#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) εäεǤϡѲưθ촴 rhyme ιִˤ첻û첻ˡܻ /d, t/ פǤ {-ed} դȡűѸ줫Ѹˤη̡߷ʬ٤ƱȤʤäƤޤä
ºݤΤȤ嵭βˤˤϼ㴳οʤĤ롥ꤵƤ벻ΤæŻҲ (degemination) ѸǤβȤȤ館ˤƤ⡤ΩϢ첻æŻҲȤϸűѸʳΤȹͤʤФʤʤȤεѸˤ̵ѲѤư췲Τ٤ƤεűѸˤޤ̤櫓ǤϤʤ㤨 hit (< OE hyttan), knit (< OE cnyttan), shut (< OE scyttan), set (< OE settan), wed (< OE weddian) ʤɤϸűѸ̤뤳ȤǤƤ⡤cast, cost, cut, fit, hurt, put, split, spread ʤɤϽФѸʹߤμѸ줢뤤¤Ǥ롥ޤ bid, burst, let, shed, slit ʤɤ϶ѲưǤ˼ѲΤΥߥȾ嵭ꤵ벻ΥߥȤɤΤ褦˴ؤäƤ뤫ʬʤűѸμѲư˳μ¤ˤ̤뤳ȤΤǤʤưˤĤƤ⡤set shut ξƱͤˡˤŬѤ뤳ȤϤǤΤ
षΤ褦ưϡ촴 rhyme ̤ƤȤǡŪˡʡ̵ѲѤư set shut ȶŪ˴ϢŤ졤 (analogy) ˤä̵ѲѤѤ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤѸˤˤƶѲư ѲưȤήʶܹԡˤϰŪǤꡤѤκǤȤƤФиڤ뤬̤μѲư ̵ѲưȤѤή⡤ŪǤϤ졤Τ褦¸ߤȹͤΤǤϤʤ̵ѲѤưξʤȤϡʲѲη̤ȤƤǤϤʤŪѤη̤Ȥªɬפ褦˻פ롥Τ褦˹ͤƤȤˡJespersen (28) ƱݤεҤĤ "this group" ȤϸűѸ˵̵ѲѤư췲ؤ
Even verbs originally strong or reduplicative, or of foreign origin, have been drawn into this group: bid, burst, slit; let, shed; cost.
ưζܹԤˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) γƵȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) ³3ñ -th -s ѲˤĤƼ夲ƤѲ⤿餷װˤĤƤϽ⤬Ƥ롥ޤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3ʣˤƤʿŪ -th -s ѲäƤ餷ڵꡤ2Ĥ߹äƤȤ롥
ǤϡűѸľˡߤο;θȤ -es ѤƤꡤ -eþ Ȥϰ褷ƤäơѸʹߡȤ櫓ѸǤ -th -s ѲαƶȤ⤬Ť餢롥ǡˤƤǧ줿2ñ -es(t) /s/ 3ñθˤڤΤǤϤʤȤ롤ѥǤ⤢롥¾be ư is αƶȤ⡤Ѳʤɤ⤢뤬Ϥ礯
ʶȤʤǡJespersen (17--18) ϲδָΨŸ롥ˤֺǾϤˡ§ ('law of least effort') ȸƤ褤
In my view we have here an instance of 'Efficiency': s was in these frequent forms substituted for þ because it was more easily articulated in all kinds of combinations. If we look through the consonants found as the most important elements of flexions in a great many languages we shall see that t, d, n, s, r occur much more frequently than any other consonant: they have been instinctively preferred for that use on account of the ease with which they are joined to other sounds; now, as a matter of fact, þ represents, even to those familiar with the sound from their childhood, greater difficulty in immediate close connexion with other consonants than s. In ON, too, þ was discarded in the personal endings of the verb. If this is the reason we understand how s came to be in these forms substituted for th more or less sporadically and spontaneously in various parts of England in the ME period; it must have originated in colloquial speech, whence it was used here and there by some poets, while other writers in their style stuck to the traditional th (-eth, -ith, -yth), thus Caxton and prose writers until the 16th century.
"Efficiency" Ȥϸο (progress) ˤ̤롥̯ʸJespersen ˡ¤ Jespersen ŪȸJespersen ŪȤϲˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) Ȥ줿[s] [θ] ˤĤƤϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ȡ#1248. s th Ĵκ ([2012-09-26-1]) ɤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ε#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ǻȤ Kytö (115) ϡ17ɾԤľܰѤʤ顤17Ⱦˤ -eth ֤줿Ǥ -s ȤȯƤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Contemporary commentators' statements, and verse rhymes, indicate that the -S and -TH endings were pronounced identically from the early 17th century on. Richard Hodges (1643) listed different spellings given for the same pronunciation: for example, clause, claweth, claws; Hodges also pointed out in 1649 that "howesoever wee write them thus, leadeth it, maketh it, noteth it, we say lead's it, make's it, note's it" (cited in Jespersen, 1942: 19--20).
Kytö (132 fn. 10) ǤϡHodges θǤǤȯҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
In the third (and final) edition of his guide (1653: 63--64), Hodges elaborated on his statement: "howsoever wee write many words as if they were two syllables, yet wee doo commonly pronounce them as if they were but one, as for example, these three words, leadeth, noteth, taketh, we doo commonly pronounce them thus, leads, notes, takes, and so all other words of this kind."
17ˤϰŪ <-eth> /-s/ ȤȯƤȤϡ/θ/ /s/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤǤȤĤޤƤ䤿ˤȤäƤϡ츫ۤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤϡäդǤѲԤդǤѲɤĤƤʤȤѲΤդ줿1Ĥˤʤ˽դäդ˹碌 <-s> ֤褦ˤʤäֻȯɤĤˤ¿ʤȤֺäȤȤǤ롥ܸɽ줫ʤŤ鸽夫ʤŤؤȲޤǤƻΤ٤С<-eth> <-s> ؤֻѲϤष®äȸۤɤǤ롥
ʤJespersen (20) ˤȡĶ٤ư hath, doth, saith ˤĤƤϡ<-th> 18ȾФޤ̤˸줿Ȥ
ɽʸȯȤЪΥˤĤƤ spelling_pronunciation_gap ¿εǼ夲ƤȤ櫓#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) ȡ#62. ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯Τ ([2009-06-28-2]) εȤ줿
Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Hodges, Richard. A Special Help to Orthographie; Or, the True Writing of English. London: Printed for Richard Cotes, 1643.
