hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 ڡ / page 2 (3)

pidgin - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2014-10-26 Sun

#2008. ܿά [history_of_linguistics][contact][sociolinguistics][bilingualism][geolinguistics][geography][pidgin][creole][neogrammarian][wave_theory][linguistic_area][neolinguistics]

#1993. Hickey ˤ쳰Ūװؤο ([2014-10-11-1]) εǡǯѲθܿ (language contact) ˵ͤƤƤ롥ܿˤ1970--80ǯϤषƤ1990ǯʹߡɤᤷƤ褦ؤǤθܿθˤϰƳȸŤϡȤ Drinka (325--28) γ˰͵򤷤ơܿάˤ
άˤΥȤȤơJohannes Schmidt (1843--1901) ̾󤲤#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) ʤɤεǸ褦ˡSchmidt ϡ֤δطȤ館뤿Ȥƻվ August Schleicher (1821--68) 1860ǯ󼨤 Stammbaumtheorie (Family Tree Theory) й1872ǯ Wellentheorie (wave_theory) 󼨤Schmidt ΤƤϸŪ׿濴դؤŪȵڤƤȤƤꡤܿ˴ŤƸѲ褦ȤǥȤʤä
λǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) 뤬Τʤǰۺ Hugo Schuchardt (1842--1927) ޤܿν᤯鵤ŤƤ1ͤǤ롥Schuchardt ϡԥ䥯쥪ʤɺθü򳫤ʪǤ⤢롥
20ȡե󥹤ؼ Jules Gilliéron (1854--1926) ˤؤ롥1930ǯˤ Kristian Sandfeld ˤХ륫 (linguistique balkanique) ϻϤ졤ϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ܤĤꥢǤϡ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡMatteo Bartoli ˤ꿷 (Neolinguistics) 졤Ѳˤ濴ȼդΩطɵ椵줿1940ǯˤ Franz Boaz Roman Jakobson ʤɤθؼԤ춭ۤγȻˤĤ
ܿʬǺǽηŪŪʸȤСWeinreich Languages in Contact (1953) Weinreich ϡܿξϸǤҲǤʤ2üԤĿͤˤ뤳ȤȤǡ˾̾ĤƤ롥Weinreich ϡվ André Martinet ι¤ؤθȤʤ⡤Ҳؤ俴ؤδŻ뤷θθܿ˳ΤͿ1970ǯˤϡPeter Trudgill Ū׿γȻΤ⤦1ĤΥǥȤ "gravity model" 󵯤cf.#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1]
1970ǯȾϡ˸ؤ෿ΥץȤʤäƤۤĿͤ뤤ϼҲ2 (bilingualism) ˴ؤ뿴Ūʴθ¿ʤäƤߤǤϸܿ͡ʬؤʬƤꡤʲϤ¿򼨤ɤ򤤤Ĥ󤲤ΤǤ롥 (language_shift)ײ (language_planning)2ѤˤǾƯȽcode-switchingѤ亮ι¤Ū󡤸Ѳԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) ʤɤܿ (contact language)ϰ (areal linguistics) (linguistic_area) (Matras 203)
ǸˡǯθܿˤƵǰṲ̄Ƥ븦1󤲤褦Thomason and Kaufman ˤ Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) Ǥ롥θθܿʬΤۤܤ٤Ƥθ椬¿ʤȤ⤳αƶƤȤäƤǤϤʤܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ĥε (cf. Thomason and Kaufman) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥

Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Matras, Yaron. "Language Contact." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 203--14.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-10-05 Sun

#1987. ԥȥ쥪Ϣ³ [pidgin][creole][drift][post-creole_continuum][sociolinguistics][founder_principle]

ԥ (pidgin) ȥ쥪 (creole) ˤĤƤΰ̤ˤȡԤüԤ⤿ʤʰײˤȤɤޤΤФԤüԤηŪʣħŤȤȤǤ롥̤θ򤹤Сcreole pidgin ȯŸʳθɽ路ξԤϤθȯãΥ饤եΰʤθ塤post-creole_continuum decreolization ʳꤦȤˡξԤϢ³ΤǤϤΤΡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) Ǽ褦ˡħӤΩġ
#444. ԥȥ쥪ζܡ ([2010-07-15-1]) Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡpidgin creole ˤϾ嵭Υ饤եŪʸƤϤޤʤ㤬롥ԥΤʤˤϡüԤˡʤ creole ˡηϤʣ "expanded pidgin" ¸ߤ롥#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1]) ǿ줿 Cameroon Pidgin English#1688. Tok Pisin ([2013-12-10-1]) Ǽ夲 Tok Pisin ΤĤѼ郎Ǥ롥ޤȿФˡΤ䥤Τˤ褦ˡԥʳФľܥ쥪줬Ȥߤʤ⤢ (Mufwene 48)
쥪츦κüǻŻ򤷤Ƥ Mufwene (47) ϡŪˤԥȥ쥪Υ饤եФƲŪǤ롥Ȥ櫓 expanded pidgin creole δطˤĤơξԤϸäƤषդǤꡤϢ³ΤȤߤʤΤˤ̵ȤƤ롥

There are . . . significant reasons for not lumping expanded pidgins and creoles in the same category, usually identified as creole and associated with the fact that they have acquired a native speaker population. . . . [T]hey evolved in opposite directions, although they are all associated with plantation colonies, with the exception of Hawaiian Creole, which actually evolved in the city . . . . Creoles started from closer approximations of their 'lexifiers' and then evolved gradually into basilects that are morphosyntactically simpler, in more or less the same ways as their 'lexifiers' had evolved from morphosyntactically more complex Indo-European varieties, such as Latin or Old English. According to Chaudenson (2001), they extended to the logical conclusion a morphological erosion that was already under way in the nonstandard dialects of European languages that the non-Europeans had been exposed to. On the other hand, expanded pidgins started from rudimentary language varieties that complexified as their functions increased and diversified.


ǿƤ Chaudenson ƱݤƤ褦ˡcreole ϸ󶡸̾Ͽ̱ϻۼԤ衼åѤθˤ³Ǥꡤ줬ʰײΤǤȤ (cf. #1842. 쥪˼ҲŪ ([2014-05-13-1])) pidgin ϸ󶡸Ȥ϶̤٤ǤꡤȯŸǤ expanded pidgin pidgin ¿ǽʣƤѼؤȤͤĤޤꡤƤ pidgin expanded pidgin creole ȤȯŸΥ饤եѤϡ¤ʤºݡ19ޤǤ pidgin creole δ֤ˤΤ褦ȯŸŪʴطȤƤʤäػŪˤϡ20äƤ Bloomfield ʤɤȯŸطŦϤ᤿ˤʤ (Mufwene 48)
creole ñ㲽ή (drift) ŪǤȤĥܤڤ褦ʻMufwene μλŦˤܤγФפ롥"Had linguists remembered that the European 'lexifiers' had actually evolved from earlier, more complex morphosyntaxes, they would have probably taken into account more of the socioeconomic histories of the colonies, which suggest a parallel evolution" (48) .
Mufwene Υ쥪ä˿̱ϻˤˤ homestead stage plantation stage ζ̤ founder principle ˤĤƤϡ#1840. ڥ١Υ쥪줬ü˾ʤΤϤʤ ([2014-05-11-1]) ȡ#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Mufwene, Salikoko. "Creoles and Creolization." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 46--60.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-02-13-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-10-03 Fri

#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ [contact][loan_word][borrowing][sociolinguistics][language_change][causation][substratum_theory][code-switching][pidgin][creole][koine][koineisation]

#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǥ줾츫褦ˡ̤ܿ1ĤȤ contact-induced language change 롥Ϥ˼ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ʬ롥Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤǤ롥shift-induced interference ϡ2콬World Englishesظƶ (substratum_theory) ʤɤ˴طܿβȤ䤹⤷ʤ
2ĤۤʤΤdzǰ̤뤳Ȥưפ¤θܿλˤƤꤹΤ񤷤¿뤳ȤΤäƤɬפ롥Meeuwis and Östman (41) ꡤվ񤭤ǵ

