤΤؤȲ롤Ȥۤɤΰ̣ɽ路Ԥ˸ԤȤʤ뤿ǼäƤ뤳ȤްդƤ become Ȥϰۤʤ롥ǺȻʪδطȤǤ⤤ˡǺȻʪδط make ¾ˡʪǤ뤳ȤϡѸμΤ褦㤫ʬ롥
Northern Spies make the best apple pie.
The platycodon makes a fine pot plant for a cool greenhouse.
The Morello Cherry, and other deepe coloured pleasant Cherries, no doubt would make a speciall good wine.
Hydrogen and oxygen make water.
The clothes don't make the gentleman.
Τ褦ǺȻʪɽ make ˡϡOED ʸߤ¤ꤪ褽Ѹ˵Ĥ褦äȤϢ³ΤʤΤǡΤˤäƤϸűѸ̤Ȥ⤤롥OED θ24˴ؤ¤ꡤνʸѸ "a1470 Malory Morte Darthur (Winch. Coll. 13) (1990) I. 295, I undirtake he is a vylayne borne, and never woll make man." ǤꡤƳȿḽѸ줫ʸĤƤ
1572 H. Middlemore in H. Ellis Orig. Lett. Eng. Hist. (1827) 2nd Ser. III. 8, I think he [sc. the Duke of Anjou] will make as rare a prince as any is in Christendome.[ | ѥڡ ]
a1616 Shakespeare Henry VI, Pt. 1 (1623) iv. vii. 44 Doubtlesse he would haue made a noble Knight.
1741 Pope Thoughts on Var. Subj. in Wks. II. 311 For a King to make an amiable character, he needs only to be a man of common honesty, well advised.
1870 E. Peacock Ralf Skirlaugh III. 25 As the times then went, Mr. Earl made a very fair pastor.
1934 H. Roth Call it Sleep i. ix. 63 My, what a tyrant you'll make when you're married!
ťΥɸˤä֤줿¿θűѸñΤȤ櫓פʤΤ1Ĥư niman (to take) 롥űѸ줫ѸˤƺǤܶư1ĤäűѸ˸ťΥɸ줫äƱ taka ʸ takeˤ֤뤳ȤˤʤäѸǤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1]) γƼθɽǸ¤ꡤtake Ͼ60̰ĶٸǤ롥Τ褦Ūʰ̣ôˤ줫ѸؤΰܹԤۤɤθܿȤϤʤäˤĤƤ͡ʹͻʤƤͭϤʸˤСűѸȸťΥɸ줬ҲŪʾ岼طˤϤʤ¤Ӥ adstrata ˵ءˤʤƤȤƤ롥ºݡѸǤ nimen tāken ϸߤĹ硦ʻ¸طиƤꡤ褷û֤ԤԤִ줿櫓ǤϤʤniman 16˰ष1600ǯʹߺƤ褹ʤɤο17̤ưŪѤ줿̤ȤƤ niman ϸߤޤǤˡƻ¾ѤȤʤꡤtake niman Τۤܤ٤Ƥˡִơߤ˻äƤ롥ξζطˤĤƤϡRynell ˾ܤҤƤ롥
űѸ niman ϡޥĸ *neman ̤ꡤƱȤƤϥ nemen, ɥĸ nehmen, ȸ niman ΤۤťΥɸ줽ΤΤˤ nema 롥̤Сĸ *nem- (to distribute) ˤɤĤ饮ꥷ némein (to distribute) Ф nemesis ʥͥꥷäαŷȳνˤѸäƤ롥
űѸ niman ϶Ѳ4ưǡniman -- nam -- nōmon -- numen Τ褦˳ѤˤäơޤѥˤꡤƥåȤ˰ۤʤ첻줿ѸޤǤˤϼѲ
Τ褦ˡniman ϸɸѸǤϺפܻۤĤƤʤȤäƤ褤1ĤפФ롥ʬ numen ͳ褹ƻ numb ʤ̵ФˤʤäӤ줿 /nʌm/ Ǥ롥"taken, seized, overcome" ۤɤΰִ̣ФäפθΤȹͤ롥Фϡa1400 Cursor Mundi (Frf 14) 13821Ԥ nomin ΰ۷ȤƸ ("xxviij 3ere in bande I lay nomme baþ fote & hande.") 츻Ūʸ <b> 16ǡcrumb, limb, thumb ʤɤӤ롥̵ <b> ˤĤƤϡ#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]), #1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1]) Ȥ줿
Rynell, Alarik. The Rivalry of Scandinavian and Native Synonyms in Middle English Especially taken and nimen. Lund: Håkan Ohlssons, 1948.