Hodges, Richard. The Plainest Directions for the True-Writing of English, That Ever was Hitherto Publisht. London: Printed by Wm. Du-gard, 1649.
Hodges, Richard. Most Plain Directions for True-Writing: In Particular for Such English Words as are Alike in Sound, and Unlike Both in Their Signification and Writing. London: Printed by W. D. for Rich. Hodges., 1653. (Reprinted in R. C. Alston, ed. English Linguistics 1500--1800. nr 118. Menston: Scholar Press, 1968; Microfiche ed. 1991)
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ư3ʣˤĤơ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1])#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ǰäƤ3ñˤˤĤƤϤޤ夲Ƥʤäͽۤ褦ˡ3ñΤۤʤǤꡤȤ櫓ɤǸűѸ -th ΤѸ -s 褦ˤʤäаޤˤĤƤϡ¿ФƤ롥
ѸξΤˤФа礤˽ФΤϡ1611ǯ The Authorised Version (The King James Version [KJV]ˤǤŪ -th ݤƤ뤬Ʊ Shakespeare Ǥ -th -s ߤƤȤȤΤȤϡ17ޤǤ˸ǤϤǤ -th -s ؤѲٿʤǤݼŪνդˤϤ줬ȿǤʤäΤȲᤵƤ롥
ơ礦Ʊ˱Ѹ줬ΦذܿϤƤǤϡλǤ˻ϤޤäƤ -th -s ѲΤθΥ塼ϡꥹѸȥꥫѸȤǰۤʤäϤäΤKytö ϡ16--17ΥꥹѸ쥳ѥȡ17ΥꥫѸ쥳ѥѤơ䤤ؤ͡ʸŪҲŪʥѥꤷӤƤ뤬Ūˤ1Ĥηǧ줿17ξߤ¤ꡤ-s ؤѲϥꥫѸΤۤꥹѸ®˿ʤǤΤǤ롥Kytö (120) ˤɽ
| British English | American English | ||||||
| -S | -TH | Total | -S | -TH | Total | ||
| 1500--1570 | 15 (3%) | 446 | 461 | - | |||
| 1570--1640 | 101 (18%) | 459 | 560 | 1620--1670 | 339 (51%) | 322 | 661 |
| 1640--1710 | 445 (76%) | 140 | 585 | 1670--1720 | 642 (82%) | 138 | 780 |
Contrary to what has usually been attributed to the phenomenon of colonial lag, the subsequent rate of change was more rapid in the colonies. By and large, the colonists' writings seem to reflect the spoken language of the period more faithfully than do the writings of their contemporaries in Britain. In this respect, speaker innovation, rather than conservative tendencies, guided the development.
˽ colonial_lag γƵǤ褦ˡܤˤäƥꥫѸ줬ꥹѸʤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ѽ⤢̣ǤݼŪǤꡤ̣ǤϳŪǤ롥 Kytö η϶ä٤ΤǤϤʤꥹܹˤƸ夹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤѲꥫϤäˤɤΤ褦˿ʹԤ1ĤλȤưյ롥
Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Ѹˤϡset -- set -- set, put -- put -- put, let -- let -- let ʤ̵ѲѤư줬Ĥ¸ߤ롥ޤ Quirk et al. (3.17) ˵Ƥ̵ѲѤưΰߤƤߤ褦ɽ "R" "regular" ɽ魯
| V/V-ed | COMMENTS |
|---|---|
| bet | BrE also R: betted |
| bid | 'make an offer (to by)' etc. (But in the sense of 'say a greeting' or 'give an order', the forms bid ? bad(e) ? bidden may also be used in rather archaic style: 'Do as you are bid(den).') Also OUTBID, UNDERBID. |
| burst | Also nonstandard BUST, with alternative R V-ed form busted |
| cast | Also BROADCAST, FORECAST, MISCAST, OVERCAST, RECAST, TELECAST (sometimes also R) |
| cost | COST = 'estimate the cost of' is R |
| cut | |
| fit | R <in BrE> |
| hit | |
| hurt | |
| knit | Usually R: knitted |
| let | |
| put /ʊ/ | But PUT(T) /pʌt/ in golf is R: putted |
| quit | Also R: quitted |
| rid | Also R: ridded |
| set | Also BESET, RESET, UPSET, OFFSET, INSET |
| shed | Also R <rare> = 'put in a shed' |
| shit | <Not in polite use>; V-ed1 sometimes shat |
| shred | Usually R: shreaded |
| shut | |
| slit | |
| split | |
| spread /e/ | |
| sweat /e/ | Also R: sweated |
| thrust | |
| wed | Also R: wedded |
| wet | Also R: wetted |
ɸϡ#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) Ǥñ˿줿Ϥ⤦ܤ夲ܤΤϡľˡ3;ñߤθȡʿ;ΤʤʣߤθǤ롥
ѸΰŪʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) #1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ ([2014-04-13-1]) Ȥ줿ľˡ߷ưθȤϡѸ礭3ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥 "the Chester-Wash line" ¦ (North)ʣ -eth ħȤ (South)δ֤˰֤ (Midland) Ǥ롥θˤĤƤϤ줾1ĤΥѥȤƤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ˤ褦ˡưȤŪʴط˱2ĤΥѥब̤롥쵬§ "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" 뤤 "Northern Present Tense Rule" ʰʲ NPTR άˤȤΤƤꡤMcIntosh (237) ˤСΤ褦꼰롥
Expressed in somewhat simplified fashion, the rule operating north of the Chester-Wash line is that a plural form -es is required unless the verb has a personal pronoun subject immediately preceding or following it. When the verb has such a subject, the ending required is the reduced -e or zero (-ø) form.