(1) code-switching Ǥϡɤθ줫ɤθظबưƤȤߤʤФ褤ΤȽȤʤȤ¿#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡborrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡδ֤ˤϥ졼󤬳ȤäƤ롥
(2) (mixed language) ˤƤϡͿξθ줬褽Ʊ٤Ϳ¦Ǥ⤢ꡤ¦Ǥ⤢롥ŵŪˤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Russenorsk Michif ʤɤ pidgin creole/creoloid 롥Thomason ϡμθܿ contact-induced language change ȤܤǤϤʤextreme language mixture ȤܤΤȤǰäƤꡤüʤΤȤƶ̤Ƥ (cf. [2014-03-13-1])
(3) ߤ򤷹礨ۤɤѼ郎ܿȤˤ⡤ΰưꤹ뤳Ȥ񤷤ŵŪΤϡɤκʤ koineization Ǥ롥#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) 򻲾ȡ
(4) "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") ꡥL2 dzؤħL1 ˤǤϤʤ̤˽褦ȤƤ L3 ˱ѤƤޤȤ롥㤨СܸüԤ L2 ȤƤαѸ magazine ʻˤˡL3 ȤƤΥե󥹸 magasin ʾŹˤֻפΰ̣dzФƤޤ褦3Ȥ٤ǤꡤʬˡǤϰȤǤʤ
(5) ⤽⡤ĿͤˤȤäƲ L1 Dz L2 ȽȤʤ롥Х󥬥θĿͤˤäƤϡ2Ĥθ줬ۤƱ1ǤȤߤʤ礬롥Ϣơ#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) ⻲ȡ

borrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡϡζʬǤ뤳ȡƤޤǤθ¤ˤͭǤ뤳Ȥ򲡤Ƥ

Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-06-25 Wed

#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ [aave][creole][pidgin][sociolinguistics][ame][caribbean][syntax][be][aspect][inflection][3sp][variety][existential_sentence]

#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ȡ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) Ǽ夲AAVE (African American Vernacular English) ȤϥꥫѸ1ѼȤƤΤͱѸ (Black English) ؤ"Black" "African-American" θƾΤդ路ΤȩοŪʵ˾ƤۤŬڤǤ뤫顤"Vernacular English" θƾΤդ路ΤϡɸѸ (Standard English) ФɸѸ (Non-Standard English or Substandard English) ȸƤ֤ΤϤͥްդƤޤǤ롥Ūˤ AAVE Ȥ̾Τ夷Ƥ롥
AAVE ˤϡʸˡܤ˸¤äƤ⡤ɸѸ˸ʤħ¿ǧ롥ΤȤƤϡʼȤͤˤää˥ꥫ䡤ֳߤαѸȤ륯쥪ȶᤤħ򼨤Ȥ롥ꥹ˵ĤȹͤΤʸˡܤ⤢롥Ūˤϰʲ˼ͤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤AAVE ʸˡŪħȤεä2Ĥ⤬ΩƤ롥ߡꥫѸѼ˴ؤȤƤϡܤ򽸤Ƥ1ĤȤäƤ褤
1ܤβ Creolist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥ѸեꥫνȤ򤷤̤Ȥޤ줿쥪졤뤤ϤѸѼ郎AAVE εǤȤ줬ɸѸȤܿݤĤʤǡɸѸؤȶŤƤĤޤæ쥪벽 (decreolization) ƤȹͤƤ롥ˤȡꥫ AAVE ƤΤϡԤԤ˱ƶͿ롥AAVE ħŪʸùܤΤʤˤϡvoodoo ʥ֡ɥ, pinto ʴ, goober ʥԡʥåġˤʤեꥫͳ褹Τ¿βؤɤȤʤäƤ롥
2ܤβ Anglicist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥AAVE ħεϥꥹ礫⤿餵줿ѸѼˤȤǤ롥ꥫǹѼѼ郎ۤʤΤϡ300ǯˤ錄ˤΤʤǤ줾줬ȼθѲ뤲ǤꡤξѼߤܿŪʤäǤ롥ѻ߸ιͤذ̱ȡԻԤǤϹѼѼȤκۤݤäưռ졤줾̱²ѼȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤä
Τ褦2ĤβϱԤΩƤ뤬ܤӤƤ AAVE μ礿ʸˡŪħ7󤲤褦

(1) 3ñ -s ηǡAAVE üԤ¿ϡhe go, it come, she like ʤ -s Τʤ֤Ѥ롥ѸȤԥ䥯쥪ƱݤߤȤǤ Creolist Hypothesis ͭǥ󥰥ɤ East Anglia ǤƱħߤȤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ˤ⸫ߤ롥Ϣơ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ⻲ȡ

(2) ߷ˤϢ (copula) be ηǡShe real nice. They out there. He not American. If you good, you going to heaven. Τ褦ʹʸϢξάϡ¿θǤߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ֳΥ쥪ŵŪǤȤ Creolist Hypothesis μĥǤ롥ꥹˤϰڤߤʤħǤꡤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ϻٻʤ

(3) Ѥ beɸѼΤ褦ˡis, am, are ʤɤȿ;Ѳ be Ȥ롥He usually be around. Sometime she be fighting. Sometime when they do it, most of the problems always be wrong. She be nice and happy. They sometimes be incomplete. ʤɡ(2) Ϣ be ηǡ̷⤹褦ˤߤ뤬be ѤΤϽ (habitual aspect) ɽ魯ȤǤꡤbe ǡ󽬴ȤΩ롥Ѥ be Τ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬줬ôäƤȤΤ AAVE ͭǤ롥He busy right now. Sometime he be busy. ˴ؤʸˡŪΩƤꡤΩɸѸɽʤСHe's busy right now. Sometimes he's busy. Τ褦ʶˤѤ򤨤ʤ쥪Ǥϻ (tense) (aspect) ʸˡƥ꡼Ȥͥ褵뤳Ȥ¿ᡤѤ be Creolist Hypothesis ˤȤäͭʺȤ롥ˤĤƤСAAVE ǤϡۤˤɸѸŪ I have talked. I had talked. Ȥä˲äλ I done talked. I been talked. Τ褦ߤ롥

(4) 2ܤι¤ˤƽưΤߤά뷹ɸѸǤ We were eating --- and drinking too. Τ褦2ܤǤ we are ޤ뤴ȾάΤ̤AAVE Ǥ¿Υ쥪Ʊͤ are άWe was eatin' --- an' we drinkin', too. ȤΤ̤Ǥ롥

(5) ܵʸˤư֡I asked Mary where did she go. I want to know did he come last night. ʤɡ

(6) ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It's a boy in my class name Joey. It ain't no heaven for you to go to. ʤɡ

(7) ư֡ʿʸȤʿʸΥȥ͡ǡDoesn't nobody know that it's a God. Cant't nobody do nothing about it. Wasn't nothing wrong with that. ʤɡ

1980ǯޤǤγسˤƤ Creolist Hypothesis ͥäʻ¤Τ褦ˤʤˤĤ졤٤Ƥ Creolist Hypothesis DzǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤʤäƤ㤨С AAVE Ȥƥꥫ񳰤ذܽĤ㤬 Nova Scotia (Canada) Samaná (Dominican Republic) ǸߤäƤѼϡν AAVE ħ¿¸Ƥ뤳Ȥͽۤ뤬Ѥ be ʤɤηŪħ礤Ƥ롥ϡ AAVE ŪħAAVE νäƤΤǤϤʤŪ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ߽Ф
ޤdo otherwise ȤѤˡ AAVE ˤ뤬󥰥ɤ East Anglia ˤƱˡꡤ줬Ǥȹͤ򤨤ʤAAVE Dat's a thing dat's got to be handled just so, do it'll kill you. East Anglia You lot must have moved it, do I wouldn't have fell in. Ӥ줿
ʳȻפͤϡCreolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ŪΩ벾ǤϤʤȤ߹碌ƤȤ館٤ȤȤǤ롥줾βˤäƤŪʤħ⤢СξԤȤȤʤꤦ褦ħ⤢롥ޤºݤˤϴͿƤʤ褦ħ⤢뤫⤷ʤñ˵ƤޤȤϡष
ʾ塤Trudgill (51--60) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-05-10 Sat

#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ [terminology][language_change][pidgin][creole][functionalism][functional_load][entropy][redundancy][simplification]