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ˰³ƤꡥAAVE 3ñ -s æ뷹ˤĤơ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ǤҤ٤æҤ뤳ȤϤޤäñǤϤʤAAVE ȤäƤǤϤʤϰˤäưۤʤ뤷Ŀͺ礭Ȥ롥æ뤫ʤΥѥʣ¸ߤ줾θѰۤ롥
㤨СSchneider (100) ϡĤԸȤ3ñ -s æΥѡơޤȤƤ롥Harlem ǯĤĴ42--100% ʿѤ 63%ˡDetroit βήϫƯԳĴ71.4%5лĴ72.5%Oakland βήνĴ57.7%Washington, D. C. λҶĴ84%Washington, D. C. βήĴ65.3%ήⶵդĴ17--78%Maryland γĴ83.3%ʤɤǤ롥-s æŪǤ뤳ȤϳΤǡ绨Ĥˤä31 -s ƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤæ§ŪǤȤȤϤǤʤ
AAVE ˤ3ñ -s Τߤʤ餺ư츽߷ -s ˴ؤ뽾θǤϡ͡ʡʼҲ˸ŪʥѥƤɸѸ˸褦ʿ;ΤξϤȤꡤbe ư is ʣѤ븽ݤȤδͿɸѸεϤؤν١dialect mixture ʡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡˡꥹŪʱƶʤɡ͡Ǥ롥
͡ʥѥΤʤ Bailey et al. Ȥ櫓ܤդΤ줬̾ (PRO) ̾ (NP) ζ̤Ǥ롥ԸǤϡAppalachian English, Alabama White English, Samaná, Scotch-Irish English, black and white folk speech in Texas ʤɡAAVE ˸¤餺Ѽ䥤ꥹѼǤ⡤δबѤƤ뤳ȡʤ߷ NP 줬 PRO -s 뤳ȤŦƤηϡ#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) ǿ줿 "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" ("Northern Present Tense Rule") θ̤Ƥ롥Bailey et al. ϡ "NP/PRO constraint" 1472--88ǯ˥ɥӾȤĤʽ the Cely Letters 17--18ΥꥹҳΤѤ "Ship English" ˤߤ뤳ȤŦǡŪĴ̤ơƱ̤ AAVE νѼˤѤƤ뤳ȤƤ롥Bailey et al. (298) ϡ"NP/PRO constraint" Ǥ줤˵ҤǤۤñǤϤʤȶĴʤ⡤˾ߤäƼΤ褦äƤ롥
By examining data from EME and looking at parallels in present-day black and white vernaculars, we have shown that the NP/PRO constraint is a powerful one that has affected English for quite some time and that currently affects a wide range of processes. Although it is important to stress that this constraint does not account for all of the variation in the present tense verb paradigms of the black and white vernaculars in the South (for instance, -s used to mark historical present), it does play a major role in a number of previously unconnected phenomena.
Schneider, Edgar W. "The Origin of the Verbal -s in Black English." American Speech 58 (1983): 99--113.
Bailey, Guy, Natalie Maynor, and Patricia Cukor-Avila. "Variation in Subject-Verb Concord in Early Modern English." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 285--300.