McIntosh (238) ˤNPTR αդѸ3ΥѥȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) North (north of the Chester-Wash line)
i) subject not a personal pronoun in contact with verb
| North: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -es | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| North: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -e, -ø (-en) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| Midland | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en, -e (-ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| South | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en (-e, -ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
AAVE (African American Vernacular English) Ǥϡľˡư3ñʤ餺Ȥ -s դȤ롥츫ȡɤο;ΤǤǤ -s դդʤäʤΤǡ˸ۤɤҸϤȤ櫓ҲŪʴ¿ʤƤ褦-s νиͽۤ뤳ȤȤAAVE ȤѼKΤǤϤʤϰԻԤˤäƤۤʤ뤷Ŀͺ礭ȤȤ롥
AAVE θ߷ -s ϡɸѸȰۤʤʬۤȤǡѼħŤܤ1ĤȤܤƤŪʴϡ -s ʬۤεδؿȤʤ뤬ϤȤʤ AAVE εɤˤ뤫ȤŪľ뤹롥AAVE ε creolist Anglicist ϤĤȤΤƤ뤬߷ -s ⡤ݱʤˤΤʤذޤ뤳Ȥˤʤäcreolist ϡAAVE ľˡߤưδϥ쥪벽ͳ褹̵ɸѸεϤΰϤˤ -s Фɬװʾ˸Ȥ꽤 (hypercorrection) 롥Anglicist ϡ-s 餫ʬۤǤĥꥹͳѼ郎ʣΤͤȹͤ롥Anglicist ϡɬ⸽β꽤βǽꤹ櫓ǤϤʤʳ˥쥪벽ꤷʤ
Ϥ˾ܤʤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1]) Ǽ夲ƤĴƤ椯ʤǡAAVE -s ˴ؤ1Ĥʸˤɤ夤 Schneider Τ Anglicist Ǥ롥γ˿ϼʬ (104)
Apparently, the early American settlers brought to the New World linguistic subsystems which, as far as subject-verb concord is concerned, were characterized by two opposing dialectal tendencies, the originally northern British one using -s freely with all verbs, and a southern one favoring the zero morph. In America, the mixing of settlers from different areas resulted in the blended linguistic concord (or rather nonconcord) system, which is characterized by the variable but frequent use of the -s suffix . . ., which was transmitted by the white masters, family members, and overseers to their black slaves in direct language contact . . . .
ˤϡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) #1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) Ǽ夲褦 dialect mixture Ȥͤ롥βǽϽʬˤȻפϤȽϤˤĤƾܺ٤˽Ҥ٤ƤʤΤϤȤʤѼ郎ʤΤǤäꤷҤ뤳ȤϡŪˤä˸ǤʣѼޤˤȤˤʤ롤ˤʤȤǤϡϤʤ褦˻פ롥
ޤ"the originally northern British one using -s freely with all verbs" ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬 "freely" ŬڤǤϤʤˤ -s ʬۤˤϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) Ǹ褦쵬§ѤƤꡤ褷ƼͳʬۤǤϤʤä
ˡSchneider 19ȾФλ AAVE ˤĤƤϤۤȤɵҤƤ餺õʸȤƤϡ夤Ȥ虜ʤ
嵭 Anglicist β⤬줿Ȥdialect mixture ιͤѤʤȤȤˤϤʤʤषƸŪʼҲؾǤ AAVE εȡѸ3ʣ -s εͿƤǽͤȤ̣ǡȯŪǤϤ롥
Schneider, Edgar W. "The Origin of the Verbal -s in Black English." American Speech 58 (1983): 99--113.
ɸʸϡֺϲȤ˼פ̣롥ǡworth ϸűѸ weorþan (to become, be, be done, be made; to happen) ̤ưǤꡤֲ͡ʤΤˡפ̣ worth Ȥ̤ΤǤ롥ĸޤ̤СξϵŪƱǤǽϤ뤬ߤ˰ۤʤȤƤƤ褤ưϡɥĸ werden (to become) ƥ verto (to turn) ʤɤƱǤ롥
űѸ weorþan Ϲ٤δưäѸǤɸΤ褦硤뤤 Woe worth you! Τ褦˿;̾ȼǤѤʤϢɽȤơWoe betide (to) me! Woe is me. ʡ#1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1]) ˵1Ȥơˤ롥
ư worth ˴ؤ뤳ɽϡ;ιʸäƤ롥ɸʸǤСwoe worth 졤the day Ϳʤ줬礱Ƥ롥Сworth ;ưǤꡤ³ˡ3;ñߤζɽ路Ƥ롥ɽ魯³ˡˡȤȤˤʤŤϡwoe Τۤ well ǽǡξˤϡ?˹פ̣
μɽϡűѸˤꡤOED Ǥ worth, v. 1 θ 1c ΤȤˡ뤤 woe, int., and adv., n., and adj. θ 4a ΤȤˡ¿ɽĤ롥MED Ǥϡworthen (v.) θ 2c(b) ˵Ҥ롥Ѹ줫Ĥ˼
a1150(OE) Vsp.D.Hom.(Vsp D.14) 5/15: Ne wurðe þe næfre swa wa þæt þu þe ne wene betere, for þan þe se wene þe ne lætt næfre forwurðen.
c1275 (?a1200) Laȝamon Brut (Calig.) (1963) l. 1678 Wa worðe þan monne. þe lond haueðe mid menske.
(c1300) Havelok (LdMisc 108) 2221: Euere wurþe him yuel and wo!
c1400(?c1390) Gawain (Nero A.10) 2127: Wel worth þe, wyȝe, þat woldez my gode.
a1425(c1385) Chaucer TC (Benson-Robinson) 2.344-6: Wo worth the faire gemme vertulees! Wo worth that herbe also that dooth no boote! Wo worth that beaute that is routheles!
OED ˤȡѸλǤϡ16--17 woe-worth Τ褦˥ϥեǤĤʤ줿줿ޤ18--19ˤϥåȥʤɤνʹ줿
űѸưȤƤ weorþan ˤϤۤѤȤʤäƤޤäͳˤĤƤϡؼԴ֤ǽʶȤƤ롥Mustanoja (616--18) ˤС줫αƶ䵡ǽŪҲ𤵤Ƥ뤬ޤϤĤƤʤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1]) ˰³ƤꡥWyld (340) ϡѸˤ3ʣ -s αƶȤƤǤϤʤ3ñ -s ȼĥƤ롥
Present Plurals in -s.