Ѹˤʸˡñ㲽 (simplification) ˤǤȸ뤳Ȥ롥űѸ줫Ѹˤʣʶ (inflection) פʸˡ (grammatical gender) 졤Τ˸줬ñ㲽褦ˤߤ롥ޤפˤĤƤϡ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1]) 2β̤Ƴ
ñ㲽ȤѸϡԥ󲽤䥯쥪벽ʸ̮ǤѽФ롥줬ԥ䥯쥪ؿܤƤݤŵŪ˴ѻʸˡѲϡñ㲽ȤħŤ롤ȸ롥
ˤñ㲽ȤǰˤȤ館ˤβäñ㤢뤤ʣȤߤʤˤĤơŪ˹դʤǤ롥áʸˡѤˤäñ㡦ʣδϡʤ⤷ȤƤ˰ۤʤ#293. ٤¬뤫 ([2010-02-14-1]) Ǥ褦ˡˤɤνŤߤͿ٤Ȥ⤢롥ޤǽŪΩ줫顤 functional_load entropy ¬뤳ȤǤȤƤ⡤ϸ; (redundancy) ĤΤǤϤʤäȤ롥ˡñ㲽ȤϸѲħȤ館뤿βʳŪѸǤϤʤѲȷӤĤɾޤѸǤϤʤȤ̤ʤʴϢơ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
󥽥 (57) ϡ쥪ˤߤȤ롤̣ΤʤΡñ㲽פˤĤơ3ĤιͤҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

(A) ֺǾסβϡϡڥ륻ˤäƺ줿ڥ륻ϡ쥪ΤʤˡʤˤȤäƤ礫ʤħΤߤ򤽤ʤǾηϤߤ
(B) ֺŬס̡ॹ쥦ǡˤȤäơ֥쥪ˤǤɽϺŬ֤ˤס
(C) Ωסλϥ㡼ɥˤä󾧤줿㡼ɥϡ⡼ꥷ㥹ξ硤Ϥ¸ߤƤηϡʥե󥹸졤ޥ졤Хȥˤޤ˰ۼǤäˡηϤḺäȹͤ


󥽥ϡγǰۣǤȤơñ㲽פȤѸ줽ΤΤ˵褷Ƥ롥ե󥹸١Ȥ˥󡦥쥪줫ζŪѤѤ褦 (57--58) 󥽥εϡܼĤƤȻפ

ñ㲽ȤǰΤΤǤϤʤȤХ˥󡦥쥪 mon zanfan ̤錄ΤɤͤȤɽϡե󥹸 mon enfant ñ錄λҡͤ mes enfants ʣ錄λҶͤȤĤη뤳ȤǤ롥ߤơ˥ñʣȤ̤ʤ顤ե󥹸ñȤʤ뤫⤷ʤ̤̤ߤСƱͳ顤쥪ɽϤäȤޤ顤äƤñפǤϤʤȤ⤤ºݡñפȤΰ̣ϡʣŪǤϤʤפȤ⡤ס֤ޤǤʤפȤ⤤ΤǤ롥򤵤ˤ褯Ĵ٤ʤС˥ϡϤäꤵɬפȤʣɽ魯ȤǤ뤳Ȥ˵Ĥλˤ mon bane zanfan ʻλҶˤΤ褦ˡbane Ȥʣɽ魯ƻѤơͤ顤쥪ȥե󥹸ΤϡˤϡäѤäȤФǤ륯쥪줬ƥȤǤ礭ʾ򤢤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ롥ƤФ餯δ֤ɤ٤ꤵˤȤvey mon zanfan! ̤λҤߤƤͤ͡Ȥ褦ΤȤ虜虜ɤ⤬ͤʣϤäꤵɬפϤʤ¾ǡե󥹸Ǥϡʣ򤷤᤹ˤϡƤξ硤̾ηŪɸǤϤʤɸˤäƤ롥顤쥪ǽηϤȤΩƤʤʤСƱˡɽˤĤ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥̤βȤФäˤʤ
οˤĤƤε򤹤Ƥȡ˥󡦥쥪пäƤ뤫顤ե󥹸äʣȤȤˤʤ¡˥󡦥쥪ǤϡǤĤǰĤˤʤäƤΡܡʤɡˤФ̤Τᤸ뤷롥ֻΡĤΡܡפˤĤƤϡmon bane zyé ȤȤϤǤmon dé zyé ȤʤФʤʤƱͤˡֻΡ̰ĤΡܡפȤȤϡmon koté d zyé Ȥkoté d dé ϡпѤ̤Τᤸ뤷Ǥ롥äơmon bane soulie ϡ­ηؤȤǤʤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ʻ𤬤뤫顤ñ㲽פȤȤФϻȤʤˤȤϤʤθˤϡ̥쥪äΤȤߤͿͼŪʥ˥奢󥹤뤷ǽŪ¤Ū˰ۤʤӤƤʾ塤Ū˲ˤϡޤ̩礭ޤǤ롥ֺƹ¤פȤäۤäȤֺƹ¤פȤΤۤäΩŪǤ뤷¾¿Ѹñ㲽ǾŬˤȤȤʤꡤ餫ˤ褦ȤƤ빽¤ŪʤθиܤȽǤʤȤ롥


κǽΰѤˤ륤ڥ륻θѤˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) 򡤥ॹ쥦ˤĤƤϡ#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) 򻲾ȡ

١롦󥽥 ë ɧ إ쥪١ҡʸ˥ӡ2000ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-20 Mon

#1729. glottochronology ˬ [glottochronology][lexicology][family_tree][pidgin][punctuated_equilibrium][speed_of_change]

#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ǡꥫθؼԡؼ Swadesh (1909--67) 󾧤ǯؤߤŪȤʤΤϡ"the fundamental everyday vocabulary of any language---as against the specialized or 'cultural' vocabulary---changes at a relatively constant rate" (452) ȤΤSwadesh ʣθĴ˴Ťΰ®٤86%ǤȤߤƤ롥ιͤˤ͡ȽФƤ뤬˼ȤƤ⡤ʤ®٤ȤΤꤦΤȤ礭꤬Ĥ롥ܸä®٤ִƤ椯Ȥ˴ؤ븶ŪˤĤơSwadesh ȤϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Why does the fundamental vocabulary change at a constant rate? . . . . / A language is a highly complex system of symbols serving a vital communicative function in society. The symbols are subject to change by the influence of many circumstances, yet they cannot change too fast without destroying the intelligibility of language. If the factors leading to change are great enough, they will keep the rate of change up to the maximum permitted by the communicative function of language. We have, as it were, a powerful motor kept in check by a speed regulating mechanism. . . . / While it is subject to manifold impulses toward change, language still must maintain a considerable amount of uniformity. If it is to be mutually intelligible among the members of the community, there must be a large element of agreement in its details among the individuals who make up the community. As between the oldest and the youngest generations, there are often difference of vocabulary and usage but these are never so great as to make it impossible for the two groups to understand each other. This is the circumstance which sets a maximum limit on the speed of change in language. / Acquisition of additional vocabulary may proceed at a faster rate than the replacement of old words. Replacement in culture vocabulary usually goes with the introduction of new cultural traits replacing the old ones, a process which at times may be completed in a few generations. Replacement of fundamental vocabulary must be slower because the concepts (e.g., body parts) do not change fundamentally. Change can come about by the introduction of partial synonyms which only rarely, and even then for the most part gradually, expand their area and frequency of usage to the point of replacing the earlier word. (459--60)


ϴøäִ®٤ΤȤͤ˸³뤳Ȥ˴ؤƤθŪˤϤʤäƤ뤬ʤ86%ȤۤܰͤȤΤȤ䤤ˤƤʤ褦˻פ롥ᤤ٤⤢뤬ʤ餻ФΤ餤ˤʤȤиŪʵҤˤȤɤޤȤȤ
ޤglottochronology ȤƤΤϡ²η˼褦ʡλŪϢ³Ǥ롥٤θܿβȤƤΥԥ (pidginisation) λʤɤθȡ嵭η׻ϤޤѤʤǥǤޤ褦ʸˤĤƤϴøäִΰ®٤뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ֤򼨤ƱŬѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤơԤθϡԥθ#1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1]) 褦ˡˤˤƤϡޤꤵƤ⤺ä̤ΤȤǤäǽ⤤
glottochronology ϡǥǤޤ褦ʸ˴ؤ¤ˤƤϡʤȤ⵭Ū˶̣ǤꤦȻפΤ褦ʸĤɾͤϤΤǤϤʤ