Ѹˤ affect, attract, celebrate, dedicate, indicate, relate ʤɥޥϤư줬¿¸ߤ롥촴 /t/ ĤθϥƥβʬŵŪʸ -ātusˤͳ褹뤬Ѹؼޤݤˤ /t/ ޤΤư촴Ȳᤵ줿طʤˤϡƻ줫ưؤʻž (conversion) ѸˤƹŪǤäȤͿƤȸ롥ηаޤˤĤƤϡ#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1]) #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) εǴñ˿줿̤Ǥ롥
ơΤ褦ʸ췲ΰˤϡѸˤƸˡǤϤ뤬ΤޤʬȤѤΤ롥㤨Сcreate, dedicate, frustrate ϡΤޤޤη֤ǡ§Ūʲʬ created, dedicated, frustrated ƱβʬȤѤ뤳Ȥ롥ˡȤƤϸŪѸѸǤϡưˤƸƱβʬ§Ū -ed ¤ǹԤƤڡ켣 (206--08) ϡѸˤ -ed ȥ٤ Reuter (45, 89) ˤʲΥǡǺܤʤ顤촴 /t/ ǽưˤĤƤϤषΤۤޤ줿ȤŦƤ롥
| /t/ ǽ | /t/ ǽʤ | ||||
| {-ed} | {-ø} | {-ed} | {-ø} | ||
| 13--14 | Chaucer | 55 | 58 | 19 | 9 |
| Wyclif | 17 | 26 | 3 | 0 | |
| Trevisa | 15 | 62 | 2 | 1 | |
| Gower | 3 | 29 | 2 | 9 | |
| 15 | Lydgate | 13 | 116 | 7 | 1 |
| Tr. Palladius | 5 | 70 | 3 | 7 | |
| Tr. Higden | ˤ | ۤȤ | ٤ | 0 | |
| Tr. Delm | 1 | 44 | 4 | 0 | |
| Capgrave | 9 | 54 | 2 | 0 | |
| Ripley | 0 | 48 | 0 | 0 | |
| Henryson | 3 | 48 | 0 | 0 | |
| Monk of Evesh | 5 | 29 | 1 | 0 | |
| Bk. St. Albans | 11 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |
| Caxton | 165 | 118 | ٤ | 0 | |
ϡޤǤˤ 3pp γƵDz٤äƤ³ǤƤ褦ˡưľˡˤ3ʣ -s εˤĤƤϡ쳰ŪƶȡŪ3ñ -s ȤΩƤ롥ŪԤȤơSmith 롥Smith Shakespeare First Folio оݤȤơ3ʣ -s 100ĤߤĤSmith ϡʬۤʤαƶꤷŪװΤߤǽʬǤǤμݤʸη褯ޤȤޤäƤ (375--76)
I. That, as an historical explanation of the construction discussed, the recourse to the theory of Northumbrian borrowing is both insufficient and unnecessary.
II. That these s-predicates are nothing more than the ordinary third singulars of the present indicative, which, by preponderance of usage, have caused a partial displacement of the distinctively plural forms, the same operation of analogy finding abundant illustrations in the popular speech of to-day.
III. That, in Shakespeare's time, the number and corresponding influence of the third singulars were far greater than now, inasmuch as compound subjects could be followed by singular predicates.
IV. That other apparent anomalies of concord to be found in Shakespeare's syntax,---anomalies that elude the reach of any theory that postulates borrowing,---may also be adequately explained on the principle of the DOMINANT THIRD SINGULAR.
פˡSmith ϡˤ⸽ߤˤ⸫3ñ -s ζŪкͥʤ줬3ʣΰؿȤϼǤ⤤Ƥ롥
Smith εˤ꤬¿1ˡShakespeare ΤߤäƽѸɽ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȡ2ˡƶˤ NPTR Northern Present Tense Rule; #1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) ) äƤ˽ʬդʧ鷺ˡƱӽƤ뤳ȡʤNPTR ˴ϢڼΤ p. 366 εˤˡ3ˡSmith ˸¤ʤƶȤΩƤꡤξԤȤͭȤ븫βǽӽƤ뤳ȡ
12ˤĤƤϡSmith 100ǯʾθŤǤ뤳ȤطƤ롥Τ褦ŦǤΤϡθ带椬ʤǤڵȤ⤤롥3ˤĤƤϡʤθƤʤƶˤϤ줾ζߤȼߤ뤬ξԤͻ¤ǤʤȤͳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) εǤߤ褦 McIntosh θ NPTR Ūȵڤ뤷 Smith λŦ붦ŪǸŪװ⤽ȤϤ롥װ궯ѤƤ뤫ȤܤζϤ줫Τߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤΩȤƤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) 褦ˡ3ʣ -s ˤĤƤѲ "multiple causation" Ȥ
Smith, C. Alphonso. "Shakespeare's Present Indicative S-Endings with Plural Subjects: A Study in the Grammar of the First Folio." Publications of the Modern Language Association 11 (1896): 363--76.
McIntosh, Angus. "Present Indicative Plural Forms in the Later Middle English of the North Midlands." Middle English Studies Presented to Norman Davis. Ed. Douglas Gray and E. G. Stanley. Oxford: OUP, 1983. 235--44.
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