This form of the Pres. Indic. Pl., which survives to the present time as a vulgarism, is by no means very rare in the second half of the sixteenth century among writers of all classes, and was evidently in good colloquial usage well into the eighteenth century. I do not think that many students of English would be inclined to put down the present-day vulgarism to North country or Scotch influence, since it occurs very commonly among uneducated speakers in London and the South, whose speech, whatever may be its merits or defects, is at least untouched by Northern dialect. The explanation of this peculiarity is surely analogy with the Singular. The tendency is to reduce Sing. and Pl. to a common form, so that certain sections of the people inflect all Persons of both Sing. and Pl. with -s after the pattern of the 3rd Pres. Sing., while others drop the suffix even in the 3rd Sing., after the model of the uninflected 1st Pers. Sing. and the Pl. of all Persons.
But if this simple explanation of the present-day Pl. in -s be accepted, why should we reject it to explain the same form at an earlier date?
It would seem that the present-day vulgarism is the lineal traditional descendant of what was formerly an accepted form. The -s Plurals do not appear until the -s forms of the 3rd Sing. are already in use. They become more frequent in proportion as these become more and more firmly established in colloquial usage, though, in the written records which we possess they are never anything like so widespread as the Singular -s forms. Those who persist in regarding the sixteenth-century Plurals in -s as evidence of Northern influence on the English of the South must explain how and by what means that influence was exerted. The view would have had more to recommend it, had the forms first appeared after James VI of Scotland became King of England. In that case they might have been set down as a fashionable Court trick. But these Plurals are far older than the advent of James to the throne of this country.
ٻ礿ϡ(1) 3ʣ -s ϡ3ñ -s Ѥ褦ˤʤޤǤϸƤʤȡ(2) ɤΤ褦˱ƶͿΤǤʤȡ2Ǥ롥öŪǤꡤŪȤϤʤꤨʤΤΡΤ褦˻פ롥
1ĵˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥Wyld Ĥϡ1515ǯʸǡ"the noble folk of the land shotes at hym." ȤʸڤȤΥƥȤˤ3ñ -s ϸ줺3ʣˤ -ith 褯ȤȤ顤Wyld ȤεƤ (1) Ȥ礷ʤ褦˻פ뤬ɤʤΤˤ衤ΩѸ3ñ3ʣζӸƤ뤳Ȥɬפ
Wyld, Henry Cecil. A History of Modern Colloquial English. 2nd ed. London: Fisher Unwin, 1921.
[2013-03-10-1], [2013-03-20-1]˰³ɸꡥƶ⤫3ñ⤫ǸʬƤ롥ѸäϤǡFennell (143) ϸԤٻơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In the written language the third person plural had no separate ending because of the loss of the -en and -e endings in Middle English. The third person singular ending -s was therefore frequently used also as an ending in the third person plural: troubled minds that wakes; whose own dealings teaches them suspect the deeds of others. The spread of the -s ending in the plural is unlikely to be due to the influence of the northern dialect in the South, but was rather due to analogy with the singular, since a certain number of southern plurals had ended in -e)th like the singular in colloquial use. Plural forms ending in -(e)th occur as late as the eighteenth century.
Strang (146) ƶٻƤ롥
The function of the ending, whatever form it took, also wavered in the early part of II [1770--1570]. By northern custom the inflection marked in the present all forms of the verb except first person, and under northern influence Standard used the inflection for about a century up to c. 1640 with occasional plural as well as singular value.
¤αѸ˲ Strang ε̣Τϡ2λŦˤƤǤ롥1ܤϡѸƱˡŤ be äƿ are Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤαƶ椨ǤȤ¤ȴϢʤ顤3ñʣ -s ˤĤƵƤ뤳Ȥare ʤμѤȤΤǤС3ʣ -s μѤǤȹͤΤǤϤʤȤ2ܤϡ̾ưοΰפ˴ؤ붦Ū̻Ūʻ顤3ʣ -s ͳǤϤʤ줬ƵǤͳƤǤ롥ΰʸ³սǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The tendency did not establish itself, and we might guess that its collapse is related to the climax, at the same time, of the regularisation of noun plurality in -s. Though the two developments seem to belong to very different parts of the grammar, they are interrelated in syntax. Before the middle of II there was established the present fairly remarkable type of patterning, in which, for the vast majority of S-V concords, number is signalled once and once only, by -s (/s/, /z/, /ɪz/), final in the noun for plural, and in the verb for singular. This is the culmination of a long movement of generalisation, in which signs of number contrast have first been relatively regularised for components of the NP, then for the NP as a whole, and finally for S-V as a unit.
̾ʣ -s ư3ñ -s θŪŪȯããȤȤ館ƶϱԤ3ʣνиαƶ3ñ䤫Τ줫˵ˤ衤ϵǤ롥ʤǤ뤫Ȥ̤ˤؤäƤϤ뤬ν˷Ū꤬Ūꡤ̻ŪʼؤȹäƤ椯Τ롥
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ѸǼư֤ "passive voice"ǽư֤ "active voice" ȸƤ֤ʤ֡פ "voice" бΤʸˡƤϼŪʤɤʸǤưɽ魯ưȤɤΤ褦˴ؤ뤫ɽ魯ΤǤꡤưλѤͭ͡ʡ֡ˤɸ뵡ǽäƤ롥Τ褦ܸΡ֡פȤѸϤ뤫⤷ʤʤѸǤ "voice" ɽΤǤ롥ǡĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳Ȥˤ
ޤϡOED 顥voice, n. θ13ˤȡʸˡѸȤƤ "voice" ν15ȾǤΦʸǤϽФ16ʤΤǡѸǤλѤΤۤᤤȤˤʤˡǽ2ĵ褦
c1425 in C. R. Bland Teaching Gram. in Late Medieval Eng. (1991) 160 (MED), Þo secund coniugaciun..of passyf wowus, þat as -e- long befor þo -ris indecatyf, as doceris.
a1450 (a1397) Prol. Old Test. in Bible (Wycliffite, L.V.) (Cambr. Mm. II. 15) (1850) xv. 57 A participle of a present tens, either preterit, of actif vois, eithir passif.