Swadesh, Morris. "Lexico-Statistic Dating of Prehistoric Ethnic Contacts: With Special Reference to North American Indians and Eskimos." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96 (1952): 452--63.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-03-11-1] [2022-02-23-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-08 Wed

#1717. dual-source κ [pidgin][creole][creoloid][contact]

2Ĥθ줬Ȥˤϡ¿Υԥ䥯쥪줬Ǥ褦ˡ줫θι׸Ψ˹⤯ʤ롥ظ (superstrate) ö (lexifier) ȤѸ졤뤤ϱѸ١ΥԥȤɽ褦ˡ̾Ϥθ줬Ǥ뤫餫Ǥ롥ޤʥǤϡۤȾ˺äơɤ餬礿줬ȽȤʤ "dual-source" Ȥ٤줬롥#1683. Pitkern ([2013-12-05-1]) ϡˤޤ dual-source creole ȤƵ󤲤ۤˡdual-source pidgin dual-source creoloid ȤߤʤȤΤǤ줬¸ߤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 182--83)
1917ǯޤǥΥ륦ǸפθȤäƤ Russenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin ȹͤ롥Russenorsk ϥȥΥ륦θǤۤȾ˺ǡñ㲽ηϤͭƤθϡ1917ǯ˥̿ˤäξθפǤѤƤäȥΥ륦üԤΤߤʤ餺߸졤եɸ졤졤ɥĸ졤ѸüԤˤѤ졤lingua franca ȤƵǽƤRussenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin Ǥ뤳Ȥ˲ä̱ϤȤǤϤʤפΤȯã衼åѸɤΥԥȤƤͭ¸ߤǤ롥Russenorsk ϡ㤨мΤ褦Ѥ줿 (Trudgill, Glossary 114)

Kak ju vil skaffom ja drikke te, davaj på sjib tvoja ligge ne jes på slipom.
'If you will eat and drink tea, please on ship your lie down and on sleep'


ʥ˵ߤǤϥꥫ North Dakota ΰϰäƤ Michif (or Metsif or Métis) ϡdual-source creoloid Ǥcreoloid ˤĤƤϡ#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" ([2013-12-03-1]) 򻲾ȡˡȤȤʤä2Ĥθϡե󥹸轻̱ Algonquian ²θ Cree Ǥ롥ե󥹸 "mixed" Michif ̾ϡ19˥ʥפ̤ƥե󥹸ä Cree äȤ줷̱²̾ˤʤäƤꡤϢˮܤˤް񹳤ˤФƤMichif ϸŪˤϤۤñ㲽Ƥ餺̾ϥե󥹸ħǤΰפ򼨤ư Cree ʣʷħݻƤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 183--84) üԿʤ¸³֤ޤƤ轻̱1ĤǤ롥
Michif Ʊͤ2줬ͻ礷Ƥ븽ݤ language intertwining ȸƤФ졤˵¾ˤ Copper Island Aleut ȸƤФ줬⤦1ĤȤ (Trudgill, Glossary 28) ϡEskimo-Aleut ² Aleut ȥκǡüԤ2,000ͤۤɤȤ롥ä̾η Aleut ͳ褹뤬ưηǤȤ intertwining ֤򼨤

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-12-18 Wed

#1696. ѸѼ2ǥ [model_of_englishes][elf][variety][sociolinguistics][pidgin][creole][covert_prestige]

ѸѼѸüԤʬࡦǥϡ#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) Ǽ Kachru ˤŵŪƱߥǥϤȤơ͡ʥǥ model_of_englishes γƵǾҲ𤷤ƤϡGramley (177) ˼ƤѸμҲŪϰ̤ɸɸȤ2ĤμȤ߹碌2ǥҲ𤷤褦ʲϡ"A two-dimensional model of English showing status variation (ENL, ESL, EFL, Pidgin and Creole English) as well as GenE and traditional dialects" ȥ٥Ž줿޼ƸΤǤ롥

Two-dimensional Model of English Showing Status Variation

οޤοʿˤϡKachru ƱߤեåȤŸƤ롥ENL ˰֤ľȤθˤ뤳ȤϡѼΰҿξħǤ롥κ٤ˤ ESL EFL ۤ졤˳¦ˤ Pidgin English Creole English ֤Ƥ롥PE CE դ֤ƤΤϡŪˤϱѸ줫ΩƤΤΡŪҲŪˤϱѸȴϢŤ뤫Ǥ롥
ľɽ魯ΤˤĤƤϵ;Ϥ뤬ǤɸŪٹ礤ɽ魯ΤȹͤƤ롥üäȤɸŪǡüäȤɸŪȤȤˤʤ롥岼ȤüʣʬƤꡤɸѸˤɸѸˤ¿Ѽ郎뤳ȤƤ롥äɸѼϡGeneral English ϰϳˤȹͤƤŪ (traditional dialects) ȤǤ뤳ȤƤ롥
ΤȤơ˹ԤйԤۤŪ (overt prestige) ȷӤĤ줿ѼǤȤˤʤ롥դˡ˹ԤйԤۤɡŪ (covert_prestige) ǸߤѰۤ礭
ԥ䥯쥪ΰ֤ŤɸѼŪδطʤɤĤǤϤ褯ͤƤ뤬ΤȤƤľŪˤȤ館ˤǥΤ褦˻פ롥㤨СKachru Ʊߥǥ뤬եåȤ˿ʿŸƤ뤳Ȥΰ̣褯狼ʤľˤɸࡦɸȤ٥Ž뤳ȤǤ뤬οʿˤϤɤΤ褦ʥ٥ŽФ褤ΤޤΥǥŪǤ롥ѸѼμ«ȯƱʹԤƤ븽Ѹ򵭽ҤΤˤϡ#414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ ([2010-06-15-1]) #1106. Modiano Ʊߥǥ (2) ([2012-05-07-1]) Τ褦ưŪʥǥ뤬դ路褦˻פ롥

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-12-12 Thu

#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ [pidgin][creole][lingua_franca][dialect][koine][terminology]

#444. ԥȥ쥪ζܡ ([2010-07-15-1]) εǡpidgin creole ζ̤٤Ǥ뤳Ȥߤǡpidgin creole ⡤#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ˤ koiné ȤȤˡlingua_franca ȤƵǽ뤳Ȥ򡤡#1391. lingua franca (4) ([2013-02-16-1]) εdzǧǤϡlingua franca ϡtrade language, contact language, international language, auxiliary language, mixed language ʤʣμ˶̤ȤäGramley ϤѸλؼоݤδ֤˰ۤʤطꤷƤ褦Gramley (219) ϥԥȤδϢѸȤζ̤contact, marginal, mixed, non-native, reduced Ȥ5ĤΥѥ᡼ѤưʲΤ褦˼Ƥ롥


contactmarginalmixednon-nativereduced
trade jargonyesyesyesyesyes
pidginyesyesyesyesyes/no
lingua francayesyesnoyes/noyes
koinéyesnoyesnoyes/no
dialectnoyes/nononono
creolenonononono


줾Υѥ᡼⤹ȡcontact ܿѼȤȯãƤɤmarginal ϻѤ¤Ƥ뤫ɤmixed ʣѼǤäƤ뤫non-native ϼȤüԤˤääƤ뤫reduced ϸŪ˴άƤ뤫ȤȤǤ롥
ʤ餽줾ͤ yes ʤΤ no ʤΤפȤʤäƤ뤬꤬ؤäƤ롥㤨Сpidgin ιԤ򲣤˸ȡyes, yes, yes, yes, yes/no Ȥͤ¤ӤȤʤäƤ뤬 pidgin Ƥ뤳ȤˤʤΤȤ pidgin 򵭽ҤƤ뤳ȤˤʤΤyes ʤ trade jargon üꤷno ʤ creole ⤦üꤷơδ֤͡ʥפ֤ŤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤ
嵭ε䤬ΤȤꤢϲ֤ƤȤơ#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" ([2013-12-03-1]) Ǽ夲 "creoloid" ȤפѼ򤳤ɽ˰֤ŤȤȡɤ˼ޤȹͤƤߤͤйͤۤɡ줾Υѥ᡼λؤƤʬʤʤäƤ⤽⡤creole contact mixed no ͤȤȤϤɤȤʤΤ줾Υפˡѥ᡼ȤʤäƤޤ褦Ǥ롥
줾ѸȤλؼоݤˤäƤޤڤʬΤǤФ褤ޤʤ褦˻פ롥pidgin ȤδϢ񤷤

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-12-11 Wed

#1689. ʿϰΥԥȥ쥪θ [pidgin][creole][map][reduplication][lexicology][etymology][tok_pisin]

ε#1688. Tok Pisin ([2013-12-10-1]) ơʿϰΥԥȥ쥪ꡥϢʬۿޤGramley (220) Ͽޤ򻲹ͤ˼Ƥߤ

Map of Southwestern Pacific Pidgins and Creoles

˵󤲤Ƥԥ䥯쥪Ū˴ϢŪˤᤤѸظ (superstrate language) ڤӸö (lexifier) Ȥ뺮ǡºݤˤä8ϱѸ١Ǥ롥Mühlhäusler 򻲾Ȥ Gramley (220) ɽˤȡ̥Ĥ Bislama ʡ#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama ([2013-07-11-1]) 򻲾ȡ, ѥץ˥塼˥ Tok Pisin, Solomon Pijin 3ԥǤߤȡʬۤϰʲ̤Ǥ롥


EnglishIndigenousOthers
Bislama90%53 (French)
Tok Pisin77167 (German etc.)
Solomon Pijin8965


̤˥ԥ䥯쥪θäϡظȤȡ (loan_translation)̣Ѳý (reduplication)ʬϤʤɤƤ롥ʲˡGramley (220--22) ˵ä Tok Pisin 򼨤hair Ȥ gras bilong hed (grass that belongs to the head)beard Ȥ gras bilong fes (grass that belongs to the face) ȤäǤ롥߷Ȳζ̤Ϥʤ㤨 stei (stay) ʸ̮Ǹߡΰ̣ˤʤꤦ롥tudir (too dear) ϡֹʡפɽ魯1ȤʬϤ졤Ʊͤ lego (let go) ϡֹԤ, sekan (shake hands) ϡ²򤹤פȤƸòƤ롥Ѹ arse ʿˤ˵, as ʸŪΩʡָפǤꡤ˰̣Ѳ򵯤ơֵפΰդǤѤ롥that's all ˵ tasol ϡŪ but ΰ̣³ȤȯãýŤˤĤƤϡ#65. Ѹˤ reduplication ([2009-07-02-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ϤʸäȿǤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ȥ櫓²̾ (kinship terms) Ǥϡmama (mother), papa (father) ޤǤɸѸƱϤΤȤФϤ줾 smalpapa, smalmama ϤΤȤФϤȤ kandare Ȥ1ɽ魯¹̤ζ̤ʤ勞 tumbuna ɽ롥⡤ƱǤ brataǤ susa ѤȤǡɸѸȰۤʤ롥

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-16-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-12-10 Tue

#1688. Tok Pisin [pidgin][creole][lingua_franca][tok_pisin][link]

Ѹ١Υԥ (pidgin) ȤƤ餯ǤΤƤΤ Tok Pisin ¿ Papua New Guinea λ¾ιȸȤѤƤꡤlingua_franca ȤƵǽƤ롥ʹ饸ƥӡʸˡʤɤθȤƺѤƤꡤüԤˤѶŪʼҲŪɾդƤ롥2Ȥ400ͤˤäƤꡤ1ȤƤ5ͤüԤ롥ԤüԤ¸ߤϡTok Pisin 쥪첽 (creolisation) ϤƤ뤳ȤθǤ⤢롥
New Guinea ϡGreenland ˼2ܤ礭Ǥ롥ŪˤȾʬΥɥͥ Irian Jaya Ⱦʬ Papua New Guinea (PNG) ʬ롥ΤȤƤߤлѤƤ1,000˵ڤӡPNG ˸¤äƤ⡤#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) ǸȤꡤ830롥¿ؿȤƤϡǹͤ򼨤Ǥ롥Ķ¿ϰ褬 lingua franca ϤȤʤäΤϡ19˥衼åѤο̱ϼ󤬲ȤǤ롥Samoa, Vanuatu, Queensland ʤɡ˥ϰΥץơϫƯԤϤ褷ȡΩƤ춦ƱΤΩݻǤʤʤäȤlingua franca ȯ¥̤ȤơPNG 줫ȯԥ Hiri Motu 䡤Ѹ١Υԥ Tok Pisin äƤä
˥ϰΥԥȯãˤĤƤ¿Australia ͳǹä (ex. Australian Pidgin English, Roper river Creole, Cape York Creole) ȡVanuatu (the New Hebrides), the Solomon Islands, Queensland, Fiji Ф Papua New Guinea عä󤬶̤롥19ϰǤϡNew England ߡͥΥӥ㥯סοȤƤΥʥޥμ衤Queensland Fiji Ǥʲ֤䥵ȥӤΥץơSamoa ǤΥץΥץơ󡤥ȥ쥹 (the Torres Strait) ǤομʤɤкѤϫƯοϤȤʤäƤ Tok Pisin ϡηкѳư̤ Bislama ʡ#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama ([2013-07-11-1]) 򻲾ȡ, Solomon Islands Pidgin, Torres Straits Creole ʤɤܤϫƯԤˤä PNG ˹ޤäƤäȤ롥
ҤΤ褦ˡTok Pisin ϱѸ١ΡʤʤѸ lexifier Ȥ˥ԥǤ롥ɸѸ٤СʸˡäʤɤˤƳΤ˴άƤ뤬äʵ§ġηϤȤƤϡѸȤϰۤʤȤäƺ٤ʤGramley (239--40) ˷ǺܤƤ Tok Pisin ǽ񤫤줿ʸϤΥץˤĤơɸѸĤǸ䤹ľΤPDFѰդ¾Tok Pisin ˤĤƤϰʲΥȤ⻲ȡ

#463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1])
Ethnologue: Tok Pisin
Tok Pisin -- Pidgin / English Dictionary
Tok Pisin Translation, Resources, and Discussion

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-12-03 Tue

#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" [creole][pidgin][me][old_norse][contact][terminology][creoloid]

#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1])#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1])#1251. Ѹ᥯쥪طʡ ([2012-09-29-1]) ơ⤦κ󼨤ľܤȤϡ2κȤȥԥ (pidginisation) ȤȤɤΤ褦˶̤뤫Ȥͻ
Ϣ³줺"the drastic break" (Görlach 341) ȽǤˤϥԥ󲽤ȤäƤ褤ȹͤ뤬Trudgill (181--82) Afrikaans 夲ƱݤεŸƤ롥

Interestingly, there are some languages in the world which look like post-creoles, but which are not. These are varieties which, compared to some source, show a certain degree of simplification and admixture. We do not, however, call these languages creoles, because the extent of the simplification and admixture is not very great. And we do not call them post-creoles because they have never been creoles --- which is in turn because they have never been pidgins! Afrikaans, the other major language of the white community in South Africa alongside English, used to be considered a dialect of Dutch . . . . During the course of the twentieth century, however, it achieved autonomy . . . and now has its own literature, dictionaries, grammar books, and so on. Compared to Dutch, Afrikaans shows significant amounts of regularization in the grammar, and a significant amount of admixture from Malay, Portuguese and other languages. It still remains mutually intelligible with Dutch, however. The crucial feature of Afrikaans is that, although it is now spoken by some South Africans who are the descendants of people who spoke it as a non-native language --- hence the influence from Portuguese, Malay and so on --- and who undoubtedly therefore spoke a pidginized form of Dutch/Afrikaans, the language was at no time a pidgin. In the transition from Dutch to Afrikaans, the native-speaker tradition was maintained throughout. The language was passed down from one generation of native speakers to another; it was used for all social functions and was therefore never subjected to reduction. Such a language, which demonstrates a certain amount of simplification and admixture, relative to some source language, but which has never been a pidgin or a creole in the sense that it has always had speakers who spoke a variety which was not subject to reduction, we can call a creoloid.