MED voice (n.) 6(a) ˤС15ʸˡѸȤơ㤬³ȵ롥̣Ȥˡ̾Ρֳʡ (case) ɽ魯Τ voice ѤƤ㤬롥ޤ OED voice, n. θ14ˤϡѤǤϤ뤬ֿ;Ρ (person) Ȥ⤢롥ĤޤȤvoice ϡˤơФưΡ֡פɽ魯ۤȤˤ̾ưζƤɽ魯ȤǤ餷
Ϣơƥʸˡǡ֡פ "genus" ȸƤФ뤬̾ƤǤ "gender" ȤƱǤ롥Ѹ줬ʻˤ餺ʬŽդ٥ȤƶѤ뤳Ȥ롤⤦1ĤȤƲǤ롥ʸˡѸλȤʸˡȤ°ήɤˤ¸뤿ᡤΰŪѸȸƱꤹˤʸˡˤμɬפȤʤˤϤμϤʤΤǡܺ٤Ω뤳ȤǤʤ
ˤĤơۤ˼꤬Ϥʤȸؼŵ¾äƤߤƹԤäΤճʤȤ Lyons (371--72)
8.3.1 The term 'voice'
The term 'voice' (Latin vox) was originally used by Roman grammarians in two distinguishable, but related, senses: (i) In the sense of 'sound' (as used in the 'pronunciation' of human language: translating the Greek term phōnē, especially of the 'sounds' produced by the vibration of the 'vocal cords': hence the term 'vowel' (from Latin sonus vocalis, 'a sound produced with voice', via Old French vowel). (ii) Of the 'form' of a word (that is, what it 'sounded' like) as opposed to its 'meaning' . . . . the first of these two senses is still current in linguistics in the distinction between voiced and voiceless 'sounds' (whether as phonetic or phonological units . . .). In the second sense, 'voice' has disappeared from modern linguistic theory. Instead, the term has developed a third sense, derived ultimately from (ii) above, in which it refers to the active and passive 'forms' of the verb. (the traditional Latin term for this third sense was species or genus. In the course of time, genus was restricted to the nominal category of 'gender'; and the somewhat artificial classification of the 'forms' of the different parts of speech in terms of genera and species was abandoned.) The traditional Greek term for 'voice' as a category of the verb was diathesis, 'state', 'disposition', 'function', etc.; and some linguists prefer to use 'diathesis', rather than 'voice', in this sense of the term. However, the risk of confusion between the phonetic or phonological sense of 'voice' and its grammatical sense is very small.
voice ˤ衤case ˤ衤gender ˤ衤ʸˡƤѸθ츻̣õäƤ⤢ޤǼ椫ʤΤϡɤΤȤ줾ʸˡƤεǽǤϵҤǤʤʪǤꡤʤСּפַפɽ魯夨ƤޤȤ̾դФˤ٤뤫餫⤷ʤ
ʤΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤ֡פȤʸˡƤɽ魯Τˡvoice Τۤ˥ꥷͳ diathesis ȤѸ줬Ȥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥 dia- (between) + thesis (position) Ȥǡ֡פۤɤθǤ롥
Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 1968.
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1]) ˴ؤƼ䤬줿ǡƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ롥go went δطˤȤɤޤ餺깭ˤϤĤΤԵ§ʤ¸ߤΤȤ礭˴ؤͻǤ롥
ʤ go β went ȤʤäΤȤȡʤޤ went ΤޤޤǤ *goed ȤʤʤΤȤȤ̤Ǥ롥ԤˤĤƤϤƤȤơԤˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦ѸȤƽҶϡʳ˱ went -> *goed -> went Ȥϩ̲᤹Ȥֵ§§ä *goed ʳ٤ϷФˤ⤫餺㳰ʤǽŪˤ went 夯ȤΤ̣ʤˤФˤ䤵Ϥ *goed ˤơwent Ѥ˻Τεǽ (functionalism) Ȥ뤫ꡤϲʤ
went ȤԵ§ʤȤ櫓Ե§ٹ礤ζ佼ˤ夷ƤװȤơФФθǤζü٤ι⤵Ŧ롥٤ι⤤ζϡֵ§Фˡľܤη֤إۤŪǤȤ롥be ưζΰ۾Ե§ʤɤ⡤ˤä
ֹٸ̯ʿפϡΤ1ĤǤϤҲؤδ顤̤ζ̣Ƥ롥Ҳؤθ1ĤˡüԤϽ°붦ƱΤظŪʶ (conformity) ȤΤ롥Ҳؤγ路 Hudson (12) ϡ conformity ˤĤƿ줿ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Perhaps the show-piece for the triumph of conformity over efficient communication is the area of irregular morphology, where the existence of irregular verbs or nouns in a language like English has no pay-off from the point of view of communication (it makes life easier for neither the speaker nor the hearer, nor even for the language learner). The only explanation for the continued existence of such irregularities must be the need for each of us to be seen to be conforming to the same rules, in detail, as those we take as models. As is well known, children tend to use regular forms (such as goed for went), but later abandon these forms simply in order to conform with older people.
ޤHudson (233--34) ̤βսǤ⡤ͤˤä˹碌褦ȤռƯƤȤ accommodation theory ˸ڤʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The ideas behind accommodation theory are important for theory because they contradict a theoretical claim which is widely held among linguists, called 'functionalism'. This is the idea that the structure of language can be explained by the communicative functions that it has to perform --- the conveying of information in the most efficient way possible. Structural gaps like the lack of I aren't and irregular morphology such as went are completely dysfunctional, and should have been eliminated by functional pressures if functionalism was right.
"conformity", "accommodation theory" ȰۤʤѸѤƤ뤬2ĤΰѤϤȤˡΥɺŬεǽ⡤μҲŪʼ«ŪǽܤơԵ§ʷ֤¸³Ť褦ȤƤ롥ϡgo β went Ǥͳľܤ櫓ǤϤʤεǽȤ1ĤƶͿΤǤϤ
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ε³εǤϡPPCEME ˤ븡ǡ3ʣ -s 50ۤɼФȤǤȽҤ٤ʸ̮ʤȤȤ52㤬ǧ줿ʥǡΥƥȥեˡ
PPCEME ǤϡE1 (1500--1569), E2 (1570--1639), E3 (1640--1710) 3ʬƤ뤬ζʬȤ3ʣ -s ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤʳƴΥѥ⼨ˡ
| Period | Tokens | Wordcount |
|---|---|---|
| E1 (1500--1569) | 13 | 567,795 |
| E2 (1570--1639) | 18 | 628,463 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 21 | 541,595 |
| Total | 52 | 1,737,853 |
and after them comys mo harolds,
Here comes our Gossips now,
Now in goes the long Fingers that are wash't Some thrice a day in Vrin,
ơLass (166) 3ʣ -s ˤĤƴϢڤĤΤǡҲ𤷤ƤLass ϡ3ʣ -s εˤĤơñ٤л٤줿ΤΡŤȹͤƤ褦
The {-s} plural appears considerably later than the {-s} singular, and if it too is northern (as seems likely), it represents a later diffusion. The earliest example cited by Wyld ([History of Modern Colloquial English] 346) is from the State Papers of Henry VIII (1515): 'the noble folk of the land shotes at hym'. It is common throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as a minority alternant of zero, and persists sporadically into the eighteenth century.