ɸ४٤СAfrikaans ˤϳΤñ㲽䵬§ߤ롥ޤޥ졼졤ݥȥʤɤܤѤߤ롥Ȥä pidgin Ȥ creole ȤƤ֤櫓ˤϤʤȤΤϡAfrikaans ˤϴְ㤤ʤŪϢ³뤫üԤϡñ㲽ܿиʤ⡤ڤ뤳ȤʤθѼѤƤܿȹ碌¨ʤصŪʸФȤפʤ"the drastic change" ϤʤäΤǤ롥Ǥϡθ򲿤ȸƤ֤ΤTrudgill ϡѸȤ "creoloid" ŬڤǤϤʤȼĥ롥
"creoloid" ȤѸϡѸˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤűѸȸťΥɸȤܿϡcreole ߽Ф櫓ǤϤʤޤ creoloid ߽ФˤʤäȤ롥ʤʤСťΥɸȤܿϸűѸθѲ®٤®᤿ޤǼϩαĹǤꡤϢ³äƱݤεȤơ#1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ󥹸˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲ȡ

Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-11-15 Fri

#1663. äϸǤ (2) [sign_language][linguistics][pidgin][medium]

ε#1662. äϸǤ (1) ([2013-11-14-1]) ˰³Crystal (164--70) 򻲾Ȥʤ顤ȤƤμä夲롥ź¿ΰۤʤ벻줬¸ߤƤ褦ˡøˤ¿ΰۤʤबǧ롥ˤϤۤȤΤƤʤ奮ꥷޤʸ˼äؤθڤ롥ˤäθϡ1775ǯ˥ե󥹤ζ Abbé Charles Michel de l'Epée (1712--89) ѥϸعΤ˼ηϤȯȤüȯ롥μä˴ŤƤΤϤ褯ʬäƤʤϤζԤγعǤؤӡ˹뤳Ȥˤʤä㤨Сꥫζ Thomas Gallaudet (1787--1851) Laurent Clerc (1785--1869) Ϥμä򥢥ꥫƳ줬 American Sign Language ؤȯŸ롥
ϼäȯȯŸ1ĤüˤʤϤǤ¿μäȯƤäˤϲƱͤˡŪѰۤ⤢̻ŪѲ⤢롥öƱΤȤȯã뤷֤Ѱۤǧ롥Ǥ⡤øȲȤϰۤʤȤʤ
ǡäͭȯŸλ뤳Ȥޤ¤Ǥ롥ʸ줫αƶȤ¦̤Ǥ롥äˤϡʸȤϤ̵ۤط˼ȯΤ¿αƶȯŸΡ뤤ϰտŪȯŸΤ¿ԤǤϡȤ櫓ˤͿ롥졦ʸȤۤʤΤƶääȤ̣ǡϼäΥԥȤȤǤ
˶ŤǴ¸μäѹäȤߤԤˤäƤʤƤȤ櫓Ѹ춦ƱΤˤ㤬˭٤Ǥ롥1960ǯȾοǯ֤ǡȤƤαѸؤߴ򼨤ײŪ (contrived) ø줬³ȸ줿Seeing Essential English (1966) ʵڤӤ Linguistics of Visual English (1971) Signing Exact English (1972)ˡSigned English (1969), Manual English (1972) ΤȤǤ롥
Paget-Gorman Sign System (PGSS) ⹭Ѥ줿λߤǤ롥ϡ1951ǯ Richard Paget ƤPierre Gorman ȯŸΤǡμǰ̣ΰɽ路̤μǼ̻ɽ魯Ȥ1ĤεɽȤηϤǤ롥Фդ򤽤줾μбȤǤСŪ򤷤䤹
¾μμäȤƤϡƥǥδ֤ǶͭƤ Amer-Ind ʤŪʰפηϤ롥ޤʸõб Finger-spelling ȤηϤϡʤȤŪˤϼûѼԤδ֤ǹѤƤ롥ɿѡˡˤȯΡɤߡפŪǤ Cued speech ȤηϤѤƤ롥
嵭Τ褦˷ײŪ˲ʸܶᤵäΤϻ¤ȤƤ⡤ä켫ȤΩΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫

Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-12-26-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-09-04 Wed

#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο͸ [statistics][demography][enl][esl][efl][elf][new_englishes][pidgin][creole]

εǰä#1590. ѸνѼ ([2013-09-03-1]) αѸѼܤ򹭤ȡ줳Ӥ English varieties ߡȯŸƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ѸѼοФǤʤѸѼüԤο⤪Ӥ#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1]) ενǿ줿褦ˡüԿüԤ­碌ȡѸ1Ȥʤ롥ѸüԿ͸βߡ̤ˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤ

#319. ѸüԿ͸ζɤեǥ ([2010-03-12-1])
#427. ѸüԤˢ֤ǥ ([2010-06-28-1])
#933. ѸαѸüԿ͸á ([2011-11-16-1])
#173. ENL, ESL, EFL üԿ͸ ([2009-10-17-1])
#375. ENLESL ο͸Ψ ([2010-05-07-1])
#759. 21͸ιϢͽ¬ ([2011-05-26-1])
#414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ ([2010-06-15-1])

ߤˤѸüԿ͸Τİ뤳Ȥ񤷤Crystal (61, 65--67) ǽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡμο͸פˤ͡ʸŪŪ󤬲ݤ뤫Crystal (62--65) ϡΤʤ2001ǯߤαѸ͸פǯǤ褯礤˽ФѸüԤο͸פǤ롥

TerritoryL1L2Population (2001)
American Samoa2,00065,00067,000
Antigua & Barbuda*66,0002,00068,000
Aruba9,00035,00070,000
Australia14,987,0003,500,00018,972,000
Bahamas*260,00028,000298,000
Bangladesh 3,500,000131,270,000
Barbados*262,00013,000275,000
Belize*190,00056,000256,000
Bermuda63,000 63,000
Botswana 630,0001,586,000
British Virgin Islands*20,000 20,800
Brunei10,000134,000344,000
Cameroon* 7,700,00015,900,000
Canada20,000,0007,000,00031,600,000
Cayman Islands*36,000 36,000
Cook Islands1,0003,00021,000
Dominica*3,00060,00070,000
Fiji6,000170,000850,000
Gambia* 40,0001,411,000
Ghana* 1,400,00019,894,000
Gibraltar28,0002,00031,000
Grenada*100,000 100,000
Guam58,000100,000160,000
Guyana*650,00030,000700,000
Hong Kong150,0002,200,0007,210,000
India350,000200,000,0001,029,991,000
Ireland3,750,000100,0003,850,000
Jamaica*2,600,00050,0002,665,000
Kenya 2,700,00030,766,000
Kiribati 23,00094,000
Lesotho 500,0002,177,000
Liberia*600,0002,500,0003,226,000
Malawi 540,00010,548,000
Malaysia380,0007,000,00022,230,000
Malta13,00095,000395,000
Marshall Islands 60,00070,000
Mauritius2,000200,0001,190,000
Micronesia4,00060,000135,000
Montserrat*4,000 4,000
Namibia14,000300,0001,800,000
Nauru90010,70012,000
Nepal 7,000,00025,300,000
New Zealand3,700,000150,0003,864,000
Nigeria* 60,000,000126,636,000
Northern Marianas*5,00065,00075,000
Pakistan 17,000,000145,000,000
Palau50018,00019,000
Papua New Guinea*150,0003,000,0005,000,000
Philippine$20,00040,000,00083,000,000
Puerto Rico100,0001,840,0003,937,000
Rwanda 20,0007,313,000
St Kitts & Nevis*43,000 43,000
St Lucia*31,00040,000158,000
St Vincent & Grenadines*114,000 116,000
Samoa1,00093,000180,000
Seychelles3,00030,00080,000
Sierra Leone*500,0004,400,0005,427,000
Singapore350,0002,000,0004,300,000
Solomon Islands*10,000165,000480,000
South Africa3,700,00011,000,00043,586,000
Sri Lanka10,0001,900,00019,400,000
Suriname*260,000150,000434,000
Swaziland 50,0001,104,000
Tanzania 4,000,00036,232,000
Tonga 30,000104,000
Trinidad & Tobago*1,145,000 1,170,000
Tuvalu 80011,000
Uganda 2,500,00023,986,000
United Kingdom58,190,0001,500,00059,648,000
UK Islands (Channel, Man)227,000 228,000
United States215,424,00025,600,000278,059,000
US Virgin Islands*98,00015,000122,000
Vanuatu*60,000120,000193,000
Zambia110,0001,800,0009,770,000
Zimbabwe250,0005,300,00011,365,000
Other dependencies20,00015,00035,000
Total329,140,800430,614,5002,236,730,800


* դƤϰϡɸѸǤϤʤ pidgin/creole Ѹ줬ȤäƤϰǤ롥pidgin/creole ѼѸΰȤߤʤݤŪȤʤäƤΤǡΩ˱ƿͤ­줿ʶŪˤϡL1 ǼȤɽ700ͤL2 ǼȤեꥫ8,000ͤͿˡޤL1 L2 ο͸ϸ§ȤƾʤοפȤߤƤ褤ˤɽˤϡ#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) οޤǤȤ Expanding Circle ιϰϴޤޤƤʤȤˤդ줿
ǵ󤲤ϰˤĤƤϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) ӡ#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ⻲ȡ

Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-07-11 Thu

#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama [pidgin][map]

Vanuatu ¹ʿΡͥ⤫Ǥ롥ˤ100ʾΥͥϸ줬äƤ뤬Ѹ١ǴʬΥե󥹸äޤԥ Bislama (or Beach-la-Mar) ȤƹѤƤ롥ޤѸȤƱѸȥե󥹸줬ԤʤƤ롥

Map of Vanuatu

Vanuatu 1774ǯ˥ꥹ Captain Cook õơthe New Hebrides ̿̾줿19Ⱦαʩ̱η㲽Фơ1906ǯˤǤʩƱ֤졤ʩξ줬ѸȤ줿1980ǯ˶¹ȤΩߤ˻äƤ롥
ĤʿΤιȤ Vanuatu ˤˬ줿Ȥ뤬ۤ˺ʤϤ Bislama ΥݥåȲýΤ褦ʤΤä褦ˤפιͤȤƤϱѸѤ­ȤǤΤǡBislama İϤۤȤɤʤäȤƤ϶٤Υѥץ˥塼˥ Tok PisinPijin ȶ᤯ʬŪߤ̤礦
ơBislama Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ1980ǯΩ˵Ƥ줿ˡ 3. (1) ǤʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

3. (1) The national language of the Republic of Vanuatu is Bislama. The official languages are Bislama, English and French. The principal languages of education are English and French.


ιθˤĤƴ̯ʤȤ롥ˡˤƤʹ줿 Bislama ޲ȤƸˤϵƤƤʤΤǤ롥θϤޤDZѸȥե󥹸Ǥ롥Romain (194) ϡξؤơVanuatu ϹλѤػߤƤͣι񤫤⤷ʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

Although Bislama is recognized by the constitution of Vanuatu as the national language of the country, paradoxically it is forbidden in the schools. Thus, Vanuatu may be the only country in the world which forbids the use of its national language! English and French, the languages of the former colonial powers, are still the official languages of education.


ºݤˤϡعˤ Bislama λѤ˶ػߤƤȤȤǤϤʤعǤϤʸ̮ȤѤ뤳ȤϤ褦ޤ2011ǯˤ "Proposed vernacular education" ƤƤȤ顤ʩФθμҲŪΩ˾徺ƤƤΤ

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-07-06 Sat

#1531. pidgin creole ʬ [pidgin][creole][map][geography][world_languages][tok_pisin][caribbean]

ˤ뤬100ʾΥԥ䥯쥪줬ŪѤƤȤ롥ʤˤ200ͤĶüԤʤ Tok Pisin Τ褦ʳȯʸ⤢롥ºݡTok Pisin ʿΤˤθǤ롥Ѹ lexifier Ȥ#463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1]) ˤĤƤϤǤܥ֥ǸڤĤƤαƶϤͽ̤ۤꡤѸ١ΤΤǤ¿
Romain (170--73) Ͽޤ򻲾Ȥ lexifier ̤˥ԥȥ쥪θĿ夲ȡѸ줬35ե󥹸줬14ݥȥ줬9ڥ줬3줬3¾θ줬26Ȥʤ롥 * *
˻ߤΥԥȥ쥪ʬहΤˡ嵭Τ褦˸ä󶡤Ƥ졤ʤ superstratum θȤˡ뤬ۤϰȤʬ⤢롥Ūʬۤδԥ䥯쥪礭2ʬȡηʿηȤʬ롥Romain (174--75) Ѥ褦

Creolists recognize two major groups of languages, the Atlantic and the Pacific, according to historical, geographic, and linguistic factors. The Atlantic group was established primarily during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the Caribbean and West Africa, while the Pacific group originated primarily in the nineteenth. The Atlantic creoles were largely products of the slave trade in West Africa which dispersed large numbers of West Africans to the Caribbean. Varieties of Caribbean creoles have also been transplanted to the United Kingdom by West Indian immigrants, as well as to the USA and Canada. The languages of the Atlantic share a West African common substrate and display many common features . . . . / In the Pacific different languages formed the substratum and socio-cultural conditions were somewhat different from those in the Atlantic. Although the plantation setting was crucial for the emergence of pidgins in both areas, in the Pacific laborers were recruited and indentured rather than slaves. Apart from Hawai'i, a history of more gradual creolization has distinguished the Pacific from the Atlantic (particularly Caribbean) creoles, whose transition has been more abrupt.


Τ褦Ūʬۤˤ2ʬˡξΤʣʴط뤳Ȥ򸫤ˤƤ뤭餤뤳ȤˤդƤ㤨Сξ˶ͭƤ (savvy "to know" picanniny "child, baby") ¸ߤϡ2Ĥγޤdzθˤޤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-02-16 Sat

#1391. lingua franca (4) [elf][global_language][pidgin][creole][esperanto][artificial_language][basic_english][contact][sociolinguistics][koine]

ѸȥڥȸζϲŪˤϡʬŪǤȤޥ󥹷ϸθ캬ĸä¿ȤġθܤˤĤƻŦ뤳ȤǤŤߤ˶1ĵ󤲤ȤΤ񤷤ҲŪˤСñǤ롥θ lingua franca Ǥ롤ȤȤѸȥԥζҥ¯ƥζˤƤƱǤ롥
[2012-04-17-1], [2012-04-18-1], [2012-04-19-1]ε lingua franca ȤѸˤĤĴ٤ҲŪʸϤ餳Ѹȳǰˤ⤦ꤿWardhaugh (55) ˤСUNESCO lingua franca "a language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them" Ƥ롥Ǥϡθ줬ѤϰϤιˤĤƤϸڤƤʤΤǡʶƱΤǤΤѤƤ褦ʸξ lingua franca ȤȤˤʤ롥"used habitually" ˤ᤹Сǵ󤲤ϳΤˤ lingua franca ̾ͤ
lingua franca ϤĤμʬ뤳ȤǤ (Wardhaugh 56)

(1) եꥫΥϥ쥢եꥫΥҥΤ褦˸ŪѤ "trade language"
(2) 奮ꥷˤ koiné ʥ͡ˤ衼åѤˤ¯ƥΤ褦˽̤ܿȤƤ "contact language"
(3) ѸΤ褦˹ŪѤ "international language"
(4) Esperanto ([2011-12-15-1]) Basic English ([2011-12-13-1]) Τ褦ʿ͹ˤ "auxiliary language"
(5) ʥξƱΤäƤ롤꡼ʸˡȥե󥹸θäͻ礵̱²Ūǥƥƥôä Michif Τ褦 "mixed language"

ۤˤ嵭ƤϤޤ󤲤С泤θ׶̸Ȥʤä SabirγϰDZƶؤ Arabic, Mandarin, Hindi γƸ졤19Ⱦ British Columbia Alaska ˤƹѤ Chinook Jargon ʤɤ롥

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2012-09-01 Sat

#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 [creole][pidgin][me][french][old_norse][contact]