1617̤ƹԤʤƤȤȤϡ嵭 PPCEME dzΤǧ줿ʤѸС PPCMBE 18ʹߤξĴ٤Ƥߤȡ6äΤοȴǰξǾȤפɤΤޤޤƤ[2012-06-14-1]ε#1144. ѸˤפפȡˡѸǤ3ʣ -s ϳ̵˶ᤤȹͤƤ褵
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
ɸˤĤ Baugh and Cable (247) ˿Ƥꡤܤ椤3ñʤ3ʣˤ -s ϡѸǤʤѸǤϡ#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) βϿޤǼ褦ˡľˡ3;ʣǤ -es ܤäѸɸѼˤ3ʣ -s ȤΤԻĤǤ롥ȤΤϡλʸؤʸȿǤɸѼǤϡѸ East Midland -e(n) ṳ̈ȤƤΥͽۤ뤷ºݤʬۤȤưŪ3ʣ -s ϳΤ Shakespeare Ǥ롥
ˤĤơBaugh and Cable (247) ϼΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
Their occurrence is also often attributed to the influence of the Northern dialect, but this explanation has been quite justly questioned, and it is suggested that they are due to analogy with the singular. While we are in some danger here of explaining ignotum per ignotius, we must admit that no better way of accounting for this peculiarity has been offered. And when we remember that a certain number of Southern plurals in -eth continued apparently in colloquial use, the alternation of -s with this -eth would be quite like the alternation of these endings in the singular. Only they were much less common. Plural forms in -s are occasionally found as late as the eighteenth century.
ǡ3ʣ -s αƶǤϤʤȤ Baugh and Cable θϡWyld, History of Modern Colloquial English, p. 340 θڤäƤ롥षλ3ñ -s -th θؤʣˤŪӲФ̤ȹͤƤ롥ʤGörlach (89) ϡ餭Τñ餭ΤᤫͤƤ롥
ͻˤäơϤȤ⤢졤Ѹˤ3ʣ -s ʤ -th ʤ꤬ŪˤɤΤ餤٤ǸΤǧƤɬפ롥ǡThe Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern English (PPCEME) ˤꤶäȸƤߤ180ȤϤΥѥ3ʣ -s 50ۤɡ3ʣ -th 60ۤɤäʷ̥ƥȥեϺåˡǯʸ̮ʤɤξܺ٤ʬϤϤƤʤŵŪƤ
and all your children prayes you for your daly blessing.
but the carving and battlements and towers looks well;
then go to the pot where your earning bagges hangs,
as our ioyes growes, We must remember still from whence it flowes,
Ther growes smale Raysons that we call reysons of Corans,
now here followeth the three Tables,
And yf there be no God, from whence cometh good thynges?
First I wold shewe that the instruccyons of this holy gospell perteyneth to the vniuersal chirche of chryst.
and so the armes goith a sundre to the by crekes.
And to this agreith the wordes of the Prophetes, as it is written.
Also high browes and thicke betokeneth hardnes:
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
ޤƤǤȤޤ̦ǯǤǯ hellog ꤤޤ
ǯǽεϡ줿μˤĤơread βȯʤ /rɛd/ ʤΤѸˤδɤΤ
ɸѸ read γѤϡֻѤȯǤ /riːd/ -- /rɛd/ -- /rɛd/ Ȥʤ롥ΤˡδԵ§ζˤߤΤ褦˸롥ŪˤߤС§Ūȸڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤΡȤäԵ§ζˤߤȤʤȯ˴ؤƤ㤬뤷ֻˤĤƤ⤢٤Ϳ롥
ȯֻ̡˹ͤƤޤϡȯ顥ư read θűѸ West-Saxon ˤ rǣdan Ǥꡤ촴ˤĹ첻ޤޤƤAnglian Kentish Ǥϡ첻 ē ɽ蘆⤤֤첻äˤűѸˤĹ첻ޤޤƤȤפǤ롥ơưϥޥĸʳǤ϶ѲVII°ƤűѸޤǤˤϼѲƤꡤWest-Saxon Ǥϲ rǣddeʬ gerǣd(e)d ڤƤ롥ǡ촴 d d ȤʣƤ뤳ȤݥȤǤ롥ȤΤϡѸˤơνŻҲľĹ첻ûȤѲǤ³æŻҲˡơѸǤϡ촴첻β /æ/, /ɛ/, /a/ ʤ첻δ֤ɤƤ줪Ӹ߷θ촴ǤĹ첻Ӳʬθ촴Ǥû첻Ȥʬۤ줿Ĺ첻ϸ첻ϤȤʤꡤɸѸ /iː/ ؤϢʤꡤû첻 /ɛ/ ؤϢʤä
첻бֻϤɤΤ褦ȯŸƤѸ˸줿 <ea> ֻϡȸ߷θ촴첻 /ɛː/ бƤȹͤ롥û첻Ȳʬθ촴첻ɽ魯֤ȤƤ <e> դ꤬Ǥդ路äΤ<red> Ǥϡ֡פɽ魯Ʊ֤۵ȾͤƤޤ줬ä餫̲뤳ȤϤʤä "homographic clash" ȤǤƤ֤٤ϡOED "read, v." θ츻ͿƤΤǤ롥
The present-day spelling of the past tense and past participle forms is analogous to the present tense; the spelling red for past tense and past participle is found only in isolated instances in the modern period and was perhaps avoided because it coincided with the standard spelling of RED adj.
"homographic clash" 1ĤβǽȤƤϹθ̤ͤƻ褦㤬Τޤ/ɛ/ = <ea> бΤΤ bread, dead, head, lead (n.), spread, stead, thread ʤɤ˸졤ɬǤϤʤ
˽Ҥ٤Ƥ OED εҤ绨ĤˤޤȤΤɸѸȯֻδط夯ޤǤˡʤ餫ˤ뤳ȡˤʣǤ롥MED ΰ֤ΰͤС䤳Ǥ
ʤlead (v.) read Ʊͤˤɤäֻȯ̩ܤʴطݤ³ɸѸǤ lead -- led -- led ؤ夤Ƥ롥ޤѸǤ eat spread ⸽߷Ĺ첻û첻ä (Dobson 503) ΤǡλޤǤȯȯã read ʿԤäȤˤʤ롥
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
ε#1286. ֲѲΰۤʤ2ưŤ ([2012-11-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Hooper ʸǤϡĴ1ĤȤưζܹԡʶѲưμѲˤ夲ƤHooper εñǤ롥ܹԤˤʿ (analogical leveling) ŵǤꡤ٤㤤ư줫˰ܹԤ뤲ƤΤȤ
Hooper ĴоݤȤưϸűѸζѲI, II, IIIͳ褹ưΤߤǤꡤθѸˤپˤĤƤ Kučera and Francis ɽȤƤ롥ٷ lemma ñ̤ǤֻΤߤȤФǤꡤdrive, ride ʤɤθʲɽ * դƤΡˤˤĤʻζ̤θƤʤӺʤΤޤǯʾˤ錄ѲˤƤȤˡѸˤ٤ΤߤȤƤ褤ΤȤ[2012-09-21-1]ε#1243. ٤θ̻ŪΤˡסˤˤĤƤڴŪǤ (99) ΤȤơ᤹Τ˻ͤޤǤˤȤâɬפʲ Hooper (100) ɽ䤹ѤΤǤ褦

ΤˤΤ褦˸ȡܹԤФưΤȤ٤Ūˤä㤤Ȥ狼롥Ϣơkeep, *leave, *sleep *creep, *leap, weep ˤĤơ3줬ŪʲݻƤΤФơ3ˤϼŪ creeped, leaped, weeped ΰ۷ǧȤԤ٤Ϥ줾 531, 792, 132 ФƸԤϤ줾 37, 42, 31 Ȥ (Hooper 100) ͤޤǤˤȤϤäƤ⡤ȤƤ餫Τ褦˻פ롥
ưζܹԤϱѸˤˤƴŪǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1]) ʤɤǿƤƳȤ狼äƤʤȤ¿ξܺ٤ʸ椬ؤ롥
Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Ѳȸ٤ȤδطˤĤƤϡPhillips θҲ𤷤ʤ顤#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1]) #1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ#1265. ٤ȲѲνδط˵ŤƤ Schuchardt ([2012-10-13-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ˲ŪѲϹٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ19ŦƤդ (analogy) δؤֲŪѲٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ⡤ۤƱ Herman Paul ˤäƻŦƤHooper 95)
Hooper ϡ1984ǯʸǡ٤Ȥ顤벻Ѳȹͤ븽Ѹˤ schwa-deletion memory ʤɤ2첻ˤˤʿȹͤưμѲĴ2Ω "phonetic change tends to affect frequent words first, while analogical leveling tends to affect infrequent words first" (101) ٻPhillips Ϥñ2ΩˤäƤǤʤΤ뤳ȤƤ뤬ΩνȯȤ뤳ȤϺǤ
Τ褦٤ȲѲδطˤäƤ褦˸ Hooper ¤ΤȤüԤϸپ˥ǤʤϤȹͤƤ (102)
I do not think the relative frequency of words is a part of native speaker competence, so I would not propose to make the rule sensitive to word frequency.
Ǥ٤ȲѲοʹԽشط뤳Ȥǧ³ΤǤСξԤϡüԤθǽϤǤϤʤ챿ѤΤʤˤȤȤˤʤΤHooper ϻҶθĤ褦ȤƤ褦
٤ȲѲν˴ؤΤŪʰյϡʷ֡˲Ѳˤϸΰۤʤʣμब뤳Ȥˤ롥ѲνۤʤȤȤϡ餯ѲΥᥫ˥बۤʤȤȤǤꡤѲθۤʤȤȤǤϤʤȤСѲν狼СѲưŤ狼뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϤΤ褦ʸΰۤʤѲˡֽ벻ѲפŪʷֲѲפȤ٥ŽդƤϤ٤ʬबɬפHooper (103) ηƤ
. . . if it turned out that vowel shifts and some other phonetic changes affect infrequent forms before frequent forms, then we would have an interesting indication that phonetic changes arise from different sources, and furthermore, if my hypotheses are correct, a way of determining which types of changes are traceable to which source. Thus it appears that lexical diffusion, studied in terms of word frequency, may turn up some interesting evidence concerning the source of morpho-phonological change. (103)
Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
ε#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1]) ˰³ʸˡѸˤĤơѸ̤ˤ뤳ȤʸˡѸˤϰ̣ǤʤΤ¿㤨С¾ư "transitive verb" ư "intransitive verb" ȸƤǤ뤬transitive ȤϲΤȤؤΤ
transitive ϡ츻Ūˤϥƥ transitīvus ̤ꡤδΤȤʤư transīre (trans- "over" + īre "to go") Ǥ롥transitive ϡΤȤ "going over, passing over" ۤɤΰ̣Ȥʤ롥OED "transitive, a. (n.)" θӤʸ1ĤǧȡΤ褦ˤä
2. a. Gram. Of verbs and their construction: Expressing an action which passes over to an object; taking a direct object to complete the sense.
. . . .
1590 J. Stockwood Rules Constr. 64 A verbe transitiue .. is such .. as passeth ouer his signification into some other thing, as when I say, 'I loue God'.
顤ưɽ魯ưαƶ¾ΤΡŪλؼΡˤءֵڤ֡ספȤǡ"going over, passing over" ʤΤȤ狼롥
verbum transitīvum "transitive verb" ȤѸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤȤ⡤ưΤΤȤ館ϡ2˸奮ꥷʸˡ路 Apollonius Dyscolus ˵롥Dionysius Thrax Techne Grammatike Ѿ Priscian Υƥʸˡˤ礭ʱƶͿʸˡؼԤǤ롥Dyscolus ϡ̾ʤγʡˤưδطܤưˡ transitive, intransitive, passive ؤʬषػˤˤ Dyscolus ɾRobins (47) ѤƤ
Syntax was dealt with extensively by Apollonius Dyscolus writing in Alexandria in the second century A. D. He wrote a large number of books, only some of which survive, and it would appear that despite earlier writings on Greek syntax his was the first attempt at a comprehensive syntactic description and analysis of the Greek language. His importance, together with that of the Téchnē, was realized by his successors, and the great Latin grammarian, Priscian, some three centuries later referred to him as 'the greatest authority on grammar', and explicitly imposed Apollonian methods on his own full-scale description of the Latin language.
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
̾ʣ -s ˤϻμפʥơޤ1ĤǤ[2011-11-29-1]ε#946. ̾ʣˤγספȡˡȤ櫓ʤۤʤ -s Ф줿ΤȤˤϤäƤHotta (148--49) ǤϡĤθŪװŦ1ĤȤơ-s ¾ʣɽ٤ƲŪ˶ǤǤꡤˤȤŦ
-s βŪۤȤˤĤơHickey (62) ˴ϢڤĤǤϡ̾ʣ -s Τߤʤ餺ư3ñ -th Ф -s ˤĤƤƤ롥
. . . acoustic prominence can be appealed to in the history of English as well, for instance the substitution of /-θ/ by /-s/ in the third person singular or the progressive productivity of /-s/ plurals from Old English onwards and their encroaching on already established plural types --- cf. ME nasal plurals, such as eyen eyes --- can be accounted for on the grounds of the phonetic salience of /s/ and hence its suitability as a grammatical suffix.
-s βŪۤϡ饤ХФľŪʾȤϡǽŪĤ˹ a conditioning factor 餤ˤȤ館ƤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹͤ뤬Ѳ˲ŪħؤäƤȤܤͤ롥ä [s] [θ] ĴŪʺۤˤĤƤϡŪͤùȤϤʤäΤǡHickey (71 [fn. 5]) μϤ꤬ʰλʸϰѼԤŸΡˡ
Ladefoged and Maddieson (pp. 145--72 of Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson. The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.) suggest a division of fricatives into sibilant and non-sibilant given that with the former (/s, ʃ/ articulations in English for instance) the constriction at the alveolar ridge produces a jet of air that hits the obstacle formed by the teeth. In non-obstacle fricatives, such as /θ, ð/, the turbulence is produced at the constriction itself. Laver (pp. 260--63 of Laver, John. Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.) discusses the auditory characteristics of fricatives as does Fry (p. 122 of Fry, Dennis Butler. The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.), who notes that the noise energy for [s] is prominent between 4000 and 8000 Hz. It is similar in frequency distribution to [θ] but has much greater energy which means it is more clearly audible (see diagrams, Fry 1979: 123). *
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Hickey, Raymond. "Salience, Stigma and Standard." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 57--72.
[2011-08-06-1]ε#831. Why "an apple"?פǡƱݤŪʻ̻ŪʻȤǤ180ٰۤʤäƸȤơѸˤʬ -ed ȯ夲褦ηǤˤϡľβĶ˱3Ĥȯ롥visited minded Τ褦 [t] [d] Ԥˤ [ɪd] ȤƼ¸졤looked watched Τ褦 [t] ʳ̵Ԥˤ [t] ȤʤꡤʳǤ played moved Τ褦 [d] Ȥʤ롥Ū˹ŪʴꤹΤǤСηǤ /d/ ȤƤԤ촴β˽ä [ɪ] (epenthesis) 줿ꡤ[t] ؤ̵ȹͤΤǤ롥Ԥ [td] [dd] ȤϢ³뤿ȹͤФ褤ԤνƱȹͤФ褤
ĤǤˡ3ñ -s ˤĤƤ⸫ƤηǤľβĶ˱3Ĥȯб롥[s, z, ʒ, ʃ, ʧ, ʤ] ԤˤϡϢ³뤿첻줿 [ɪz] ȤƼ¸ʤξ硤ֻ <es> Ȥʤˡ嵭˴ޤޤʳ̵Ԥˤ [s] ȤʤꡤʳǤ [z] Ȥʤ롥ˤ /z/ ꤷƤ첻뤤̵ˤä [ɪz] 뤤 [z] ¸ȹͤƤФ褤⡤αѸǤϹƤŪʵ§ (rule) Ǥ롥
̻ŪʴϡϤޤäդ˸롥ֻ <ed> <es> ̤ꡤηǤϡʤȤѸޤǤ첻ݤäƤꡤΩƤ첻μ줿ξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡDobson Sections 310--11 ȡˡĤޤꡤľβĶˤ餺 [əd] [əz] Ǽ¸ƤΤǤ롥Ȥ첻üϤޤäĶˤƤϡ첻üΤߤƯθѤϤʤä̤ΤĶˤƤϡ촴ܿȤˤԤ̵ơޤ̤ΤĶˤƤϡ첻üΤΤ˻ߤ졤첻ݤ줿ŪȤȡȤƤǤδ /əd/ /əz/ ǤꡤĶ˱ [d], [t], [əd] 뤤 [z], [s], [əz] ¸줿ȹͤۤºݤβѲ¨§Τ褦˸롥ʬϤϰ̤˸αѸǤϺѤƤʤ
괧 a an ξƱͤˡɤʬϤƤ뤫ȤȤϡƽפǤϤʤƱݤۤʤ٤įƤǤꡤΤΤͥϤʤηк붦Ūʻ餹д /d/ ꤬ͭǤꡤʪ̻Ūʻ餹д /ɪd/ ꤬ͭԤȤȡѸȶѸʹߤȤǡȤ§180ѤäȤˤʤꡤ rule inversion ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʾ塤Kastovsky (132--33) εۤƼɮ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Morphological Restructuring: The Case of Old English and Middle English Verbs." Historical Linguistics 1995: Selected Papers from the 12th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Manchester, August 1995. Vol. 2. Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard M. Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2000. 131--47.
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