ε#1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) ǻȤ Görlach ʸϡBailey and Maroldt ˤѸϥ쥪ǤפȤʲФȿȤƽ񤫤줿ΤǤ롥ѸϸűѸȸťΥɸ줢뤤ϥե󥹸Ȥκˤäޤ줿Ȥ뤳βϡ쥪Ǥ롥줬Դ֤ǰפʤ¤ꡤӤǤ롥;Ϥʤ餫˥쥪ȤǧƤ줫鸲ħ⤭Ħˤ˴Ťƥ쥪ߤȤΤQŪʼΤ褦˻פ뤬Bailey and Maroldt ǤϡμǰƬ֤Ƥʤ褦˻פ롥
Görlach (341) ϡťΥɸȤκˤѸ쥯쥪򡤼Ǵꤹ롥ŵŪʥ쥪Ȥϰۤʤꡤ(1) ̾ˤȳʤ򼺤äƤ餺(2) ̾ˤƿ򼺤äƤ餺(3) ưˤƿ;θȻɸ򼺤äƤ餺(4) ư֤򼺤äƤ餺(5) ֤Ƥʤ
ˡ餯ԥκǤ⸲ħȤ⤤٤ "the drastic break" (341) ѸˤˤϴѻʤȤSranan Ϥ鷺20ǯۤɤǰꤷ[2010-06-05-1]ε#404. Suriname ˤȸפ򻲾ȡˡΥ쥪ȤäƤ褤ȯλиƤ롥
ťΥɸȤκˤѸ쥯쥪⤬Τ褦˺ʤΤǤ뤫顤ե󥹸ȤΥ쥪䡤Ǥ롥εǤ⾯줿褦ˡGörlach (338) ϡե󥹸αѸؤʸˡŪʱƶϡ쥪βǽˡ⤽⺳٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򼨺Ƥ롥

Influence of French on inflections and, by and large, on syntactical structures cannot be proved, but appears unlikely from what we know about bilingualism in Middle English times. Middle English is a typical case of a language of low prestige, predominantly used in spoken form and split into a great number of dialects that had to assimilate the cultural (and in this case) mainly lexical impact of the 'high' language.


Τ褦ʹͤ Görlach ˤȤäơѸ᥯쥪ȤϤޤ˼줬ΤβϸߤǤϤۤȤɼƤʤBrinton and Arnovick (297--98) Thomason and Kaufman (309) ƱȽƤ롥Ѹ˸ˤƤ⥯쥪츦ˤƤ⡤ĤλɷȤʤäȤϳΤǤ롥

Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-12-16 Fri

#963. Ѹˤȿ͹ [artificial_language][basic_english][pidgin][creole][basic_english]

5֡͹ˤĤƤε񤤤Ƥ (##958,959,960,961,962) 񤭤ʤͤƤȤʤΤ͹ˤؤ֤ȤϡħѸˤͻǡ⤿餷Ƥ褦Ǥ롥͹줬ɬƤʤ¤ȱѸμ¼ŪŪŸȤΤ˲餫δطȤСõ뤳Ȥͭյʲο줽ʻ˴Ϣơ5ۤɲվ񤭤ǥ⤷Ƥ

(1) ħ⤭Ħˤʤ
͹Ф뻿ξϡΤޤޡѸΤ褦ʼ줬̸ȤƵǽƤؤο͡͡ȿȿǤƤ롥͹ĹûϼûĹбƤ뤳Ȥ¿㤨С[2011-12-14-1]ε#961. ͹פ (2) ˼ǥƥɸǽϡˤɬŪäƤ뤬͹ˤϷ礱Ƥ롥̱²ζδȿ͹ڱưȤŪȿδطˤʤ䤹äȤ⡤ȴطƤǡ٤κϤȤƤ⤢롥㤨СƱ (3) Ūж (5) ȿϡȤȤƤȤϤ

(2) ̸ȤƤαѸ꤬⤭Ħˤʤ
Ѹ˸¤餺ξǤϤ뤬ŪԵ§ؽΨ˸ƤȤĥФп͹ٻԤʤ롥͹ˤ뤽βƤ򻲾ȤС¿οͤѸθŪ꤬ɤΤ褦ˤȹͤƤ뤫䤷̤뤳ȤǤֻȯЪΥ<th> ǥˡޤ͹ٻԤФмѸؤȿκõ뤳ȤǡѸ줽ΤΤǤ¦̤ȡѸ줬ɽƤ뼫̤Ǥ¦̤Ȥ̤Ǥ뤫⤷ʤ

(3) ѸؤβǤ
(2) Ǽ褦ʱѸФȤơɤΤ褦ʺ¸ǽǤ뤫Ǥ褦ˤʤ롥[2011-12-13-1]εǼ夲 Basic English 䡤ǰŪˤαĹˤȹͤ뼭 defining vocabulary ʤɡѸ줽ΤΤפ褦ʺǤϤʤѸؽ˱Ѥ̤򤢤褦ʸŪʺƤǤ褦ˤʤΤǤϤʤ

(4) ̸͡ؤδԤ礭ǧ
ʱѸ˻ٻԤȿ͹ٻԤΩϰ㤨ɡ̤ܻؤƤ롥˹ޤݥߥ˥μפ˱뤳ȤΤǤ̸δȴԤǤ롥ξԤΩϾˤäƤ180ٰۤʤȤ⤤뤬ŪɤƤΤƱۤǤ롥̸̤˴󤻤ƤԤ礭ϡۤɤޤǤ礭ϤơѸϡ뤤ϥڥȸϡνŰѤΤ

(5) ԥ䥯쥪κƲ¥
Basic English ˾ħѸθäñ㲽䡤ײŪ˿͹ޤ줿ؤʸˡʤɤظƤΤϡؽưפǤ롥Basic English ͹ϤޤǿͰŪʿ¤ʪ꼫ʷdzؽưפ¸ƤȲǤΤˡԥ䥯쥪줬롥ԥѸ䥯쥪Ѹϰ̤ˤäȤª뤳Ȥ¿̸ؤδԤȤʸ̮˰֤ŤСñȤƺɾ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤԥ줢뤤ϥ쥪¨̸ε˷ӤĤ뤳ȤϤʤȤ Basic English ͹¤٤Ӥ뤳Ȥˤϰ̣ΤǤϤʤ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-02-20-1] [2016-08-23-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2010-12-09 Thu

#591. ꥫѸ줬ͤǤͳ [ame][dialect][pidgin]

[2010-07-28-1]εǥꥫѸʬҲ𤷤Ȥ˿줿AmE ˤϤΤ BrE ٤Ʊäȹ⤤ͳ͡ҲŪҲŪװˤ롥ͳˤϰʲΤ褦ʤΤ롥

(1) ͡ιΰưܽˤǤ뤳ȡˤꡤ경ϰѼ郎ˤʤ롥Ҳش֤ mobility Ʊͤ˳餫Ǥꡤ경ҲѼ⸽ˤ
(2) θŪʸŪŪطʤä͡ˤ깽Ǥ뤳ȡ줯餤Ρ֤ĤܡפȤʤȡߥ˥ݤ뤿ΤƱŪˤʤ餶򤨤ʤ
(3) ͡δ֤˶̤ιŪƱΰռȡ[2010-01-07-1]εǿ줿褦ˡǤ Hispanic ϤĹʤɤ˴ϢƹθŪ¿夷ƤƤ뤬ŪˤϤ national identity ݤıѸ礭
(4) Ūʸѡ[2009-11-24-1]εϤȤ spelling_pronunciation γƵ spelling pronunciation 򰷤äϤȤ櫓 AmE ˸Ȥ롥ιϤޤŪǤϤ뤬Ф AmE ħȤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥

4ϸߤ˴ϢƤꡤ¾ˤϢװ󤲤뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤװ줹ͳФС̱ diverse and mobile Ǥ뤳ȤŪͳʤΤǤϤʤ츫 diversity and mobility linguistic homogeneity ̷⤹뤬줬ߥ˥ƻǤȤ1ˤꡤ̷⤬ä롥षdiverse and mobile 餳ŪݤʤФʤʤȤˤʤ롥
ΤȤϡԥθη֤ǰΤʤȯȤǽͤǤ롥ƿͤθŪطʤ礷ƤСߤߴäʿŪʸФȹפʤ¿ƱȤΤϰ츫̷⤷Ƥ褦ǡ¤̷⤷Ƥʤ

Bryson, Bill. Mother Tongue: The Story of the English Language. London: Penguin, 1990. 162.

[ | ѥڡ ]

Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow